AP European History IDs

Who is this: Who: It was made for sailors. What: It enabled sailors to determine their direction and position at sea.

Compass

Who is this: Who: Officials who held judicial and administrative powers at the local level. What: Within each territory, the viceroy, or imperial governor, exercised broad military and civil authority as the direct representative of Spain. The viceroy presided over the audiencia, a board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal. At the local level, officials called these things held judicial and administrative powers.

Corregidores

Who is this: Who: A system of doing something named something because every entry to an account requires a corresponding and opposite entry to a different account. What: In deciding which account has to be debited and which account has to be credited, the golden rules of accounting are used. This is also accomplished using the accounting equation. Equity = Assets - Liabilities. The accounting equation serves as an error detection tool. If at any point the sum of debits for all accounts does not equal the corresponding sum of credits for all accounts, an error has occurred. It follows that the sum of debits and the sum of the credits must be equal in value.

Double Entry Bookkeeping

Who is this: Who: It was invented by Chinese inventors. What: It allowed people to shoot opponents.

Guns and Gunpowder

Who is this: Who: They were members of the Spanish nobility. What: They became economic elites due to the growth of commerce.

Caballeros and Hidalgos in Spain

Who is this: Who: Spanish law courts erected by the Crown in her New World colonies. A board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal. What: Within each territory, the viceroy, or imperial governor, exercised broad military and civil authority as the direct representative of Spain. The viceroy presided over the thing, a board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal.

Audiencias

Who is this: Who: People that became new economic elites due to the growth of commerce in Europe. What: They did their normal jobs and became economic elites due to the growth of commerce.

Bankers and Merchants

Who is this: Who: The banking system in Amsterdam, the bourse, which was the first stock market exchange ever. What: In the bourse, people put their private savings into the bank of Amsterdam and it turned into venture capital. You ended up with more money than you started with.

Banking Institutions for turning Private Savings into Venture Capital

Who is this: Who: A period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, theater, and music. It was encouraged by the catholic church. What: The term may have come from the Portuguese word for an odd-shaped, imperfect pearl and was commonly used by late-eighteenth century art critics as an expression of scorn for what they considered overblown, unbalanced style. Specialists now agree that the style marked one of the high points in the history of western culture. Rome and the revitalised catholic church spurred the early development of it. Taking definite shape in Italy, the baroque style in the visual arts developed with exceptional vigor in Catholic countries. Protestants accounted for some of the finest examples of baroque style, especially in music. The art spread because its tension and bombast spoke to an agitated age that was experiencing great violence and controversy in politics and religion.

Baroque

Who is this: Who: The highest ranking members of the Russian nobility. What: Ivan III was strong enough to defy mongol control and declare the autonomy of Moscow. To legitimize their new position, the princes of Moscow modelled themselves on the mongol khans. Like the khans, the Muscovite state forced weaker Slavic principalities to render tribute previously paid to Mongols and borrowed Mongol institutions such as the tax system, postal routes, and census. These people were loyal to the muscovite princes and this helped the princes consolidate their power.

Boyars

Who is this: Who: A city that became the model of a christian community for many protestant reformers. What: A religious man transformed this city into a community based on his religious principles. The most powerful organization in the city became the Consistory, a group of laymen and pastors charged with investigating and disciplining deviations from proper doctrine and conduct. Serious crimes and heresy were handled by civil authorities, which, with the consistory's approval, sometimes used torture to extract confessions. Seventy six people were banished from Geneva, and fifty eight were executed for heresy, adultery, blasphemy, and witchcraft. Among them was the Spanish humanist and refugee Michael Servetus, who was burned at the stake for denying the scriptural basis for the Trinity, rejecting child baptism, and insisting that a person under twenty cannot commit a mortal sin, all of which were viewed as a threat to society. Geneva became the model of a christian community for many protestant reformers.

Calvin's Geneva

Who is this: Who: The leader of the French during the thirty years' war. What: This French chief minister subsidised the Swedes, hoping to weaken Hapsburg power in Europe. Adolphus won two important battles but was fatally wounded in combat. The final, or French, phase of the war was prompted by Richelieu's concern that the Hapsburgs would rebound after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. He declared war on Spain and sent military as well as financial assistance. He was a political genus. He established an amazing administrative system to strengthen royal control. He extended the use of intendants, commissioners for each of France's thirty-two districts who were appointed directly by the monarch. They did a lot of work.

Cardinal Richelieu

Who is this: Who: She was the wife of King Henry II and the mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. What: She dominated the reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, who were weak and could not provide the necessary leadership.

Catherine de' Medici

Who is this: Who: A country that was controlled by the Hapsburgs, whose advantageous marriages stretched across generations. What: The Hapsburg dynasty started with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, who was the ruler of most of Austria, but only had a small amount of territory and a great deal of money. Frederick III married Princess Eleonore of Portugal. Then Frederick III and Princess Eleonore arranged for their son, Maximilian, to marry Europe's most prominent heiress, Mary of Burgundy. Mary of Burgundy inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy in what is now eastern France. Through this union with the rich and powerful duchy of Burgundy, the Austrian house of Hapsburg, what was already the strongest ruling family in the empire, became an international power. The marriage of Maximilian and Mary angered the French, who considered Burgundy French territory, and inaugurated centuries of conflict between the Austrian house of Hapsburg and the kings of France. Maximilian married his son and daughter to the children of Ferdinand and Isabella, the rulers of Spain, much of southern Italy, and eventually the Spanish New World Empire. Maximilian's grandson fell heir to a vast collection of states and peoples, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor.

Catholic Spain

Who is this: Who: He was the son of Charles I, and he fled the country and went into exile in France after his father was beheaded after refusing to accept Dual Sovereignty. What: He ruled according to the divine right of kings and rejected the notion of Dual Sovereignty. He also had fears of popery as he was sometimes sympathetic to the catholic church. He passed the Test Act.

Charles II

Who is this: Who: He was a person who fell heir to a vast and incredibly diverse collection of states and peoples in 1519, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor. His Italian advisor, the grand chancellor Gattinara, told the young ruler, "God has set you on the path toward world monarchy." He, a Catholic, not only believed this but also was convinced that it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom. His domains spanned nearly four million square kilometers and were the first to be described as "the empire on which the sun never sets". What: He was a vigorous defender of Catholicism, so it is not surprising that the reformation led to religious wars. The first battleground was Switzerland, which was officially part of the Holy Roman Empire, though it was a loose confederation of thirteen largely autonomous territories called cantons. Some cantons remained catholic, and some became protestant, and in the late 1520s the two sides went to war. Zwingli was killed on the battlefield and both sides quickly decided that a treaty was preferable to further fighting. Then, trying to halt the spread or religious division, he called an imperial diet, to meet at Augsburg. The Lutherans developed a statement of faith, later called the Augsburg confession, and the protestant princes presented this to the emperor. He refused to accept it and ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic Church and give up any confiscated church property. This demand backfired and Protestant territories formed a military alliance. The emperor could not respond because he was in the midst of the Hapsburg-Valois wars. Fighting began and at first the emperor was very successful. This success alarmed both France and the pope, who did not want him to become even more powerful. The pope withdrew papal troops and the Catholic king of France sent money and troops to Lutheran princes. Finally, he agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. His hope of uniting his empire under a single church dashed, he abdicated and moved to a monastery, transferring his power and holdings in Spain and the Netherlands to Philip II and imperial power to his brother Ferdinand.

Charles V

Who is this: Who: She was the daughter and wife of highly educated men who held positions at the court of the king of France and lived from 1364-1430. What: She decided to support her family through writing, an unusual choice for anyone in this era and unheard of for a woman. She wrote prose works and poetry, and gained commissions to write a biography of the French king Charles V, several histories, a long poem celebrating Joan of Arc's victory, and a book of military tactics. She became the first woman in Europe to make her living as a writer. She wrote several works about women's nature and proper role in society, a topic of debate since ancient times. Among these works was The Treasure of the City of Ladies. It provided moral suggestions and practical advice on behavior and household management for women of all social classes. Most of the book was directed to princesses and court ladies, but there are shorter sections for more ordinary women.

Christine de Pizan

Who is this: Who: He was a dutch humanist, catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian whose fame rested on both scholarly editions and translations and popular works. What: He wrote The Education of a Christian Prince, a book combining idealistic and practical suggestions for the formation of a ruler's character through the careful study of the Bible and classical authors. He wrote the Praise of Folly, a witty satire poking fun at political, social, and religious institutions. He also wrote a new Latin translation of the New Testament along with the first printed edition of the Greek text. In the preface of the new testament, he wrote "I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel—should read epistles of Paul. And I wish these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens." The two fundamental themes that run through all of his work is that education in the Bible and the classics is the means to reform and that renewal should be based on what he termed "the philosophy of Christ." He called for a renaissance of the ideals of the early church to accompany the renaissance in classical education. He criticised the church for having strayed from these ideals.

Desiderius Erasmus

Who is this: Who: A document issued by Henry IV that granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in France. What: It saved France by restoring inner peace. Before the Edict of Nantes, Armed clashed between Catholic royalist lords and Calvinist anitmonarchical lords occurred in many parts of France. Both Calvinists and Catholics believed that the others' books, services, and ministers polluted the community. Preachers incited violence and religious ceremonies such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals triggered it. Calvinist teachings called the power of sacred images into question, and mobs in many cities took down and smashed statues, stained glass windows, and paintings, viewing this as a way to purify the church. Catholic mobs responded by defending images, and crowds on both sides killed their opponents. Then on Saint Bartholomew's Day, Huguenots were massacred and other Protestants were slaughtered by mobs. That day led to a civil war that dragged on for fifteen years. The Edict of Nantes ended all of this.

Edict of Nantes

Who is this: Who: He was an artist who was influenced by mystics and painted the spiritual aspiration of Spain. What: He painted people with elongation and twisted anatomy. He also used wavy lines. He painted View of Toledo and the Burial of the Count of Orgaz.

El Greco

Who is this: Who: A system established by the Spanish, in which the Crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Native Americans as laborers or to demand tribute from them in exchange for providing food and shelter. What: The Spanish crown established the thing in which the Crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Native Americans as laborers or to demand tribute from them in exchange for providing food and shelter. The Spanish were supposed to care for the indigenous people under their command and teach them Christianity; in actuality, the system was a brutal form of exploitation only one level removed from slavery.

Encomienda System

Who is this: Who: It is an act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic privileges. It was passed during the glorious revolution. What: It is a restatement of The Declaration of Rights presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. This act lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. It also established dual sovereignty when William signed it.

English Bill of Rights

Who is this: Who: They were king and queen of Spain. What: They curbed aristocratic power by excluding high nobles from the royal council, which had full executive, judicial, and legislative powers under the monarchy, instead appointing lesser land-owners. They secured Pope Alexander VI the right to appoint bishops in Spain and in the hispanic territories, enabling them to establish the equivalent of a national church. They successfully reconquested Granada and conquered Navarre afterward. They received permission from Pope Sixtus IV to search out and punish converts from Judaism who had transgressed against Christianity by secretly adhering to Jewish beliefs and performing the rites of the Jews. They issued an edict expelling all practicing Jews from Spain.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Who is this: Who: France was led by Cardinal Richelieu, Sweden was led by Gustavus Adolphus, and Denmark was led by Christian IV during the 30 years' war. What: Each country fought for what they believed in the war. France fought because they were afraid that the Hapsburgs would get too powerful. Sweden fought because they felt that the calvinists should get to practice their religion. Denmark fought because they felt that the calvinists should get to practice their religion.

France, Sweden, and Denmark in the 30 Years' War

Who is this: Who: The leader of Prussia during the war of the Austrian succession. What: He embraced culture and literature in his youth. He was determined to use the splendid army that he had inherited. When Maria Theresa of Austria inherited the Hapsburg dominions upon the death of her Father Charles VI, Frederick pounced. He invaded her rich province of Silesia. Maria Theresa was forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia. Prussia had doubled its population to 6 million people. Now Prussia stood as a European Great Power. He was a member in the Seven Years War, where Maria Theresa formed an alliance with the leaders of France and Russia to regain Silesia. Peter III came to the throne in Russia and called off the attack. He tolerantly allowed his subjects to believe as they wished in religious and philosophical matters. He promoted the advancement of knowledge, improving schools and such. He worked hard and lived modestly. He claimed that he was only the first servant of the state. He accepted and extended the privileges of the nobility, who remained the backbone of the army and the entire Prussian state. He drew on the principles of cameralism. The view that monarchy was the best form of government.

Frederick II of Prussia

Who is this: Who: He was a man who when he came to power, he was determined to unify his three provinces and enlarge his holdings in Brandenburg; Prussia, and his scattered territories along the Rhine. He was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalian political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor. What: He was determined to unify the provinces of Brandenburg; Prussia, and scattered territories along the Rhine. Each was inhabited by German speakers, but each had its own estates. Although the estates had not met regularly during the Thirty Years's War, taxes could not be levied without their consent. The estates of brandenburg and Prussia were dominated by the nobility and the landowning classes, known as the Junkers. He profited from the ongoing European war and the threat of invasion from Russia when he argued for the need for a permanent standing army. He persuaded Junkers in the estates to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army. They agreed to do so in exchange for reconfirmation of their own privileges, including their authority over the serfs. Having won over the Junkers, the king crushed potential opposition to his power from the towns. One by one, Prussian cities were eliminated from the estates and subjected to new taxes on goods and services. The estates power declined rapidly, for he had both financial independence and superior force. He tripled state revenue during his reign and expanded the army drastically.

Frederick William I "The Great Elector" of Prussia

Who is this: Who: He was a German, later British baroque composer, who spent the bulk of his career in London. He became well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos. What: He received important training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712; he became a naturalised British subject in 1727. He was strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition.

George Frideric Handel

Who is this: He was an Italian baroque sculptor and architect. As one scholar has commented, "What Shakespeare is to drama, this man may be to sculpture." While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the leading sculptor of his age, credited with creating the Baroque style of sculpture. What: As one scholar has commented, "What Shakespeare is to drama, this man may be to sculpture: the first pan-European sculptor whose name is instantaneously identifiable with a particular manner and vision, and whose influence was inordinately powerful" In addition, he was a painter and a man of the theater: he wrote, directed and acted in plays, also designing stage sets and theatrical machinery, as well as a wide variety of decorative art objects including lamps, tables, mirrors, and even coaches. As architect and city planner, he designed both secular buildings and churches and chapels, as well as massive works combining both architecture and sculpture, especially elaborate public fountains and funerary monuments and a whole series of temporary structures for funerals and festivals.

Gian Bernini

Who is this: Who: He was a Dominican friar, who preached in Florence a number of fiery sermons attended by large crowds predicting that God would punish Italy for its moral vice and corrupt leadership. What: He preached in Florence a number of fiery sermons attended by large crowds predicting that God would punish Italy for its moral vice and corrupt leadership. Florentines interpreted the French invasion as the fulfilment of this prophecy and expelled the Medici dynasty. He became the political and religious leader of a new Florentine republic and promised Florentines even greater glory in the future if they would reform their ways. He reorganised the government; convinced it to pass laws against same-sex relations, adultery, and drunkenness; and organized groups of young men to patrol the streets looking for immoral dress and behavior. He held religious processions and what became known as "bonfires of the vanities," huge fires on the main square of Florence in which fancy clothing, cosmetics, pagan books, musical instruments, paintings, and poetry that celebrated human beauty were gathered together and burned. Eventually, people grew tired of his moral denunciations. He was excommunicated by the pope, tortured, and burned at the very spot where he had overseen the bonfires.

Girolamo Savonarola

Who is this: Who: A word used to describe certain people of mixed African and European origin. What: In Spanish America, the blanket terms what and "people of color" were used for those of mixed African and European origin. With its immense slave-based plantation system, large indigenous population, and relatively low Portuguese immigration, Brazil developed a particularly complex racial and ethnic mosaic.

Mulatto

Who is this: Who: King of France whose willingness to sacrifice religious principles to political necessity saved France. He converted to Catholicism and issued the Edict of Nantes, which brought liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Calvinists. What: He married Margaret of Valois on Saint Bartholomew's day. The death of Catherine Medici and Henry III paved the way for the accession of Henry IV, who was a politique. A politique was a catholic and protestant moderate who holds that only a strong monarchy could save france from total collapse. Henry IV's willingness to sacrifice religious principles to political necessity saved France. He converted to Catholicism and issued the Edict of Nantes, which brought liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Calvinists. His reign and the Edict of Nantes prepared the way for French absolutism in the seventeenth century by helping restore internal peace in France.

Henry IV

Who is this: Who: He was a man of the Welsh house of the Tudors. He won the throne when his forces defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. He cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. He was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the civil war, and after a reign of nearly 24 years, he was peacefully succeeded by his son. What: He killed the Richard III king of York. He married Elizabeth of York. He was of the house of Lancaster. He worked to restore royal prestige, to crush the power of the nobility, and to establish order and law at the local level. He used ruthlessness, efficiency and secrecy. He also conducted foreign policy on the basis of diplomacy, avoiding expensive wars. The English monarchy then did not have to depend on Parliament for money, and the crown undercut that source of aristocratic influence. Later, he summoned several meetings of Parliament to confirm laws, but the center of the royal authority was the royal council, which governed at the national level. In his reign, he revealed his distrust of the nobility and very few great lords were among the king's closest advisors. Instead, he chose men from the smaller land owners and urban residents trained in law to be a part of the royal council. He left a country at peace both domestically and internationally, a substantially augmented treasury, and expanding wool trade, and a crown with its dignity and role much enhanced. He was greatly missed by all of his subjects who had been able to live their lives peaceably, far removed from the assaults and evildoings of scoundrels.

Henry VII

Who is this: Who: Columbus introduced these to people in the new world. What: They allowed the Spanish conquerors and native populations to travel faster and farther and to transport heavy loads.

Horses

Who is this: Who: They were french calvinists. What: By the time King Henry II was accidentally shot in the face at a tournament celebrating the Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, one tenth of the population had become Calvinist. The feebleness of the French monarchy was the seed from which the weeds of civil violence sprang. The three weak sons of Henry II could not provide the necessary leadership, and they were often dominated by their mother, Catherine Medici. The French nobility took advantage of this monarchical weakness. French nobles frequently adopted protestantism as a religious cloak for their independence. Armed clashes between Catholic royalist lords and calvinist antimonarchical lords occurred in many parts of France. Both Calvinists and Catholics believed that the others' books, services, and ministers polluted the community. Preachers incited violence and religious ceremonies such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals triggered it. Calvinist teachings called the power of sacred images into question, and mobs in many cities took down and smashed statues, stained glass windows, and paintings, viewing this as a way to purify the church. Catholic mobs responded by defending images, and crowds on both sides killed their opponents. Then on Saint Bartholomew's Day, they were massacred and other Protestants were slaughtered by mobs. That day led to a civil war that dragged on for fifteen years. The Edict of Nantes ended all of this. It granted liberty of conscience and public worship to them, which helped restore peace in France.

Huguenots

Who is this: Who: A man who developed a new literary genre, known as the essay. What: Skepticism is a school of thought founded on doubt that total certainty or definitive knowledge is ever attainable. Cultural relativism suggests that one culture is not necessarily superior to another, just different. Both notions found expression in the work of him. He developed a new literary genre, the essay to express his ideas. His Essays consisted of short reflections drawing on his extensive reading of ancient texts, his experience as a government official, and his own moral judgement. He wrote in French rather than Latin. He wrote an essay "Of Cannibals," which revealed the impact of overseas discoveries on one thoughtful European. Not many people believed in what he wrote, but his popular essays contributed to a basic shift in attitudes.

Michel de Montaigne

Who is this: Who: An explorer from France, who explored the Saint Lawrence region of Canada, searching for a passage to the wealth of Asia. What: He made several voyages and explored the Saint Lawrence region of Canada, searching for a passage to the wealth of Asia. His exploration of the Saint Lawrence was halted at the great rapids west of the present day Island of Montreal. He named the rapids La Chine, in the optimistic belief that China lay just beyond. When this hope proved vain, the French turned to a new source of profit within Canada itself: trade in beavers and other furs.

Jacques Cartier

Who is this: Who: He was the first king in the Stuart dynasty and was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. What: He ruled according to the divine right of kings. He was accused of popery due to attempting to marry his son off to Spanish Infanta, not joining the 30 Years' War, and forming a truce with Spain. He disappointed Puritans by maintaining Elizabeth's religious compromise. He sponsored the voyages to Jamestown and the James River. The King James Translation of the bible was produced under his reign.

James I

Who is this: Who: The home of a private company of investors who founded the colony of Virginia. What: The colony of Virginia struggled in its first few years and relied on food from the Powhatan Confederacy. Over time, the colony gained a steady hold by producing tobacco for a growing European market.

Jamestown

Who is this: Who: He was a Flemish painter who was considered the artistic equal of Italian painters. He was much admired in Italy. What: He was one of the first artists to use oil-based paints successfully. His religious scenes and portraits all show great realism and remarkable attention to human personality.

Jan Van Eyck

Who is this: Who: He was Louis XIV's controller general, who proved to be a financial genius. His central principle was that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state. Colbert rigorously applied mercantilist policies to France. What: To decrease the purchase of goods outside France, he insisted that French industry should produce everything needed by the French people. To increase exports, Colbert supported old industries and created new ones, focusing especially on textiles, which were the most important sector of the economy. He enacted new production regulations, created guilds to boost quality standards, and encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France. He abolished many domestic tariffs and raised tariffs on foreign products. He founded the company of the East Indies, with hopes of competing with the Dutch for Asian trade. He also tried to make Canada part of a vast French empire. He was able to pursue his goals without massive tax increases and without creating a stream of new offices. The constant pressure of warfare after Colbert's death, undid many of his economic achievements.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Who is this: Who: He was a German baroque composer and musician. The baroque style reached its culmination in the dynamic, soaring lines of this endlessly inventive man. He enriched established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. His compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor, two Passions, and over three hundred cantatas of which around two hundred survive. His music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. What: He was an organist and choirmaster of several Lutheran churches across Germany. He was equally at home writing secular concertos and sublime religious cantatas. His organ music combined the baroque spirit of invention, tension, and emotion in an unforgettable striving toward the infinite. Unlike Rubens, he was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but since the early nineteenth century his reputation has grown steadily.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Who is this: Who: A Genoese merchant who lived in London. He undertook a voyage to Brazil, but discovered Newfoundland instead. What: He undertook a voyage to Brazil, but discovered Newfoundland instead. The next year he returned and reconnoitered the New England coast. These forays proved futile, and the English established no permanent colonies in the territories they explored.

John Cabot

Who is this: Who: He was a man who studied and worked with John Calvin. What: He was determined to structure the Scottish church after the model of Geneva, where he had studied and worked with Calvin. In 1560, Knox persuaded the Scottish parliament, which has dominated by reform-minded barons, to end papal authority and rule by bishops, substituting governance by presbyters, or councils of ministers. The presbyterian church of Scotland was strictly Calvinist in doctrine, adopted a simple and dignified service of worship, and laid great emphasis on preaching.

John Knox

Who is this: Who: The nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia. They were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state. What: Frederick William persuaded these people in the estates to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army. They agreed to do so in exchange for reconfirmation of their own privileges, including authority over the serfs.

Junkers

Who is this: Who: He develops a number of notable themes. It begins with a depiction of the state of nature, wherein individuals are under no obligation to obey one another but are each themselves judge of what the law of nature requires. It also covers conquest and slavery, property, representative government, and the right of revolution. What: Opponents of King James II invited his daughter Mary and her husband, the Dutch prince William of Orange, to take the thrown of England. James fled for the safety in France. One of the most outspoken proponents of the Glorious Revolution that brought William and Mary to the throne was philosopher John Locke. Locke argues that sovereign power resides in the people, who may reject a monarch who does not obey the law.

Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government

Who is this: Who: He was the child-king of France, who was ministered by Cardinal Richelieu. What: He personally supervised the siege of La Rochelle, an important port city and a major commercial center with strong ties to protestant Holland and England. After the city fell, its municipal government was suppressed. Protestants retained the right of public worship, but the Catholic liturgy was restored. The fall of La Rochelle was one step in the removal of Protestantism asa strong force in French life.

Louis XIII

Who is this: Who: A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver. What: A system that tied the colonies with the mother countries. The colonies exist for the exclusive welfare of the mother country. The mother country was to have favorable trade. Colonies were not permitted to trade with anyone but the mother country. Colonies were not permitted to produce anything but what was permitted by the mother country. The colonists were considered second class citizens.

Mercantilism

Who is this: Who: They were people who were involved in wholesale trade or supplying merchandise to a particular trade. They were also people who were concerned with the management of large amounts of money on behalf of governments or other large organizations. What: These people received bigger titles in the government and played greater roles in political affairs.

Merchants and Financiers in Renaissance Italy and Northern Europe

Who is this: Who: A word used to describe certain people of mixed Native American and European descent. What: In Spanish America, this word, described people of mixed Native American and European descent. With its immense slave-based plantation system, large indigenous population, and relatively low Portuguese immigration, Brazil developed a particularly complex racial and ethnic mosaic.

Mestizo

Who is this: Who: They were people who wanted to cleanse the catholic church in England. What: The held protestant beliefs and wanted England to be cleansed of the catholic faith.

Puritans

Who is this: Who: Laws that allowed people to divorce from their spouse as well as discouraged people from going to convents and monasteries. What: There was a legal change in which protestants allowed divorce. This differed markedly from Catholic doctrine, which viewed marriage as a sacramental union that, if validly entered into, could not be dissolved. Although permitting divorce was a dramatic legal change, it did not have a dramatic impact on newly protestant areas. Because marriage was the cornerstone of society socially and economically, divorce was a desperate last resort. Many nuns were in convents not out of a religious calling, but because their parents placed them there. The reformation generally brought the closing of monasteries and convents, and marriage became virtually the only occupation for upper class women. Women in convents recognized this and fought the reformation, or argued that they could still be pious protestants within convent walls. Most nuns however, left the convents and we do not know what happened to them. The protestant emphasis on marriage made unmarried women and men suspect, as they did not belong to the type of household regarded as the cornerstone of a proper godly society.

New Secular Laws Regulating Private Life

Who is this: Who: Calvinist people of power who felt that the reformed tradition of John Calvin was appealing, with its stress on the power of church elders. What: Luther's ideas took root in germanized towns but were opposed by King Sigismund I as well as by ordinary people of this country, who held a strong anti-German feeling. The reformed tradition of John Calvin, with its stress on the power of church elders, appealed to the Polish nobility, however. The fact that Calvinism originated in France, not in Germany, also made it more attractive that Lutheranism. But doctrinal differences among Calvinists, Lutherans, and other groups prevented united opposition to Catholicism, and a counter-reformation gained momentum. By 1650, due largely to the efforts of the Jesuits, it was agains staunchly Roman Catholic.

Nobles in Poland

Who is this: Who: He led the parliament group called the roundheads against the fighters for the crown called the cavaliers in the english civil war. What: He won the civil war and became lord protector of England. He ruled with even more of an iron fist than the preceding Stuart Kings. He died and he named his son his successor.

Oliver Cromwell

Who is this: Who: When a parliament possesses a monopoly over the instruments of justice and the use of force within clearly defined boundaries. What: In a sovereign parliamentary, there is no system of courts, such as church tribunals, competes with state courts in the dispensation of justice; and private armies, such as those of feudal lords, present no threat to central authority.

Parliamentary Sovereignty

Who is this: Who: It was invented by the ancient Greeks and perfected by the Muslim navigators. What: It was used to determine the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies. It permitted mariners to plot their latitude, which was their precise position north or south of the equator.

Quadrant and Astrolabe

Who is this: Who: It was the alliance of seven northern provinces, led by Holland, that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands. What: The seven northern provinces became Calvinist as they declared their independence from Spain.

The Union of Utrecht

Who is this: Who: A treaty issued by Charles V that officially recognized Lutheranism in the holy roman empire in order to bring peace. What: The treaty let the political authority of each territory decide whether the territory would be Catholic or Lutheran. The treaty also let other territories enjoy their religious beliefs, liturgy, and ceremonies as well as their estates in peace. Most northern and central Germany became Lutheran, while the south remained Roman Catholic. There was no freedom of religion within the territories, however. Princes or town councils established state churches to which all subjects of the area had to belong. Dissidents had to convert or leave, although the treaty did order that they shall neither be hindered in the sale of their estates after due payment of the local taxes nor injured in their honor. Religious refugees became a common feature on the roads of the empire, although rulers did not always let their subjects leave as easily as the treaty stipulated.

Peace of Augsburg

Who is this: Who: A man who made many reforms in Russia that were very unpopular, but they paved the way for Russia to move somewhat closer to the European mainstream in its thought and institutions during the Enlightenment, especially under Catherine the Great. What: He was very tall. He was determined to build the army and continue Russian territorial expansion. He led a group of 250 Russian officials and young nobles on an eighteen month tour of western European capitals. He entered into a secret alliance with Denmark and Poland to wage a sudden war of aggression against Sweden with the goal of securing access to the Baltic Sea and opportunities for westward expansion. Peter believed that he would win easily because Sweden had an inexperienced king. The Swedish King surprised him and defeated Denmark and then turned on Russia. The Swedish King had his army attack Russians besieging a Swedish fortress. That was the beginning to the Great Northern War. Peter responded to this defeat with measured designed to increase state power, strengthen his armies, and gain victory. He required all nobles to serve in the army for life. He created new schools. He established a military-civilian bureaucracy with fourteen ranks. This allowed non-nobles to rise up in the hierarchy. He established a standing army. He taxed peasants heavily. His new war machine was able to crush the small army of Sweden. The government drafted 25,000 to 40,000 men each summer to labor in St. Petersburg. Nobles were required to build costly palaces and live there most of the year. Merchants and artisans were required to settle and build in the new capital. Modernization meant Westernisation as Westerners and western ideas flowed into Russia. He required nobles to shave their beards and wear Western clothing. He also required them to attend parties where young men and women would mix and freely choose their spouses. A new elite class of western-oriented Russians began to emerge. Many nobles did not like the imposition of unigeniture, inheritance of land by one son alone, cutting sons and daughters from family property.

Peter The Great of Russia

Who is this: Who: He was the son of Charles V and the husband of Mary Tudor. He was the king who sent the Spanish Armada. What: Mary Queen of Scots became implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth, a conspiracy that had his full backing. When the English executed Mary Queen of Scots, the Catholic pope urged him to retaliate. He prepared a vast fleet to sail from Lisbon to Flanders, where a large army of Spanish troops was stationed because of religious wars in the Netherlands. The Spanish ships were to escort barges carrying some of the troops across the English channel to attack England. Then the most fortunate fleet, as it was ironically called in official documents, composed of more than 130 vessels sailed from Lisbon harbor. The Spanish Armada met an english fleet in the channel before it reached Flanders. The English ships were smaller, faster, and more manoeuvrable, and many of them had greater firing power than their Spanish counterparts. A combination of storms and squalls, spoiled food and rank water, inadequate Spanish ammunition and English fire ships that caused the Spanish to scatter gave England the victory. The defeat of the Spanish Armada prevented him from reimposing catholicism on England by force. Then in the Netherlands, he sent twenty thousand Spanish troops under the duke of Alva to pacify the low countries. Alva interpreted pacification to mean ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents. Alva also opened his own tribunal called the council of blood. Fifteen hundred men were executed. To calvinists, this was a clear indication that Spanish rule was ungodly and should be overthrown. Civil war raged between Catholics and Protestants. The ten southern provinces came under control of Spanish Hapsburg forces and seven northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht. It was the alliance that declared its independence from Spain and formed the united provinces of the Netherlands. He did not accept this and war continued. England was even drawn into the conflict, supplying money and troops to the northern United Provinces, Hostilities ended when Spain agreed to a truce that recognized the independence of the United Provinces.

Philip II

Who is this: Who: The king of Spain during the revolts in Catalonia, the economic center of his realm. What: He faced revolt in Catalonia, the economic center of his realm. At the same time he struggled to put down uprisings in Portugal and in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. He left the management of his several kingdoms to Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares.

Philip IV

Who is this: Who: He was a painter and designer for engravings. What: He used landscape amazingly. He achieved a contemporary and palpable vision of the natural world.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

Who is this: Who: Economies based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops grown on large farms called plantations. What: Enslaved Africans were brought from Africa by the English and other European powers, for their Western Hemisphere colonies. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to the New World. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called the middle passage, and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa. As the plantation economy expanded, the slave trade grew to meet the growing demand for labor.

Plantation Economies

Who is this: Who: A person who was a catholic and protestant moderate who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse. What: Henry IV was this and instituted a strong monarchy and made the Edict of Nantes so that he saved France from total collapse.

Politique

Who is this: Who: A territory in present day Bolivia that was conquered from the Inca Empire. What: In this place, at an altitude of fifteen thousand feet, the Spanish discovered an extraordinary source of silver. The frigid place where nothing grew had been unsettled. A half century later, 160,000 people lived there, making it about as populous as the city of London. By 1550, this place yielded about 60 percent of all the silver mined in the world.

Potosí

Who is this: Who: An english royal minister from 1721-1742 who led the cabinet. During his reign, the idea developed that the cabinet was responsible to the House of Commons. What: He is generally regarded as the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. He dominated the Townshend Ministry and holds the record as the longest serving Prime Minister in British history. Critics called his system the Robinocracy. Speck says that his uninterrupted run of 20 years as Prime Minister, "is rightly regarded as one of the major feats of British political history." Explanations are usually offered in terms of his expert handling of the political system and his unique blending of the surviving powers of the crown with the increasing influence of the Commons.

Robert Walpole

Who is this: Who: It was a day when there was a savage Catholic attack on Calvinists. What: It was the marriage ceremony of the king's sister Margaret of Valois to the protestant Henry of Navarre, which was intended to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots. Instead, Huguenots not wedding guests in Paris were massacred and other protestants were slaughtered by mobs. Religious violence spread to the provinces, where thousands were killed. This massacre led to ca civil war that dragged on for fifteen years.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Who is this: Who: She was a Carmelite nun who founded new convents and reformed her Carmelite order to bring it back to stricter standards of asceticism and poverty. What: She reformed the monasteries and convents of many existing religious orders so that they followed more rigorous standards. She felt that founding new convents and reforming her Carmelite order to bring it back to stricter standards of asceticism and poverty, was a task she understood God had set for her in mystical visions. Some officials in the Spanish Church thought the life she proposed was too strict for women , and at one point she was even investigated by the Spanish Inquisition in an effort to make sure her inspiration came from God and no the devil. The process was dropped and she founded many new convents, which she saw as answers to the protestant takeover of Catholic churches elsewhere in Europe.

Saint Teresa of Ávila

Who is this: Who: He was an English humanist who began life as a lawyer, studied the classics, and entered government service. What: He had time to write between his official duties and became famous for his controversial dialogue Utopia, a word that means "nowhere" in Greek. Utopia describes a community on an island somewhere beyond Europe where all children receive good education in the Greco-Roman classics, and adults divide their days between manual labor or business pursuits and intellectual activities. The problems that plagued his fellow citizens, like poverty and hunger, had been solved by a beneficent government. Also, Utopia banned private property. In Utopia, there is religious toleration, and order and reason prevail. However, because Utopian institutions are perfect, dissent and disagreement are not acceptable. Some people view Utopia as a revolutionary critique of his own hierarchical society, some as a call for an even firmer hierarchy, and others as part of the humanist tradition of satire.

Sir Thomas More

Who is this: Who: A country that was controlled by the catholic family, whose advantageous marriages stretched across generations. What: The family dynasty started with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, who was the ruler of most of Austria, but only had a small amount of territory and a great deal of money. Frederick III married Princess Eleonore of Portugal. Then Frederick III and Princess Eleonore arranged for their son, Maximilian, to marry Europe's most prominent heiress, Mary of Burgundy. Mary of Burgundy inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy in what is now eastern France. Through this union with the rich and powerful duchy of Burgundy, the Austrian house of this family, what was already the strongest ruling family in the empire, became an international power. The marriage of Maximilian and Mary angered the French, who considered Burgundy French territory, and inaugurated centuries of conflict between the Austrian house of this family and the kings of France. Maximilian married his son and daughter to the children of Ferdinand and Isabella, the rulers of Spain, much of southern Italy, and eventually the Spanish New World Empire. Maximilian's grandson fell heir to a vast collection of states and peoples, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor.

Spain under the Hapsburgs

Who is this: Who: It was invented by Chinese inventors. What: It allowed the caravel to be a much more manoeuvrable vessel.

Stern-Post Rudder

Who is this: Who: Laws that protestants believed were in accordance with what God wanted What: As protestants believed marriage was the only proper remedy for lust, they uniformly condemned prostitution. The licensed brothers that were a common feature of late medieval urban life were closed in Protestant cities, and harsh punishments were set for prostitution. Many catholic cities soon closed their brothers as well, although Italian cities favoured stricter regulations rather than closure. Selling sex was couched in moral rather than economic terms, as simply one tree of *****dom, a term that also included premarital sex, adultery, and other unacceptable sexual activities. ***** was also a term that reformer used for their theological opponents; protestants compared the poe to the Biblical ***** ofBabylon, a symbol of the end of the world, while catholics called luther's wife a ***** because she had first been married to christ as a nun before her marriage to Luther. Closing brothels did not end the exchange of sex for money of course, but simply reshaped it. Smaller illegal brothers were established, or women selling sex moved to areas right outside city walls.

Stricter Codes on Prostitution and Begging

Who is this: Who: The Lutheran King of Sweden during the Thirty Years' War. What: The third, or Swedish, phase of the war began with the arrival in Germany of this Swedish king and his army. The ablest administrator of his day and a devout Lutheran, he intervened to support the empire's protestants. The French chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, subsidised the Swedes, hoping to weaken Hapsburg power in Europe. Adolphus won two important battles but was fatally wounded in combat.

Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus

Who is this: Who: A bank that had innovations in banking and finance that promoted the growth of urban financial centers and a money economy. What: It created new ways of banking and this led to the growth of more banks across the state. It also led to the country creating a money economy.

The Bank of Amsterdam

Who is this: Who: The development of the market economy led to this new financial institution, which was created by William II of England. What: The country's crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, became the catalyst for the country's rebuilding itself as a global power. It had no choice but to build a powerful navy. No public funds were available, and the credit of William III's government was so low in London that it was impossible for it to borrow the £1,200,000 that the government wanted. To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor and Company of the financial institution. The financial institution was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue bank notes. The lenders would give the government cash and issue notes against the government bonds, which can be lent again. The £1.2m was raised in 12 days; half of this was used to rebuild the navy. As a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed, including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy, started to transform the economy. This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain - England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 - to become powerful. The power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

The Bank of England

Who is this: Who: It was a book that included the order for all services and prayers of the church of England and was prepared by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury. What: It was prepared during the short reign of Henry VIII's sickly son, Edward VI, when Protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious life of the country.

The Book of Common Prayer

Who is this: Who: It was an English and later British joint-stock company from 1600-1874, which was formed to pursue trade with the East Indies but ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and Qing China. What: The company relied on trade concessions from the powerful Mughal emperor, who granted only piecemeal access to the subcontinent.

The British East India Company

Who is this: Who: Revolts by certain people against the monarchy of Spain. What: It was a social revolution pitting rich against poor and a political revolt pitting these people against Castilians. As the poor turned against the rich, the elites turned to France rather than seek common cause with their neighbors, Valencia and Aragon, with whom they shared a language and many traditions. In allying with France, however, this territory exchanged one master for another. The combined military forces of France and this territory defeated the Castilian army. No leader stepped forward to unite the Catalans. In 1648, the Fronde broke out, forcing the French to withdraw from this territory, leaving the rebels to fight alone. By then, many of the leading this country's aristocrats had reconciled with the Spanish crown, vastly preferring their Castilian peers to the this country rabble. In 1651, there was a siege of Barcelona and the city was starved into surrender.

The Catalan Revolts in Spain

Who is this: Who: It was a judicial offshoot through which the royal council dealt with real or potential aristocratic threats. It was called what it was because of the celestial bodies painted on the ceiling of the room. It was used from 1487-1509, which was during King Henry VII's rule of England. What: It applied methods to aristocrats that were sometimes terrifying: accused persons were not entitled to see evidence against them; sessions were secret; juries were not called; and torture could be applied to extract confessions. These procedures ran directly counter to English common-law precedents, but they effectively reduced aristocratic troublemaking.

The Court of Star Chamber

Who is this: Who: The executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange. What: He or she carried out ceremonial functions and was responsible for military defense. Although in theory freely chosen by the estates and answerable to them, in practice the strong and influential house of Orange usually held the office of stadtholder in several of the seven provinces of the republic. This meant that the tensions always lingered between the supporters of the House of Orange and those of the staunchly republican states, who suspected that the princes of Orange harboured monarchical ambitions.

The Stadtholder

Who is this: Who: A voyage that brought 600,000 pounds of pepper and 250,000 pounds of cloves and nutmeg led to the establishment of this company. It was a company from 1602-1799, that took control of the Portuguese spice trade in the Indian Ocean, with the port of Batavia as its center of operations. It is often considered to be the world's first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, it was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, because it was the first company to be ever actually listed on an official stock exchange. As the first historical model of the quasi-fictional concept of mega-corporations, it possessed quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, strike its own coins, and establish colonies. What: It had expelled the Portuguese from trading in Ceylon and other East Indian Islands.

The Dutch East India Company

Who is this: Who: A war of Louis XIV, whose chief aim in the conflict was to establish French possession of the Spanish Netherlands after having forced the Dutch Republic's acquiescence. What: After having signed the secret Treaty of Dover with England against the Dutch, Louis mounted an invasion of the Dutch Republic that was supported by the British navy. The French were able to quickly occupy three of the seven Dutch provinces, but then the Dutch opened the dikes around Amsterdam, flooding a large area, and their army, under William III of Orange, rallied behind this "Water Line." By autumn William had begun land operations against the French invaders. Meanwhile, the Dutch navy managed to stave off attacking English, each time frustrating an invasion of the republic. England then made peace with the Dutch in the Treaty of Westminster. In Spain, the Holy Roman emperor, and Lorraine took the side of the Dutch against France, and so the French had been driven out of the Dutch Republic. But the French armies, with Sweden as their only effective ally, managed to advance steadily in the southern Netherlands and along the Rhine, defeating the badly coordinated forces of the Grand Alliance with regularity. Eventually the heavy financial burdens of the war, along with the imminent prospect of England's reentry into the conflict on the side of the Dutch, convinced Louis to make peace despite his advantageous military

The Dutch War

Who is this: Who: A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation. What: Magistrates of the Parliament of Paris, the nation's most important court, were outraged by the Crown's autocratic measures. These so-called robe nobles encouraged violent protest by the common people. During the first of several riots, the queen mother fled Paris with Louis XIV. As rebellion spread outside Paris and the sword nobles, civil order broke down completely. Anne's regency ended with the declaration of Louis as king in his own right. Much of the rebellion died away, and its leaders came to terms with the government. The violence of the Fronde had significant results for the future. The twin evils of noble rebellion and popular riots left the French wishing for peace and for a strong monarch to reimpose order.

The Fronde in France

Who is this: Who: It is a catalogue of forbidden reading that included works by christian humanists such as Erasmus as well as by Protestants. It was published by the supreme sacred congregation of the roman and universal inquisition, often called the holy office. What: It listed the books that go against the teachings of the church. The books were by the authors that were Erasmus, More, Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Knox.

The Index of Forbidden Books

Who is this: Who: A book in which John Calvin embodied his ideas. What: The cornerstone of Calvin's theology was his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity. Before the infinite power of God, men and women are as insignificant as grains of sand.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

Who is this: Who: A ship that brought the Pilgrims to Plymouth, Massachusetts. What: The pilgrims that were brought to the New World, founded Plymouth in 1620.

The Mayflower

Who is this: Who: A country that had corruption in the Roman Catholic Church and the critical spirit of the Renaissance provoked pressure for reform, and Lutheran ideas took root. Charles V had grown up in the country, however, and he was able to limit their impact. But Charles V abdicated and transferred over the country to his son Philip II, who had gown up in Spain. Protestant ideas spread. What: Philip II sent twenty thousand Spanish troops under the duke of Alva to pacify the low countries. Alva interpreted pacification to mean ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents. Alva also opened his own tribunal called the council of blood. Fifteen hundred men were executed. To calvinists, this was a clear indication that Spanish rule was ungodly and should be overthrown. Civil war raged between Catholics and Protestants. The ten southern provinces came under control of Spanish Hapsburg forces and seven northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht. It was the alliance that declared its independence from Spain and formed the united provinces of the country. Philip did not accept this and war continued. England was even drawn into the conflict, supplying money and troops to the northern United Provinces, Hostilities ended when Spain agreed to a truce that recognized the independence of the United Provinces.

The Netherlands

Who is this: Who: It was a war between Louis XIV of France and a European-wide coalition of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Britain, and Savoy. What: It was fought on the European continent and the surrounding seas, Ireland, and in North America. Louis XIV set about extending his gains to stabilize and strengthen France's frontiers.The fighting generally favoured Louis XIV's armies, but by 1696 his country was in the grip of an economic crisis. The Maritime Powers (England and the Dutch Republic) were also financially exhausted, and when Savoy defected from the Alliance all parties were keen for a negotiated settlement. By the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, Louis XIV retained the whole of Alsace, but he was forced to return Lorraine to its ruler and give up any gains on the right bank of the Rhine. Louis XIV also accepted William III as the rightful King of England, while the Dutch acquired their Barrier fortress system in the Spanish Netherlands to help secure their own borders. However, with the ailing and childless Charles II of Spain approaching his end, a new conflict over the inheritance of the Spanish Empire would soon embroil Louis XIV and the Grand Alliance in a final war - the War of the Spanish Succession. The war ends with the treaty of Ryswick, Louis XIV recognizing William III as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

The Nine Years' War

Who is this: Who: A series of treaties that ended the war of Spanish succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British empire. What: The treaty allowed Louis's grandson to remain king of Spain on the understanding that the French and Spanish crowns would never be united. France surrendered Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay territory to England, which also acquired Gibraltar, Minorca, and control of the African slave trade from Spain.

The Peace of Utrecht

Who is this: Who: An thing is a period of prolonged and intensive questioning. It was an inquisition done primarily to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism and Islam to Christianity. What: King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile established the thing in 1478. It primarily targeted forced converts from Islam and from Judaism. Both groups still resided in Spain, and they came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it.

The Spanish Inquisition

Who is this: Who: A war over the division of the Spanish possessions after the death of Charles II. What: The childless Spanish king Charles II died, opening a struggle for control of Spain and its colonies. His will bequeathed the Spanish crown and its empire to Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV's grandson. The will violated a prior treaty by which the European powers had agreed to divide the possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman Emperor. Claiming that he was following both Spanish and French interests, Louis XIV broke with the treaty and accepted the will, triggering the War of the Spanish Succession. The English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. The peace of utrecht, which ended the war, allowed Louis's grandson Philip to remain king of Spain on the understanding that the french and Spanish crowns would never be united. France surrendered Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay territory to England, which also acquired Gibraltar, Minorca, and control o the African slave trade from Spain.

The War of Spanish Succession

Who is this: Who: They were a series of civil wars between adherents of the ducal houses of York and Lancaster and the point was to contend for control of the Crown. The wars are called what it was called because the symbol of the Yorkists was white and the symbol of the Lancastrians was red. What: The wars hurt trade, agriculture, and domestic industry. Under the rule of Henry VI, the authority of the monarchy sank lower than it had been in centuries. The Yorkist Edward IV began establishing domestic tranquility. He succeeded in defeating the Lancastrian forces and after 1471, began to reconstruct the monarchy.

The Wars of the Roses

Who is this: Who: He was a venetian artist who produced portraits, religious subjects, and mythological scenes. What: He developed techniques of painting in oil without doing elaborate drawings first, which sped up the process and pleased patrons eager to display their acquisitions. Titian also created an artistic style known as mannerism with the help of other 16th century artists. In mannerism, their is distorted figures, exaggerated musculature, and heightened color so that it can express emotion and drama more intently.

Titian

Who is this: Who: A treaty made by Pope Alexander VI, between Spain and Portugal. What: The agreement gave Spain everything west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic and gave Portugal everything to the East. This worked in Portugal's favor when an expedition by Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil, which he claimed as Portuguese territory.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Who is this: Who: It is commercial exchange in the atlantic. What: It designated a three way transport of goods, European commodities, like guns and textiles to Africa; enslaved Africans to the colonies, and colonial goods like cotton, tobacco, and sugar back to Europe.

Triangle Trade

Who is this: Who: This, founded by Angela Merici, focused on the education of women. What: Angela Merici worked for many years among the poor, sick and uneducated around her native Brescia in northern Italy. She established the first women's religious order concentrating exclusively on teaching young girls, with the goal of re-Christianizing society by training future wives and mothers. After receiving papal approval in 1565, the group rapidly spread to France and the New World.

Ursulines

Who is this: Who: It is the name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas. What: The crown divided its New World possessions into two things, or administrative divisions: New Spain, with the capital at Mexico City, and Peru, with the capital at Lima. Two new things added in the eighteenth century were New Granada, with Bogotá as its administrative center, and La Plata, with Buenos Aires as the capital.

Viceroyalties

Who is this: Who: It is the quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will. What: It gave people the thought that they can do anything and it made people more individualistic. People wanted credit for things because they were doing it. They were not doing it through God, people were doing the things themselves.

Virtù

Who is this: Who: A renaissance man who had a deep appreciation of classical culture, individualism, and humanism. What: His genius lied in the originality of his characterizations, the diversity of his plots, his understanding of human psychology, and his unsurpassed gift for language. His plays explored an enormous range of human problems and are open to an almost infinite variety of interpretations. His work reveals the impact of the new discoveries and contacts of his day. His work shows us one of the finest minds of the age grasping to come to terms with the racial and religious complexities around us. Some of his plays include Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth, and The Tempest.

William Shakespeare and some of his Plays

Who is this: Who: Women's doing this stood in direct opposition to the words ascribed to St. Paul which ordered women not to teach or preach. Argula von Grumbach was a german noblewoman who supported protestant ideas in printing. What: She wrote, "I am not unfamiliar with Paul's words that women should be silent in church but when I see that no man will or can speak, I am driven by the word of God when he said, he who confesses me on earth, his will I confess, and he who denies me, him will I deny.

Women as Preachers

Who is this: Who: The intelligence of females as they had schooling and were taught to be obedient to their husbands. What: A proper marriage was one that reflected both the spiritual equality of men and females and the proper social hierarchy of husbandly authority and wifely obedience. Females were advised to be cheerful rather that grudging in their obedience, for in doing so they demonstrated their willingness to follow God's plan. Protestants saw marriage as a contract in which each partner promised the other support, companionship, and the sharing of mutual goods. Because in Protestant eyes, marriage was created as a remedy for human weakness, marriages in which spouses did not comfort or support one another physically, materially, or emotionally endangered their own should and the surrounding community.

Women's Intellect and Education