AP Human Geography Chapter 8 - Political Geography

What are some of the key cultural differences among the Baltic states?

(Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) Most Lithuanians are Roman Catholic and speak a Baltic language. Latvians are mostly Lutheran, with a substantial Roman Catholic minority, and they speak a Baltic language. Most Estonians are Protestant (Lutheran) and speak a Uralic language related to Finnish.

Explain federal states and give an example.

- Local governments possess considerable authority to adopt their own laws. - Empower different nationalities (living in separate regions) - Example: the U.S. - Strong global trend toward federal government

(Be familiar with the chart on the top of page 289) Explain unitary states and give an example.

- Works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity - Requires effective communications with all country regions; smaller states more likely to adopt - Some multinational states adopted unitary systems so that values of one nationality can be imposed on others - Example: France has a long tradition of unitary government in which a very strong national government dominates local government decisions

Define balance of power.

A condition of roughly equal strength between opposing alliances

Why is a multinational state different from a multiethnic state?

A multinational state is a state that contains more than one ethnicity with traditions of self-determination and self-government, whereas a multiethnic state merely contains multiple ethnicities.

Define autonomy (not in the book)

A self-governing country or region; freedom from external control or influence; independence.

Define city-state

A sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. (The first states to evolve in Mesopotamia) Walls clearly delineate city boundaries, and outside the walls, the city controls agricultural land to produce food for urban residents.

Define multiethnic state

A state that contains more than one ethnicity. Because no state has a population that is 100% a single ethnicity, every state in the world is to a varying degree multiethnic.

START OF KEY ISSUE 2: Define nation-state

A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity.

Define sovereignty

A state's independence from control of its internal affairs by other states.

Define colony

A territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent.

Define fronteir

A zone where no state exercises complete political control (tangible geographic area).

How did WWI contribute to the rise of the modern state in Europe?

After World War I, which engulfed nearly all of Europe, leaders of the victorious countries met at the Versailles Peace Conference to redraw the map of Europe. Geographer Isaiah Bowman played a major role in the decisions. The goal of the Allied leaders was to divide Europe into a collection of nation-states, using language as the principle criterion for identifying ethnic groups. New states were created and the boundaries of existing states were adjusted to conform to the territory occupied by speakers of different languages.

START OF KEY ISSUE 1: Define state

An area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs. It occupies a defined territory and contains a a permanent population. Country and state are synonymous.

Define colonialism

An effort by one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on that territory.

START OF KEY ISSUE 3: Define boundary

An invisible line that marks the extent of a state's territory.

How is terrorism different from assassination or other acts of political violence?

Attacks are aimed at ordinary people rather than at military targets or political leaders. In political violence, average individuals are unintended victims rather than principal targets in most conflicts. Terrorists, however, consider all citizens responsible for the actions they oppose, so they view civilians as legitimate targets.

Briefly explain the history of Azerbaijan.

Azeris trace their roots to Turkish invaders who migrated from Central Asia in the eighth and ninth centuries and merged with the existing Persian population. An 1828 treaty allocated northern Azeri territory to Russia and southern Azeri territory to Persia (now Iran). Armenians and Azeris both have achieved long-held aspirations of forming nation-states, but after their independence from the USSR, went to war over the boundaries between them. There was a ceasefire in 1994, but numerous clashes have still occurred since then.

Explain the Cold War as an example of maintaining balance of power.

Because the power of the U.S. and the Soviet Union was so much greater than the power of all other states, the world comprised two camps, each under the influence of one of the superpowers. Other states lost the ability to tip the scales significantly in favor of one or the other superpower. Both states established military bases in other countries, and demonstrated that they would use military force if necessary to prevent an ally from becoming too independent.

Why do the five permanent members of the security council have such a significant power?

China, France, Russia, the U.K., and the U.S. can veto a peacekeeping operation.

Explain the border dispute on Cyprus.

Cyprus, in the Mediterranean Sea, contains two nationalities: Greek (63%) and Turkish (24%). Cyprus's constitution guaranteed the Turkish minority a share in government and autonomy, to an extent. However, Cyprus has never peacefully integrated the Greeks and Turks. Greece seized control in 1974, and Turkey invaded Cyprus to protect the Turkish Cypriot minority. The Greek coup leaders were removed, but the Turkish army remained on the island. The northern 36% of the island controlled by Turkey declared itself the independent Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983, only recognized by Turkey. A wall was constructed between the two areas, partly demolished three decades later.

Briefly explain the history of Georgia.

Ethnic Georgians comprise 71% of the population, Armenians 8%, etc. Georgia's cultural diversity has been a source of unrest, especially among the Ossetians and Abkhazians. During the 1990s, the Abkhazians fought for control of the NW portion of Georgia and declared Abkhazia an independent state. In 2008, the Ossetians fought a war with the Georgians that resulted in the Ossetians declaring the South Ossetia portion of Georgia to be independent.

Explain how WWII and the rise and fall of communism impacted the political map of Europe in the 20th century.

Following its defeat in WWII, Germany was divided into two states. A massive forced migration of Europeans after WWII relocated many ethnic groups into the newly separated territory of the region's various nation-states. With the end of communism, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist, and its territory became part of the German Federal Republic.

How is gerrymandering a political advantage for the party in power?

Gerrymandering allows the party in power to draw boundaries that are favorable to their candidates in the rest of the state, and to create districts inclined to elect ethnic minorities.

Explain the Cuban Missile Crisis.

In 1962, the Soviet Union secretly began to construct missile-launching sites in Cuba. President JFK went on TV to demand that the missiles be removed, and ordered a naval blockade to prevent additional Soviet material from reaching Cuba. At the U.N., after the Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin denied his country placing missiles in Cuba, U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson revealed aerial photos showing preparations for them. The Soviet Union ended the crisis by dismantling them.

Compare and contrast the breakup of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia from multinational states to nation states.

In Czechoslovakia, a multinational state was peacefully transformed in 1993 to two nation-states - Czechia (Czech Republic) and Slovakia. Slovaks comprise only 1% of Czechia's population, and vice versa. In Yugoslavia, the breakup included a peaceful conversion of Slovenia in 1991 from a republic in multinational Yugoslavia to a nation-state. However, other portions of former Yugoslavia became nation-states only after ethnic cleansing and other atrocities.

Explain the "state fragility index."

It measures the effectiveness of the government, as well as its perceived legitimacy, to govern a country. It combines several factors, including extent of regional unrest, ability of legal system to enforce contracts and property rights, level of compliance with paying taxes, and freedom to express diverse political views.

Why do many Moldovans wish to join Romania?

Moldovans are ethnically indistinguishable from Romanians, and Moldova was part of Romania until the Soviet Union seized it in 1940. When Moldova became independent in 1992, many Moldovans wished to reunify with Romania to reunify the ethnic group and to improve the region's prospects for economic development.

What are some of the challenges faced by landlocked states?

Landlocked states lack a direct outlet to sea because they are completely surrounded by several other countries. They must cooperate with neighboring states that have seaports.

Explain and provide an example of state terrorist attacks.

Libya has been an active sponsor of terrorist attacks. An example includes a a 1986 bombing of a nightclub popular with U.S. military personnel in Berlin, killing 3 people, including 1 U.S. soldier. Libya's long-time leader Muammar el-Qaddafi renounced terrorism in 2003 and provided compensation for victims of Pan Am 103, but his brutal attacks on Libyan protesters in 2011 again brought most other states of the world into active opposition to Qaddafi's regime, which was ultimately overthrown.

Briefly explain the history of the Armenian state.

Over 3,000 years ago Armenians controlled an independent kingdom in the Caucasus. Converted to Christianity in 303, they lived isolated for centuries under the rule of Turkish Muslims. A century ago, about 1 million Armenians were killed by the Turks in a genocide. After WWI the Allies created an independent state of Armenia, but it was soon swallowed by its neighbors. In 1921, Turkey and the USSR agreed to divide Armenia between them.

Explain why it is difficult to determine which state Crimea is in.

Russia took control of Crimea in 1783, and in 1921 it became an autonomous republic within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which was a republic within the Soviet Union. In 1954, the Soviet government transferred responsibility for Crimea to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was then also part of the USSR. When the Soviet Union broke up in 1991, Crimea became an autonomous republic in the Ukraine. In 2014, Russia invaded Crimea and annexed it. Most countries recognize Ukraine's sovereignty over Crimea.

Define gerrymandering.

Redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power.

How has the Russia government dealt with ethnicities within the state since the fall of the USSR?

Russia's ethnicities are clustered in two principal locations. Some are located along borders with neighboring states, while other ethnicities are clustered in the center of Russia. Russia's constitution grants autonomy over local government affairs to around two dozen of the most numerous ethnicities; local government units with a large ethnic population are allowed to designate the ethnic language as an official language in addition to Russian.

What type of region are states a good example of? Explain why.

States are a good example of a formal or uniform region because its entire area is managed by its national government, laws, army, and leaders.

Define microstate

States with very small land areas.

How did the collapse of Rome lead to the formation of many European states?

The Roman Empire controlled most of Europe and Southwest Asia and North Africa, and comprised 38 provinces. The Empire collapsed in the fifth century, and the European portion of the Empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing monarchs, dukes, barons, and other nobles. A handful of these people emerged as rulers over large numbers of these estates (1100 A.D.), and the consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a monarch or emperor formed the basis for the development of many European states such as England, France, and Spain.

How did the breakup of the USSR change the political map of Europe and Asia?

The Soviet Union (USSR) consisted of 15 republics, based on its 15 largest ethnicities. Russians comprised 51 percent of the state's population, Ukrainians 15 percent, and Uzbeks 6 percent. The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 resulted into the conversion of the 15 republics into 15 independent states, which consist of five groups: - Russia - Three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania - Three European states: Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine - Five Central Asian states: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan - Three Caucasus states: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia

START OF KEY ISSUE 4: Explain the origin of the United Nations (U.N.).

The U.N. was created at the end of WWII by the victorious Allies. The U.N. was organized in 1945 with 51 original members, including 49 sovereign states. The number of U.N. members reached 193 in 2011.

Explain and provide an example of supplying terrorists.

The U.S. has accused Iran of harboring al-Qaeda members and of trying to gain influence in Iraq, where, as in Iran, the majority of the people are Shiites. In addition, Iran has long provided funding to Hezbollah, an organization based in Lebanon that the U.S. classified as a terrorist organization because it seeks Israel's destruction.

Explain and provide an example of providing sanctuary for terrorists.

The U.S., with the cooperation of several other countries, attacked Afghanistan in 2001 when its leaders, known as the Taliban, sheltered al-Qaeda leaders, who were living in rugged mountains near Afghanistan's border with Pakistan.

Explain the principle of self-determination.

The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves. Ethnicities seek self-determination to preserve and enhance distinctive cultural characteristics.

Where did the first state arise?

The first states emerged in ancient times in Southwest Asia & North Africa (the Fertile Crescent); in modern times, the concept of a state developed first in Europe.

Explain the diverse ethnic makeup of the central Asian states.

The five states in Central Asia carved out of the former Soviet Union display varying degrees of conformance to the principles of a nation-state. Kazakhstan is a relatively peaceful multinational state divided between Kazakhs (67%) and Russians (18%). Kazakhs are Muslims who speak an Altaic language similar to Turkish. In contrast, Kyrgyzstan comprises 69% Kyrgyz, 15% Uzbek, and 9% Russian. The Kyrgyz and Uzbek are both Muslims who speak Altaic languages.

Define terrorism

The systematic use of violence by a group calculated to create an atmosphere of fear and alarm among a population or to coerce a government into actions it would not otherwise undertake or refrain from actions it wants to take.

What were the two Cold War military alliances?

a. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): a military alliance among 16 democratic states, including the U.S. and Canada plus 14 European states. b. The Warsaw Pact: a military agreement among Communist Eastern European countries. The Warsaw Pact disbanded in 1991 following the end of communism in Eastern Europe.

What are the largest remaining "non-self-governing" territories?

Western Sahara, French Polynesia, and New Caledonia.

What is the largest obstacle to this happening?

When Moldova became a Soviet republic in 1940, its eastern boundary was the Dniester River. The Soviet government transferred from Ukraine a 1,200 sq. mi. sliver of land on the east bank of the Dniester. The majority of this sliver of land's inhabitants are Ukrainian and Russian, and oppose Moldova reuniting with Romania.

Be able to name several microstates.

World's smallest microstate: The Vatican (0.17 sq. mi.) Second-smallest and smallest member of U.N.: Monaco (0.6 sq. mi.) U.N. Member states smaller than 400 sq. mi.: - Andorra - Barbados - Micronesia - Singapore - Grenada

Describe at least one terrorist attack from each of the following decades: a. 1980s b. 1990s c. 2000s d. 2010s

a. 12/21/88: A terrorist bomb destroyed Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 aboard, plus 11 on the ground. b. 2/26/93: A car bomb parked in the underground parking garage damaged the World Trade Center, killing 6 and injuring about 1,000. c. 10/12/00: The USS Cole was bombed while in the port of Aden, Yemen, killing 17 U.S. service personnel. d. 4/15/13: Two bombs were detonated near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing 3 and injuring more than 180.

Explain the three instances when membership in the U.N. increased dramatically.

a. 1955: 16 countries joined, mostly European countries that had been liberated from Nazi Germany during WWII. b. 1960: 17 new members, 16 of which were a former British or French African colony. c. 1990-1993: 2 countries were added, primarily due to the breakup of the USSR and Yugoslavia, as well as the admission of several microstates.

Provide two examples of how the E.U. promotes economic and political cooperation.

a. A European Parliament is elected by the people in each of the member states simultaneously. b. Subsidies are provided to farmers and to economically depressed regions.

What are the two ways states can organize their local governments?

a. A unitary state places most power in the hands of central government officials. b. A federal state allocates strong power to units of local government within the country.

Take notes on the following other alliances. a. Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe b. Organization of American States c. African Union d. Commonwealth

a. OSCE: - 57 members include U.S., Canada, Russia, all of Europe, and states that were part of the USSR - Founded in 1975; originally composed mostly of Western European countries and played only a limited role - End of Cold War in 1990s made OSCE more active forum for countries concerned with ending conflicts in Europe, especially in the Balkans and Caucasus b. OAS: - Consists of all 35 states in Western Hemisphere - Promotes social, cultural, political, and economic links among member states - Cuba is a member but suspended from most activities since 1962; in the process of reintegration into OAS activities c. AU: - Established in 2002; encompasses 54 African countries - Replaced earlier organization called Organization of African Unity (est. 1963 to seek end to colonialism and apartheid in Africa) - Places emphasis on promoting economic integration in Africa d. Commonwealth: - Includes U.k. and 52 other states that were once British colonies (Australia, Canada, India, Pakistan, etc.) - Seek economic and cultural cooperation

What are the three ways in which states can provide support for terrorists?

a. Providing sanctuary for terrorists wanted by other countries b. Supplying weapons, money, and intelligence to terrorists c. Planning attacks using terrorists

Take notes on the terrorist organizations below. Be sure to include their goals as well as some of their actions. a. Al-Qaeda b. ISIS c. Boko Haram

a. Al-Qaeda: - Founded around 1990 by Osama bin Laden - United several groups of fighters in Afghanistan, as well as supporters elsewhere in Southwest Asia - Support the fight against Soviet Army in mid-1980s - Issued a declaration of war against the U.S. in 1996 because of U.S. support for Saudi Arabia and Israel - Bin Laden advised by small leadership council - Encompasses original organization, local franchises concerned with country-specific issues, and ideological imitators - Recently, most active affiliate in Yemen b. ISIS: - Originated in 1999, became affiliate of al-Qaeda in 2004 (split in 2014 due to lack of agreement on cooperation and consultation) - Sunni Muslims who seek to impose strict religious laws throughout Southwest Asia - Maintain control of territory through human rights violations; beheading, massacres, and torture - Claims authority to rule Muslims globally - Recruits members through Internet; showing beheadings and destruction of historical shrines - Controls much of northern Iraq and eastern Syria - Launched attacks in Europe c. Boko Haram: - Founded in 2002 in northeastern Nigeria - Seeks to transform Nigeria into an Islamic state - Opposes adoption of Western cultural practices, especially by Christians in the south of the country - 1st 7 years: peacefully ran a religious complex and school that attracted poor Muslim families - Violent uprising in July 2009 resulted in arrest of hundreds of followers and death of founder Mohammed Yusuf - 600 members broke out of prison in 2010 - Leader Abubakar Shekau initially aligned group with al-Qaeda, but in 2014 allied with ISIS - Now calls itself Islamic State's West Africa Province - Uses social media to promote views

Take notes on the 5 shapes of states (notes and examples). a. Compact b. Elongated c. Prorupted d. Perforated e. Fragmented

a. Compact: - Distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. - Ideally circle-shaped. - Beneficial for smaller states; easy communication b. Elongated: - Long and narrow shape - Ex. Chile; N-S over 2,500 miles, E-W 90 miles. - Suffer from poor internal communications - Region located at an extreme end of an elongation might be isolated from the capital, which is usually placed near the center c. Prorupted: - An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension - Proruptions created to provide a state with access to a resource, such as water, and to separate two states that would otherwise share a boundary - Democratic Republic of Congo has a 300-mile westward proruption along the Zaire River; Belgians created this to give colony access to the Atlantic d. Perforated: - A state that completely surrounds another one - Surrounded state may face problems of dependence on, or interference from, the surrounding state - Ex. South Africa completely surrounds state of Lesotho, which must depend almost entirely on SA for import and export of goods e. Fragmented: - Includes several discontinuous pieces of territory - Two kinds: those separated by water, and those separated by an intervening state - Both face problems associated with communications and maintaining national unity - Tanzania is a fragmented state separated by water

Explain the three types of boundaries.

a. Cultural boundaries follow the distribution of cultural features. b. Geometric boundaries are based on human constructs, such as straight lines. c. Physical boundaries coincide with significant features of the natural landscape.

What are the three types of national governments? Explain them.

a. Democracy: a country in which citizens elect leaders and can run for office. b. Autocracy: a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people. c. Anocracy: a country that is not fully democratic or autocratic but displays a mix of the two types.

What are the three physical features that serve as physical boundaries? Provide an example of each.

a. Desert boundaries: deserts are hard to cross and sparsely inhabited. Ex: The Sahara is a physical and geometric boundary separating Algeria, Libya, and Egypt from Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and the Sudan. b. Mountain boundaries: permanent and sparsely inhabited, difficult to cross. Ex: Andes Mountains separate Argentina and Chile. c. Water boundaries: rivers, lakes, and oceans. Ex. Boundary separating the Congo and Uganda runs through Lake Albert.

What were the two Cold War European economic alliances?

a. European Union (E.U.): formed in 1958 with six members; designed to heal scars from WWII, which had ended only 13 years prior. b. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON): formed in 1949 with six members in 1960. Designed to promote trade and sharing of natural resources in Communist Eastern Europe. Disbanded in 1991.

Explain the difficulty of defining the state in each of the examples. a. Korea b. China/Taiwan c. Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands d. Sahrawi Republic/Western Sahara

a. Korea: - Korean peninsula divided between North Korea (The Democratic People's Republic of Korea) and South Korea (the Republic of Korea) - Korea divided into two by the U.S. and former Soviet Union after they defeated Japan in World War II - Soviet Union installed pro-Communist government in the North; pro-U.S. government established in the South - North Korea invaded South in 1950 - 3-year war ended in ceasefire - Both governments want to create one sovereign state, but both want to control over all of Korean peninsula - North Korea has nuclear weapons b. China/Taiwan: - People's Republic of China (China) and Republic of China (Taiwan) considered separate and sovereign by most other countries - Taiwan and China agree that Taiwan is not sovereign but a part of China. - Late 1940s: Chinese civil war between Nationalists and Communists; Nationalists lost in 1949 and fled to Taiwan - Nationalists proclaimed themselves rulers of all of China, or at the very least Taiwan - Americans supported Nationalists until 1970s c. Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands: - China, Taiwan, and Japan all claim sovereignty over these islands in the East China Sea - Japan controlled islands since 1895 (except for 1945-72; U.S. controlled islands after defeating Japan in WWII) - China and Taiwan claim that islands belonged to China until Japan illegally seized them in 1895 - Japan claims that China did not exercise sovereignty over islands when Japan claimed them - Air zones established with conflicting boundaries d. Sahrawi Republic/Western Sahara: - Western Sahara widely considered to be a sovereign state - Morocco claims territory and has built a 1700-mile wall around it to keep out rebels - Morocco claimed entire territory after Mauritania withdrew from annexed portions - Morocco controls most of populated area, but the Polisario Front operates in the deserts

What are the two types of government every state will have?

a. National government b. Local government

Explain two geometric boundaries.

a. North America: - Northern U.S. boundary with Canada - 1,300 mile straight line along 49° north latitude - Established through series of treaties between 1783 and 1903 between the U.S. and the U.K., which then controlled Canada. b. North Africa: - North: Boundaries between Algeria, Libya, and Egypt - South: Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan - Many boundaries are a legacy of treaties among European countries to divide up most of Africa into colonies

Why are the following places NOT colonies, according to the U.N.? a. Puerto Rico b. Greenland c. Hong Kong and Macao

a. Puerto Ricans are citizens of the U.S., but they do not vote in elections or have a voting member of Congress. b. Greenland is an autonomous unit within Denmark. Greenland runs its internal affairs, but Denmark controls foreign affairs and defense. c. Hong Kong was a colony of the U.K. until it returned to China in 1997, and in 1998 Portugal returned its colony of Macao. The two have some autonomy in economic matters, but China controls foreign affairs and defense.

Explain the three types of water boundaries according to the law of the sea.

a. Territorial waters: Up to 14 miles from shore, a state may set laws regulating passage by ships registered in other states. b. Contiguous zone: 12-24 nautical miles from shore, a state may enforce laws concerning pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration. c. Exclusive economic zone: 24-200 nautical miles from shore, a state has the sole right to the fish and other marine life.

What were the two largest colonial powers and where were some of their holdings?

a. The U.K. planted colonies on every continent, including much of eastern and southern Africa, South Asia, the Middle East, Australia, and Canada. b. France had most of its overseas territory in West Africa and Southeast Asia. France attempted to assimilate its colonies into French culture and educate an elite group to provide local administrative leadership.

Explain two types of a religious boundary.

a. The most notable religious boundary is in South Asia, when the British partitioned India into two states on the basis of religion. (Muslim portions to Pakistan; Hindu portions became India) Religion was also used to draw the boundary between two states on the island of Eire. b. Language is an important cultural characteristic for drawing boundaries, especially in Europe. France, Portugal, and Spain coalesced around distinctive languages before the nineteenth century.

Why is the world becoming more democratic?

a. The replacement of increasingly irrelevant and out-of-touch monarchies with elected governments that broaden individual rights and liberties. b. The widening of participation in policy making to all citizens through rights to vote and to serve in government. c. The diffusion of democratic government structures created in Europe and North America to other regions

Explain the three basic reasons for European colonialism

a. To promote Christianity b. To extract useful resources and to serve as captive markets for their products c. To establish relative power through the number of colonies claimed

What are the distinctive characteristics of terrorism?

a. Trying to achieve objectives through organized acts that spread fear and anxiety, such as bombing, kidnapping, hijacking, taking of hostages, and assassination. b. Viewing violence as a means of bringing widespread publicity to goals and grievances that are not being addressed through peaceful means. c. Believing in a cause so strongly that they do not hesitate to attack despite knowing that they will probably die in the act.

Explain the three forms of gerrymandering.

a. Wasted vote: opposition supporters are spread across many districts but in the minority b. Excess vote: opposition supporters are concentrated into a few districts c. Stacked vote: Distinct areas of like-minded voters are linked through oddly shaped boundaries