AP Review Materials Unit 8: 20th-Century Global Conflicts

Explain the consequences of Stalin's economic policies and totalitarian rule in the Soviet Union

1) After Lenin's death, Stalin undertook a centralized program of rapid economic modernization, often with severe repercussions for the population. 2) Stalin's economic modernization of the Soviet Union came at a high price, including the liquidation of the kulaks (the land-owning peasantry) and other perceived enemies of the state, devastating famine in the Ukraine, purges of political rivals, and, ultimately, the creation of an oppressive political systemIn order to improve economic performance.

American and British industrial, scientific, and technological power, cooperative military efforts under the strong leadership of individuals such as Winston Churchill, the resistance of civilians, and the all-out military commitment of the USSR contributed critically to the Allied victories

1) American and British industrial, scientific, and technological power: •Churchill's response to Hitler's declaration of war on US: "We have won the war!" Even with Great Depression, U.S. was largest industrial power in world: Mustang, B-17 Flying Fortress, Sherman tank, amphibious assault boats, atomic bomb. •Britain won Battle of Britain partly because better planes (Spitfire), radar, & broke German secret code. •USSR: "battle of machines" making 78,000 tanks. •2) Cooperative military efforts: US, USSR, & Britain. 1st target: Nazis. US helped supply Allies. Political differences set aside. •3) Strong leadership. •Winston Churchill: sustained British morale. Inspirational. Refused to surrender & compromise with Hitler. "Never Surrender" Speech. 4) Resistance of civilians against Nazis. • a) sabotage, assassinations, spying •b) governments in exile: Example of Free French led by inspirational Charles de Gaulle against Vichy and Nazi occupation of France. •c) Yugoslavia's leader Tito formed partisan army of 250,000 fought Germans in battles. 5) All out military commitment of USSR: •a) USSR did not surrender even when Hitler within 25 miles of Moscow, Nazis captured 2 million Soviet soldiers, city of Leningrad under siege for over 500 days. •b) Two out of every five persons killed in WW2 were Soviet citizens: 10 million soldiers, 19 million civilians. Much less consumer goods. Food consumption down by 40%. •c) 1943: city of Stalingrad under Nazi siege to actually being under Soviet siege. Soviets captured an entire German army (300,000 men). Major turning point. •d) 1943: Battle of Kursk. 9000 tanks. Germany loses 18 tank divisions. •USSR decimated best Nazi divisions. •After Stalingrad & Kursk, Soviets begin relentless march westward.

Explain how and why various political and ideological factors resulted in the catastrophe of World War II

1) French and British fears of another war, American isolationism, and deep distrust between Western democratic, capitalist nations and the authoritarian, communist Soviet Union allowed fascist states to rearm and expand their territory. 2) In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization

•Explain how and why cultural and national identities were affected by war and the rise of fascist/totalitarian powers in the period from 1914 to the present.

1) Fueled by racism and anti-Semitism, Nazi Germany—with the cooperation of some of the other Axis powers and collaborationist governments—sought to establish a "new racial order" in Europe, which culminated with the Holocaust. 2) World War II decimated a generation of Russian and German men; virtually destroyed European Jewry; resulted in the murder of millions in other groups targeted by the Nazis including Roma, homosexuals, people with disabilities, and others; forced large-scale migrations; and undermined prewar class hierarchies.

•: Explain how technology and innovation affected the course of World War II and the 20th century.

1) Germany's Blitzkrieg warfare in Europe, combined with Japan's attacks in Asia and the Pacific, brought the Axis powers early victories. 2) American and British industrial, scientific, and technological power, cooperative military efforts under the strong leadership of individuals such as Winston Churchill, the resistance of civilians, and the all-out military commitment of the USSR contributed critically to the Allied victories. 3) Military technologies made possible industrialized warfare, genocide, nuclear proliferation, and the risk of global nuclear war.

Explain how the developments of World War I changed political and diplomatic interactions between and among nations.

1) The war in Europe quickly spread to non-European theaters, transforming the war into a global conflict. 2) The relationship of Europe to the world shifted significantly with the globalization of the conflict, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and the overthrow of European empires. 3) The effects of military stalemate, national mobilization, and total war led to protest and insurrection in the belligerent nations and eventually to revolutions that changed the international balance of power.

Dependence on post-World War I American investment capital led to financial collapse when, following the 1929 stock market crash, the United States cut off capital flows to Europe.

1)•Tremendous economic interdependency. Dawes Plan tied European economies to American loans to Germany. 2) American stock market crashed on October 29, 1929 led American investors to withdraw funds from German banks so no money to loan. 3) Unemployment rose. 4) Reparation not paid by Germany to Britain and France. Europe and world slipped into the Great Depression.

Explain the causes of WWI

1. caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term factors. 2. militarism, alliances, imperial competition, and nationalism (M.A.I.N.) —turned a regional dispute in the Balkans into World War I.

How WWI caused protest and Insurrections and revolutions outside of Russia

1917: Another failed French offensive on Western Front Effect of 1917 stalemate: half of French divisions mutinied & 21,000 deserted. •1918: Meanwhile, failure of Germany's 1918 Spring Offensive resulted in mutinies in Germany. Kaiser flees and Socialists proclaim German Republic. Political capital Weimar aka Weimar Republic. German government ask for armistice/truce on 11/11/1918. •Then, Revolution in Germany aka November Revolution. Social Democrats split: most want GRADUAL reform (moderates) vs. immediate reform. The latter are Communists who become German Communist Party. Leaders: Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg (f.). •1919, launch Spartacists Revolt aka January Revolution. German Communists aka Spartacists. Moderate socialists in SPD turn to army & volunteers (Free Corps) to crush revolt. Liebknecht & Luxembourg shot. Results: German army still influential & middle class fear communists.

•Fearing another war & with no American help, Britain & France follow appeasement:

Characteristics of appeasement: •1) Give-in to Hitler's little demands so as to avoid war. •2) for British Prime Minister Chamberlain, Hitler seemed reasonable: revive nation, rebuild nation's military equal to other states, & Germans united into one state. •How did appeasement occur? •1938: Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland had 3 million German speakers. Hitler massed troops on border. War imminent. •Munich Agreement between Br, Fr, G. & I. Br. & Fr. ordered Czechs to give up Sudetenland which is appeasement. Result: Hitler sees western democracies weak & unwilling to fight, so he orders generals to prepare for invasion of Poland.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany's military plan to avoid a two-front war in WW1. •Russian industrialization lagged, so Germany's generals thought there would be slow advance of Russians to German border. This provided the opportunity time to knock out the French first, then race to Russian border to meet attacking Russians. Goal: avoid two-front war. •To quickly defeat French, Germany must attack neutral Belgium despite Britain's guarantee. Here the Germans would make encircling arc around French armies and force them to surrender. •Problems: Britain drawn into war & Russia arrived at German border much earlier. Both actions weakened Germany's attack on France which failed.

In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization

Hitler's Goals: •1) European racial empire with Aryans (Germans) at top. •2) empire needed land to grow & expand, aka lebensraum, in East. Per Hitler, Slavs (who live in the East) were an inferior race & must be slaves. •3) rid world of "culture destroyers": Jews & gypsies. •4) to achieve these goals, he had to free German from constraints of Treaty of Versailles •a) which could only be achieved by defeating France •b) if France was defeated, then Britain would then want peace with Germany.

Wilsonian idealism clashed with postwar realities in both the victorious and the defeated states.

Idealism seen with Woodrow Wilson's... 1) Fourteen Points. New diplomatic order: open diplomacy, no secret treaties, freedom of seas, arms reduction, national self-determination, & collective security. 2) slogans "making the world safe for democracy" & "the war to end all wars." Britain, France, & Italy wanted to punish Germany

Mussolini and Hitler rose to power by exploiting postwar bitterness and economic instability, using terror, and manipulating the fledgling and unpopular democracies in their countries.

Interwar Years' Roots of Fascism: •1) Bitterness over WWI. A) Italy not gain land worth 700,000 dead, unprecedented wartime expenses. Cheated myth. Middle class weakened by inflation. Numerous unemployed disillusioned veterans. B) Germany. Lost military might. Reparations. War guilt clause. No national self-determination. •2) Polarization of politics hurt moderate centrist political parties. Extreme parties↑: communists & fascists. Ex: fascism in Italy (1920s) & USSR promoting communism. •3) Uncertain transitions to democracy. Economic problems alienated middle class from supporting parliamentary democracy. Germany: hyperinflation hurt support for Weimar Republic. Italian & German middle classes feared working class' communism. 4) Great Depression caused severe unemployment in Germany which led to support for Nazism among middle class.

Nationalism as long-term cause of WW1

No brakes on nationalism since no Concert of Europe. Overall, intense rivalries among nation states. 1) France vs Germany over Alsace-Lorraine. Revenge! 2) Britain vs. Germany over Anglo-German Naval Rivalry & Imperialism in Africa. 3) Austria-Hungary vs. Russia over the Balkans. Balkan tinderbox: national minorities in Balkans want own states. Russia behind Pan-Slavism. •Each nation-state saw self as sovereign so answer to no one. •Politics of brinksmanship: push disagreement to near war. •Social Darwinism: war necessary struggle to keep nation fit. Thus, nationalists believed war was inevitable

Military and worker insurrections, aided by the revived Soviets, undermined the Provisional Government and set the stage for Lenin's long-planned Bolshevik Revolution and establishment of a communist state.

Provisional government formed by middle class liberals till Constituent Assembly voted in. Unfortunately decided to keep Russia in the war which cost it much public support. Competing authority were the Soviets or Councils of Workers and Soldiers Deputies. More radical in its demands. •Bolsheviks were marxists Leader was Vladimir Lenin then in exile in Switzerland. •Lenin's Ideas: •A) April Theses. Don't follow Marx's plan. Soviets should now overthrow provisional government → communism. •B) Lenin's slogans: 1) Peace, Land, Bread. 2) Worker Control of Production. 3) All Power to the Soviets. C)•Lenin wants Russia out of WWI. He will return with German help, and he will overthrow Provisional Government. Communists will enact massive reforms after the fall of Provisional Government: 1)Nationalized: all land & all factories under control of committees. Not private. •2) Social reform for women. Marriage: civil act. Divorce legalized. Equality. Abortions. Russia gets out of WWI. Treaty of Brest Litovsk signed with Germany. •NOTE: 1) Bolsheviks arose because of the harms of capitalism. 2) Communists pursue massive government involvement in the economy. They ended private property & stopped capitalism. The Russian Revolution will impact the balance of power in Europe

Explain the causes and effects of the global economic crisis in the 1920s and 1930s.

The Great Depression, caused by weaknesses in international trade and monetary theories and practices, undermined Western European democracies and fomented radical political responses throughout Europe. 1) A World War I debt, nationalistic tariff policies, overproduction, depreciated currencies, disrupted trade patterns, and speculation created weaknesses in economies worldwide. 2) Dependence on post-World War I American investment capital led to financial collapse when, following the 1929 stock market crash, the United States cut off capital flows to Europe. 3) Despite attempts to rethink economic theories and policies and forge political alliances, Western democracies failed to overcome the Great Depression and were weakened by extremist movements.

Explain the causes and effects of the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Revolution created a regime based on Marxist-Leninist theory. 1) In Russia, World War I exacerbated long-term problems of political stagnation, social inequality, incomplete industrialization, and food and land distribution, all while creating support for revolutionary change. 2) Military and worker insurrections, aided by the revived Soviets, undermined the Provisional Government and set the stage for Lenin's long-planned Bolshevik Revolution and establishment of a communist state. 3) The Bolshevik takeover prompted a protracted civil war between communist forces and their opponents, who were aided by foreign powers. 4) In order to improve economic performance, Lenin compromised communist principles and employed some free-market principles under the New Economic Policy.

Explain the factors that led to the development of fascist and totalitarian regimes in the aftermath of World War I.

The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre-World War I era, gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise of communism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic instability. 1) Fascist dictatorships used modern technology and propaganda that rejected democratic institutions, promoted charismatic leaders, and glorified war and nationalism to attract the disillusioned. 2) Mussolini and Hitler rose to power by exploiting postwar bitterness and economic instability, using terror, and manipulating the fledgling and unpopular democracies in their countries. 3) Franco's alliance with Italian and German fascists in the Spanish Civil War—in which the Western democracies did not intervene—represented a testing ground for World War II and resulted in authoritarian rule in Spain from 1936 to the mid-1970s. 4) After failures to establish functioning democracies, authoritarian dictatorships took power in central and eastern Europe during the interwar period.

Examples of Battles of WWI where technology confounded traditional military strategies and led to trench warfare and massive troop losses.

•1) First Battle of Marne (August 1914) French airplane spotted gap among German armies. The French attacked→Germany stopped & retreated. Schlieffen Plan failed→two-front war. • After First Battle of Marne, trench warfare & machine gun made traditional massive infantry assaults useless & bloody: 10 million soldiers died. •Trenches, no man's land, stalemate, failed attempts at breakthrough. •By the way, in East: war movement. 2.5 million Russians killed, captured or wounded. •2) Battle of Verdun. Battle of attrition between France and Germany: "bleed themselves white". Machine guns, high-powered artillery, poison gas, barbed wire, underground forts. Heavy artillery→shell shock. 11 months→1.1. million casualties. Stalemate. Balance of power held in check. •3) Battle of Somme: British effort to relieve pressure on Verdun. 1 million killed.

•At the end of World War I, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's principle of national self-determination raised expectations in the non-European world for new policies and freedoms.

•1) Ho Chi Minh went to Versailles but was rebuffed. He will be future leader of Vietnam. •2) Pan-African Congress called for more autonomy. •3) Indians want more independence. Gandhi's nonviolence aka civil disobedience. Some concessions by Britain. •4) Africa: a) nominal independence for Egypt. b) WWI wetted appetite for independence. •Britain and France: no representation nor democracy for colonies.

Fueled by racism and anti-Semitism, Nazi Germany—with the cooperation of some of the other Axis powers and collaborationist governments—sought to establish a "new racial order" in Europe, which culminated with the Holocaust.

•1) Nazi Racial Pyramid. The higher you were, the better your treatment. At top: Aryans aka Germans. Below them: Those considered to be Aryan-like: Scandinavians. Below them: English, French because distant Germanic blood. At bottom: Untermensch/sub-humans: Slavs, Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals 2) •Goal of Hitler: Lebensraum in the East. •a) Nazi racial policy put into effect as early as Poland's fall. Poles were Slavs and had to be liquidated Why? to make room for Germans to occupy Polish and other Slavic lands for the Germans to colonize. Two million ethnic Germans moved into Poland on lands seized from Poles. •With early successes in USSR, Hitler thought of using Slavs as slave labor. Done via SS under Himler. •b) Economic exploitation: •Took raw materials, machines, and food. •Natives only had bare amount to survive. •c) Forced labor: •German males fighting in army, so foreign workers brought it or forced to work in Germany. Seven million brought in. Another seven million working outside Germany worked to supply the Nazis. 3) Collaborationist Governments: • a) Romania: One of most brutal pogroms in history. 400,000 Jews killed by own government. •b) Hungary: 565,000 Jews murdered. Largest during Holocaust •c) Lithuania: out of 210,000 Jews, only 15,000 survived •d) Vichy France. Only territory in Europe in which local authorities deported Jews without the presence of German occupying forces. 76,000 deported to Nazi death camps. 2,500 survived.

The effects of military stalemate, national mobilization, and total war led to protest and insurrection in the belligerent nations and eventually to revolutions that changed the international balance of power.

•1) Stalemate is no progress for either side. •All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque (male) about fighting during stalemate. 2) National mobilization. a) Germany had Auxiliary Service Law: all males 17 to 60 must work in jobs crucial to war effort. •b) conscription across Europe, even in Britain. c)propaganda campaigns to keep up morale.Cause: stalemate and subsequent morale↓ 3) Total War. Caused by war being prolonged due to stalemate. Involved Home front. War fought not just on the battlefield. •Effects of total war. a)Centralized government↑ b) WWI led to Ottoman suspicions of the Armenian ethnic minority. 1.5 million disappeared: executions and left to die in desert. •c) Growing public unrest→police powers↑. Defense of Realm Act (Br.): arrested dissenters & censorship. France: suppressed civil liberties. Revolutions arose in Russia and Germany

Explain how the events of the first half of the 20th century challenged existing social, cultural, & intellectual understandings

•1) The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th-century thought began to break down before World War I. 2) When World War I began, Europeans were generally confident in the ability of science and technology to address human needs and problems despite the uncertainty created by the new scientific theories and psychology. 3) The challenge to the certainties of the Newtonian universe in physics opened the door to uncertainty in other fields by undermining faith in objective knowledge while also providing the knowledge necessary for the development of nuclear weapons and power. 4) World War I created a "lost generation" and fostered disillusionment and cynicism, while it transformed the lives of women, and democratized societies. 5) During the world wars, women became increasingly involved in military and political mobilization, as well as in economic production.

Fascist dictatorships used modern technology and propaganda that rejected democratic institutions, promoted charismatic leaders, and glorified war and nationalism to attract the disillusioned.

•1) Use of modern mass propaganda & high-speed modern communications via radio & newsreels. Goal of conquering hearts & minds of citizens. Nazi film: Triumph of the Will. • 2) charismatic leaders. Benito Mussolini, aka Il Duce, in Italy. Adolf Hitler, aka Fuhrer, in Germany. 3) Manipulated fledgling and unpopular democratic. Both Mussolini and Hitler legally took power then LEGALLY removed all opposition as they centralized power. Hitler took advantage of Reichstag Fire to get Decree for the Protection of the German People and Enabling Act which enabled the Nazi's to make laws without going through the German parliament (Reichstag). 4) Glorified war. Use of violence with thugs. German fascists (Nazis) had S.A. & S.S. Italian fascists had Squadristi. All appealed to war veterans suffering from disillusionment. Secret police for both: OVRA and Gestapo. 5) nationalism. Fascists wanted to expand to historical frontiers of the nation. For Italy that meant Roman Empire of ancient times.

World War I debt, nationalistic tariff policies, overproduction, depreciated currencies, disrupted trade patterns, and speculation created weaknesses in economies worldwide.

•1) World War I debt. Not paid by raising taxes. Instead, Allies relied on German reparations. •2) nationalistic tariff policies blocked worldwide trade i.e. for Germany so Germany relied on American loans via Dawes Plan. •3) overproduction. Iron and steel prices ↓ supply more than demand. Agricultural prices too. •4) depreciated currencies. During war, countries made currencies weaker so goods more affordable for foreign countries. Result: currencies weaker. •5) disrupted trade patterns. During WWI, markets lost to US & Australia. No change after war. •6) economic interdependency because of global trade.

Despite attempts to rethink economic theories and policies and forge political alliances, Western democracies failed to overcome the Great Depression and were weakened by extremist movements

•1)Economic Effect→ economic inequality •2) Social Effect.: social fabric breaking down Imagine impact of Hitler's messages of better world. •3) Political Effect. Futile government efforts. Traditional remedies (balancing budgets, lowering wages, & raising tariffs) NOT working. •Results: •a) Weimar Republic (Western democracy) crippled & weakened by extremist movements like Nazis. •b) popularity rose of extremist ideologies: communism & fascism. •c) France Popular Front. Weakened.

The war in Europe quickly spread to non-European theaters, transforming the war into a global conflict.

•1915, Ottoman Empire joined Central Powers. It was a multi-continental empire in Asia and Europe. •Battle of Gallipoli (Asia): British, New Zealand, & Australian heavy casualties. Attack failed. •In Middle East, Lawrence of Arabia led Arabs & British troops against Ottoman Empire. Muslim fundamentalists vs. Turks. Arab nationalism↑. •In Africa, German colonial forces fought British colonial forces. •British troops from India, Australia, and New Zealand. French colonial troops came from West Africa and Vietnam. Result: political consciousness of colonial troops↑ . The relationship of Europe to the world shifted significantly with the globalization of the conflict, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and the overthrow of European empires

The relationship of Europe to the world shifted significantly with the globalization of the conflict, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and the overthrow of European empires.

•1915: Woodrow Wilson angry over unrestricted submarine warfare against Lusitania. •1917: Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. •1917: Zimmerman telegram. •1917: Russian Revolution, Czar overthrown. Democratic Provisional Gov't, so Wilson could fight war for democracy. •April 1917: US declares war on Central Powers & joins Allies. •WWI's effects on Europe's relationship to world: •1) US entrance = Europe needed American help. US →world power. •2) Gallipoli and Middle East: outside Europe impacting Europe.

Fascist Rearmament & Expansion

•1933: Hitler leaves League of Nations & Geneva Disarmament Conference. •1935: Hitler breaks armaments aspects of Treaty of Versailles. Rearms Germany. •1935: Mussolini invades Ethiopia. No collective security by League of Nations for Ethiopia! League of Nations widely seen as weal and ineffective. •1936: Nazi Remilitarization of Rhineland. Clear violation of Treaty of Versailles but nothing done to stop Hitler since France had no help from Britain. •1936-39, in Spanish Civil War, Hitler and Mussolini improve weapons. •By 1936, Germany becomes a world power. •1936: Rome-Berlin Axis. Military alliance. Agreed that Germany will get to take land in east while Italy gets Mediterranean & Balkans. •1936: Anti-Comintern Pact, (Anti-Communist): alliance of Germany and Japan. •1938: Anschluss (union) of Germany & Austria. Another clear violation of Treaty of Versailles that was not opposed since France had no help from Britain.

August 1939, Molotov-Ribbentrop Non-Aggression Pact between Germany & USSR.

•Between Germany and U.S.S.R. Germany & Russia would not attack each other. Thus, German attack on Poland would not lead to war with Russia, so Hitler could focus on defeating Poland. In other words, this agreement assured that Germany would NOT have a two-front war. •Also, signed second & secret pact agreeing to divide Poland between them. Six days later, Hitler invaded Poland,

•The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre-World War I era, gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise of communism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic instability.

•Causes for fascism: Pre-WWI •1) Irrational ideologies grew because of mass politics and its fixation on nationalism & intellectual trends like Nietzsche's. •2) Political anti-Semitism. Dreyfus Affair. Karl Lueger. •3) Anarchism glorified violence. •4) New imperialism contributed to rabid nationalism. •5) Misapplication of Darwin's idea of struggle by Herbert Spencer & Social Darwinism. Led to justifying domination of those deemed weaker. •Roots in WWI centralization of state: Powers of state↑ with regimentation/control over life: rationing, censorship, propaganda, & mobilization. •Roots in problems emanating from WWI. •1) Mass electorate distrusting democracy & moving to more radicalized politics. Growing appeal of fascism & communism. •2) Social class anxiety. WWI labor concessions resulted in stronger working class. Middle class became weaker economically during WWI & would fear rising power of working class. •3) Social anxiety about gender. Fewer men for women. Women lost jobs to men after war. Push for women to return home to boost declining populations. •Deepening social conflict due to Great Depression. Feelings of victimization. First by war. Then, from Great Depression with socioeconomic conditions that seemed beyond control such as lack of American investment. Economic instability.

The League of Nations, created to prevent future wars, was weakened from the outset by the nonparticipation of major powers, including the U.S., Germany, and the Soviet Union.

•Compromise with League of Nations. Wilson gave-up most 14 Points for League. •League had NO ARMY. Only tool to achieve collective security was economic embargo. •America returned to isolationism, so U.S. not in League of Nations. Feared military commitment in Europe. •Fear of communism kept out USSR. •Fear of Germany kept out Weimar Republic. •France embittered & alone. Fearing Germany, France rejected disarmament & used coercion. France formed Little Entente with successor states against U.S.S.R.

•World War I created a "lost generation" and fostered disillusionment and cynicism, while it transformed the lives of women, and democratized societies.

•Despair and disillusionment with Western values. Before WWI, unease only among intellectuals, after WWI, appeared among the masses. •Veterans were in a lost generation. Conditioned to be highly removed from concern for humanity; instead adored extreme violence & brutality; violence of WWI justified use of violence in 1920s & 1930s. •All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque: book 1928; film 1930. Document "Dulce et Decorum Est" Desire for change after WWI led to more calls for greater democracy in the West. Evident with universal suffrage across Europe, loss of prestige for nobles, and women achieving suffrage (except in France and Italy)

Militarism as long-term cause of WWI

•Growth of large military forces from conscription→largest armies in modern Europe. France & Germany: 900,000 man armies each by 1914. •Navies too. Ex: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry with Dreadnought. Sense of militarism: a desire to build up one's military and a willingness to use one's military to resolve conflicts. Also included NO flexibility, mobilization not partial due to entangling alliances.

Alliance system as long-term cause of WW1

•Heightened tensions →led to extreme mistrust and hatred which led to formation of alliances to maintain security. •1) Triple Entente: France, Britain, and Russia. •2) Dual Alliance: Germany & Austria-Hungary. Result: blank check and the ultimatum. •3) Serbia & ally Russia. •Result: When Russia in war, so too ally France. When Austria-Hungary in war, so too ally Germany. Hence, entangling alliances.

•The challenge to the certainties of the Newtonian universe in physics opened the door to uncertainty in other fields by undermining faith in objective knowledge while also providing the knowledge necessary for the development of nuclear weapons and power.

•Heroic Age of Physics. By 1940s groundwork laid for atomic bomb. Continuation of work done before WWI. •At same time, predictability of all phenomena being challenged. Werner Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: cannot determine path of electron, became new worldview. Uncertainty at the root of all physical laws.

After failures to establish functioning democracies, authoritarian dictatorships took power in central and eastern Europe during the interwar period.

•In 1920s, many democratic successor states became authoritarian: state not responsible to people but still not totalitarian. Occurred in Central and Eastern Europe between Germany & USSR except Czechoslovakia. Authoritarian also Greece, Bulgaria, & Romania. •Why authoritarianism? Little experience with democracy. Small middle class. Rural and agrarian states, no industrial working class. Fear of communists. •Why NOT Czechoslovakia? Middle class. Liberal traditions. Strong industrial base.

After Lenin's death,...

•In principle, collective leadership using democratic centralism: decision making made at top (Politburo), then policies carried out below, so more discussion. Completely different from soviets during Revolution. In reality, USSR had one man rule or dictatorship. •Lenin stroke & died in 1924. Power struggle over succession. Left Communists (Trotsky) rapid industrialization & world revolution. Right Communists against world revolution, for "socialism in one country" (IN RUSSIA), no rapid industrialization; use NEP. •Rivalry between Trotsky & Stalin. General Secretary Stalin aka Comrade Index Card. Stalin won. Trotsky expelled from Communist Party, then Right Communists→1929 Stalin in theory totalitarian dictator.

Short-term Cause of WWI

•June 1914: Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia: Franz Ferdinand assassinated on June 28, 1914 by Gavril Princip. July Crisis began because heir to Austro-Hungarian throne was dead, so Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia. Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria led Germany to giving blank check to Austria→Austria-Hungary emboldened so gave ultimatum that violated Serbian sovereignty without fear of Russia, which was Serbia's ally

In order to improve economic performance, Lenin compromised communist principles and employed some free-market principles under the New Economic Policy.

•Lenin used War Communism during Russian Civil War: 1) Nationalized transportation and communication, banks, mines, factories, and most businesses. 2) Government requisitioned food from peasants, so widespread famine. Result: Bolsheviks won Civil War but industrial output fell dramatically to 20% of 1913 level •To revive Soviet economy, Lenin institutes New Economic Policy (NEP): modified version of capitalism. Peasants could sell produce openly...for a profit. Private ownership of retail stores and small industries. Gov't ownership of heavy industry, banking and mines. •NEP saved USSR "from complete economic disaster". •This was a temporary measure.

The Holocaust

•Mussolini not driven by race like Hitler. •Nazi racial policy carried out by Himmler & SS •Final Solution: annihilation of the Jews. •Einsatzgruppen or strike force of SS. Initially rounded up Polish Jews & put in ghettos Then, mobile killing units behind Wehrmacht in USSR & killed Jewish civilians, left in mass graves. Problems: too many bullets and time consuming. •Result: Wannsee Conference in 1942. Plans for more systematic means of extermination with death camps. •Auschwitz: most infamous death camp •Use of zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide): to kill victims

Military technologies made possible industrialized warfare, genocide, nuclear proliferation, and the risk of global nuclear war.

•Nazis used Zyklon B in their death camps. & VI and V2 rockets. •Bombing of civilians. London Blitz (1940), Dresden (1945), Hiroshima & Nagasaki (1945). Atomic bomb dropped by U.S. on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Imperialism as long-term cause of WW1

•New Imperialism was opportunity for nation-states to prove... •1. Strength. Social Darwinism emphasized necessity of struggle. •2. Greatness by expanding. Ex: France wanting redemption after Alsace-Lorraine. •Result: imperialism in Africa led to extreme mistrust & hatred among European states. Ex: First and Second Moroccan Crises →distrust of Wilhelm II so strengthening of Entente Cordiale between Britain & France.

Explain how new technology altered the conduct of WWI.

•New technologies confounded traditional military strategies and led to trench warfare and massive troop losses. •Before war, science (vaccinations & antiseptic) & technology seen as helpful. WWI: technology & science became destructive. Examples: machine gun, high powered artillery. •Technology improved faster than military tactics. Generals fight old war with massive infantry assaults & war of movement. •Other weapons: barbed wire, poison gas, flame thrower, and tank. Planes & zeppelins. Submarine.

The Versailles settlement, particularly its provisions on the assignment of guilt and reparations for the war, hindered German Weimar Republic's ability to establish a stable & legitimate political & economic system

•No national self-determination for Germans: Austria & Germany not allowed to unite. •Demilitarized Rhineland area of Germany. •Germany lost East Prussia and Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia). •Germany's military reduction: 100,000 man army. No tanks, air force, submarines, battleships. •Reparations had to be paid to Britain and France. Germany had to accept war guilt clause (article 231)→much resentment. Treaty of Versailles: poisoned German Republic (Weimar Republic) & was future source of problems i.e., psychological impact of reparations. •Treaty of Versailles promised Allies German reparation payments, so French rebuilt without raising taxes. Problem: Germany could not pay, so French occupation of Ruhr. Germany responded with printing of massive numbers of its currency. Results: hyperinflation, massive poverty, German money worthless. Again, few satisfied with Treaty of Versailles.

•The League of Nations distributed former German and Ottoman possessions to France and Great Britain through the mandate system, thereby altering the imperial balance of power and creating a strategic interest in the Middle East and its oil.

•Ottoman Empire's territory in the Middle East divided up and managed under the mandate system. France & Britain received territory to manage until areas ready for independence. Done because of oil. Stated goal had no deadline.

During the world wars, women became increasingly involved in military and political mobilization, as well as in economic production.

•Role of women in WWI: New roles in clerical jobs since men fighting. Britain: 1.345,000. Doing men's work. Munitionettes. •Improvements ended with end of WWI. •Effects: 1)suffrage in Germany, Austria, Britain, U.S. 2) self-esteem improved. New look. •Role of women in WWII: •UK: women in factories. •Yugoslavia, 100,000 in Tito's army: planted bombs & spied on Germans •USSR, •1) women served as bomber pilots nicknamed Night Witches because attacked at night using old WWI style airplanes that made a sweeping sound •2) land combat too. •3) working in industries. 48% of all oil workers.

The Bolshevik takeover prompted a protracted civil war between communist forces and their opponents, who were aided by foreign powers.

•Russian Civil War (1918-1921) between Communists vs. monarchists, liberals, Mensheviks, & Allies. •Sides: Red Army led by Trotsky (Bolsheviks) vs. White Army. •Whites: aided by Allies. U.S. troops at Archangel. •Red Army won because •1) lack of White unity. •2) War Communism. Total war. •3) Red Terror by Cheka vs class enemies (bourgeoisie) & any criticism. FEAR as tool. Mass executions. Czar and family executed. •Result: Russia became a single party state.

World War II decimated a generation of Russian and German men; virtually destroyed European Jewry; resulted in the murder of millions in other groups targeted by the Nazis including Roma, homosexuals, people with disabilities, and others; forced large-scale migrations; and undermined prewar class hierarchies.

•Russians: 24 million people killed of which 8,800,000-10,700,000 were soldiers. •Germany: 6.6 to 8.8 million killed of which 5,533,000 were soldiers. •Before the war, Nazis had already gassed Germans with disabilities. •Number of European Jews before WWII: 9 million. Number of European Jews killed: 6 million.

Franco's alliance with Italian and German fascists in the Spanish Civil War—in which the Western democracies did not intervene—represented a testing ground for World War II and resulted in authoritarian rule in Spain from 1936 to the mid-1970s.

•Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) between supporters of their Republic versus nationalists. Spanish Republic backed by antifascists, aka Republicans. Highly urban. Supported: modernization, workers' rights, & secularization. Aided by volunteers from West like Orwell, Hemingway, & Abraham Lincoln Brigade. •Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco. Franco more authoritarian than fascist. Supported by monarchy, military, and Church. Helped by fascist Italy & Germany who tested new weapons & used total war. Ex: Guernica; later painted by Pablo Picasso. •Results: 1) Republic fell. 2) Rome-Berlin Axis established.

1) ....Stalin undertook a centralized program of rapid economic modernization, often with severe repercussions for the population. 2) Stalin's economic modernization of the Soviet Union came at a high price, including the liquidation of the kulaks (the land-owning peasantry) and other perceived enemies of the state, devastating famine in the Ukraine, purges of political rivals, and, ultimately, the creation of an oppressive political system.

•Stalinization: Stalin's domestic policies: •1) Switch from "socialism in one country" to rapid industrialization. More sweeping than Russian Revolution of 1917. From agricultural economy to industrial one "practically overnight" via Five Year Plans. No consumer goods. Focus on heavy industry. •2) All peasants in forced collectivization of agriculture. Excess labor for factories. Like enclosure movement. Kulak resisted with killing of livestock (1/2) & forced migration to collective farms so "liquidation of the kulaks". •Collectivizing artificially created famines. 3-4 million peasants died in 1932-1933. Ukraine! Stalin seen as "one of the greatest mass murderers in human history". 3) Great Purge: •Purge trials: •a) Forced confessions. •b) False charges. •c) Children encouraged to denounce parents. •680,000 sentenced to death in 1938. about 1 million died in gulag. Stalin committed these actions partly out of paranoia. 4) Propaganda. •A) Stakhovites •B) Class enemy. •C) Cult of personality. Statues & posters of Stalin. Religious like.

Explain how and why the settlement of World War I failed to effectively resolve the political, economic, and diplomatic challenges of the early 20th century

•The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement that satisfied few. 1) Wilsonian idealism clashed with postwar realities in both the victorious and the defeated states. Democratic successor states emerged from former empires and eventually succumbed to significant political, economic, and diplomatic crises. 2) •At the end of World War I, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's principle of national self-determination raised expectations in the non-European world for new policies and freedoms. 3) •The League of Nations distributed former German and Ottoman possessions to France and Great Britain through the mandate system, thereby altering the imperial balance of power and creating a strategic interest in the Middle East and its oil. 4) The Versailles settlement, particularly its provisions on the assignment of guilt and reparations for the war, hindered German Weimar Republic's ability to establish a stable & legitimate political & economic system 5) The League of Nations, created to prevent future wars, was weakened from the outset by the nonparticipation of major powers, including the U.S., Germany, and the Soviet Union.

Germany's Blitzkrieg warfare in Europe, combined with Japan's attacks in Asia and the Pacific, brought the Axis powers early victories.

•To avoid stalemate of WWI, Germany used blitzkrieg. •September 1939, using blitzkrieg Germany quickly defeated Poland. •Meantime, France & Britain expected WWI-style war of attrition, so no attack. Used defenses of Maginot Line. •May 10, 1940: invasion of France using blitzkrieg. Retreat of Allies. Miracle at Dunkirk saved British army. France surrendered June 22, 1940. •Britain not defeated. Air war Battle of Britain began. Total war tactic of targeting London civilians, aka the Blitz. Churchill refused to surrender; Britain wins. •Global war: North Africa 1940, Axis attack British in Egypt to reach Suez Canal to cut off oil. •Hitler's main focus was on USSR. Why? 1) ideological enemy 2) to get living space (lebensraum). June 1941 begins Operation Barbarossa invasion of Soviet Union using blitzkrieg. Global War: Asia. 1)•Japan's aggression vs. China led to economic boycott by US, Britain, & Dutch. Rape of Nanjing: 100,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians massacred. •2) September 1940: Japan signs Tripartite Pact so becomes member of Axis. •3) July 1941, Japan seizes French Indochina. Result: U.S. enacts oil embargo. •4) December 7, 1941, Japanese surprise attack at Pearl Harbor using aircraft carriers. Goal: force U.S. to end oil embargo. •5) Because of Tripartite Pact, Hitler declared war on US. Initially, Japanese makes rapid expansion.

Democratic successor states emerged from former empires and eventually succumbed to significant political, economic, and diplomatic crises.

•Treaty of Versailles redrew map of Europe: •1) Four empires gone: Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany. Ottoman. •2) Resulting successor states: Poland, Baltic republics (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), Finland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia. •3) No idea of "one people, one nation" with Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia because were buffers to Germany and Soviet Union. •4) Austria separated from Hungary. •5) France got Alsace and Lorraine.

•In Russia, World War I exacerbated long-term problems of political stagnation, social inequality, incomplete industrialization, and food and land distribution, all while creating support for revolutionary change.

•WWI was the short-term cause for both Russian RevolutionS. WWI magnified flaws of tsarist government. •Problem of political stagnation because no lasting change since Russian Revolution of 1905. Tsar Nickolas II inept. Inexperienced Tsarina. Both highly superstitious. Tsarevich. Hemophilia. →people's faith in monarchy↓. •Problem of incomplete industrialization: Russian army suffered because its industry could not adequately supply its troops. •Problem of social inequality. Peasants wanted better land. There were few kulaks. Most peasants conscripted as soldiers in the war. Nobles still in control of best land. Workers wanted end to overcrowding in cities & poor working conditions. Suffered hunger because food being sent to troops at the front.

. French and British fears of another war, American isolationism, & deep distrust between Western democratic, capitalist nations & authoritarian, communist Soviet Union allowed fascist states to rearm & expand their territory.

•Why fascist states were allowed to rearm & expand? •1) Britain & France feared another war due to WWI financial costs & casualties. With no help from Britain, France refused to be lone state against aggression. •2) U.S. was isolationist militarily & politically. NOT in League of Nations. NOT in an alliance. •3) Capitalist France & Britain feared USSR's communism more than fascism. USSR NOT in League. No pre-war alliance of Britain and France with U.S.S.R. •4) Until Germany rearmed, Hitler lied about peaceful goals to correct Treaty of Versailles; in reality wanted to create European racial empire. •5) Too insurmountable to fight three aggressive states ](Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and Japan) without U.S. or USSR. •6) Great Depression sapped the war reparations to build militaries in non-fascist states. •7) Hitler's bluffs. Create international crisis. Vague threats.