APAH

Who is portrayed in this relief sculpture, and what was the purpose of this stele?

A young woman (named Hegeso), and her servant or maid are portrayed, and it was a grave stele, to mark a young woman's grave.

Who is portrayed in this relief sculpture? Name four ways the Amarna period was revolutionary:

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their three daughters are portrayed and four ways that the Amarna period was revolutionary include Worship was changed to abstract sun disc, Aten. Art used more lyrical and stylized images and figures—not as idealized. Portrayal of more personal and intimate scenes, rather than only used for portraying scenes to contribute to the perception of power and prestige. Change of capital to the out of the way location of Amarna.

Who was the pharaoh who initiated the Amarna period, and during which dynasty was the so-called Amarna period?

Akhenaten, formerly called Amenhotep IV, initiated the Amarna period during the 18th dynasty

What does the back of the Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene depict? What function did this side of the folding screen fill?

An ornamental hunting scene is portrayed on the reverse side, which was also inspired by a print from Europe (an Italian image made in France. This side of the screen was used for the more private room on the other side—it was likely seen more by women, rather than the other side with the Siege of Belgrade, which was for political visitors who met with the Viceroy.

Who commissioned Brunelleschi to design this Pazzi chapel, and what other architects were involved in its design? How was this chapel used?

Andrea de' Pazzi in 1429 commissioned Brunelleschi to build the chapel, but the construction continued after Brunelleschi's death in 1446. Another architect likely designed and built the atrium/narthex, which is supported by six Corinthian columns placed next to the central arch. The chapel was used as the chapter house by Santa Croce friars.

What story was the Apulu sculpture originally part of narrating?

Apulu (Apollo) confronts Hercle for the Cerynian Hind (a golden horned creature) that his sister, Artemis loved.

What significance does the Delphic Sybil have in its larger physical context?

Around the edges of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, interspersed between the webs and pendentives are twelve prophetic figures all representing the coming of Christ. Seven of these are Old Testament Prophets, and the remaining five are the female Sibyls of the Classical World. The alternating male and female figures are seated on thrones and are portrayed with books or scrolls. It is interesting to note that the Classical Sibyls were included to symbolize that the Messiah was to come for all the people of the world and not just the Jews

What is portrayed in this relief sculpture on the Altar of Zeus and Athena?

Athena is being crowned by Nike as she grabs the hair of the giant, Alkyoneos, who is intertwined with a serpent.

Why is this building called the White Temple? Why are most ziggurats from Sumer no longer standing?

Because it was whitewashed, making the exterior white, and the materials with which they were built, mud bricks, were fragile and did not last.

How did religion play a role in the different styles in the Low Countries?

Because of the religious and political connections of Flanders, its art reflects a much closer tie stylistically to the other strongly Catholic regions, such as Spain and Italy. The north, on the other hand, began developing a strikingly different style of art.

How were light and color originally used in the interior of the Hagia Sophia?

Because of the use of pendentives, the dome is lifted from the base, allowing windows to be installed and light to flood inside, called "a golden chain from heaven," by Procopius. It originally was filled with multicolored mosaics, paintings, and stone facing.

What did Bernini's depiction of the ecstasy of Saint Teresa intend?

Bernini sought to express this experience by making the spiritual tangible and physical.

How were Etruscan tombs made and what did Etruscan tombs resemble?

Carved into the soft tufa stone. They resembled homes for the living.

How is casta painting an expression of the period, and how did this tradition continue?

Casta paintings are often labeled with a number and a textual inscription that documents the racial mixing that has occurred. The inscriptions on casta paintings create a racial taxonomy, similar to a scientific taxonomy, so there is an expression of Enlightenment thinking, and the idea that people can be categorized based on their ethnic makeup and appearance, which continued into the 20th century.

What are three reasons (practical and symbolic) early Christians chose the basilica form to construct their churches?

Early Christians used basilica plan for their churches—more practical than pagan temples for Christian worship, since pagan temples were designed to house the statue of the deity, but not provide a place for worshippers to gather. And the choice was also symbolic, moving away from worship of many gods, as pagan temples exemplified to worship of the One True God. By using a different structure, Christians communicated that worship of Christ was not just another god in the Roman pantheon. Basilicas of the Roman Empire were the location where many Christians had been tried and condemned during the earlier persecutions, now in the apse where the courts had been, there was the table for the Eucharist, where there had been death and condemnation, there was now life.

What was one of the diseases afflicting patients to whom this hospital attended?

Ergotism was a common, but terrifying disease. It is this disease that was called Saint Anthony's Fire, and was portrayed in the fully open right panel of the triptych in the panel depicting the Temptation of Saint Anthony.

In what ways was Caravaggio's art revolutionary in its portrayal of subjects?

He is also known for drastically moving away from traditional portrayals in his religious works, sometimes to such an extent that his patrons required a second version.

What are some of the technical concerns in creating frescos?

Frescos require spreading a fresh coat of plaster that can only be used until it reaches a certain stage of hardness, when the wet plaster will no longer accept the pigment. This area can vary, depending on the complexity of the image, the skill of the artist and number of artists working, as well as the weather conditions. Frescos cannot be altered or retouched without using a different technique (the dry fresco method, secco), or by cutting out the finished fresco and redoing it. It is necessary to work from the top down, and most artists who were right handed also worked from left to right.

What parts of the Great Mosque of Cordoba can be seen of it at a distance?

From this view, the outer walls and the bell tower (which conceals the original minaret) are evident. Additionally, the addition of the 16th century cathedral, which was built into the structure of the mosque can be seem in silhouette against the skyline.

Who was Fra Filippo Lippi?

Fra Filippo Lippi was an orphan who became a friar when he was young. But he was by all accounts unsuited to monastic life. He had difficulties with the law, including forgery and embezzlement, and in the end, he kidnapped a nun named Lucretia, who later became his mistress and the mother of his son (who also became a painter, Filippino Lippi). Without the intervention of the Medici, he would have been utterly ruined by his behavior, but he managed to maintain his livelihood.

How it the Church of Sainte-Foy related to the pilgrimages of the Romanesque period?

From this view, the pilgrim would have almost arrived at one of the most important pilgrimage churches en route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain, the ultimate pilgrimage destination. Different roads ran through France to assist pilgrims in their journey, and many churches were built along these roads to create intermediate pilgrimage sites. This made the ownership of relics an important part of the survival for a village or abbey. In the case of Sainte Foy's relics, Conques stole them from another church. This was often excused by the thieves stating that the saint had asked them to move them.

What are the major parts of a Roman house, and how did the House of Vettii modify or extend the basic design of Roman homes?

Generally, there was a central room called an atrium, with small rooms (cubiculum) radiating out from this central room. The House of Vettii contained a "faucus" which was an entryway, and it had multiple atriums, each with radiating cubiculum, as well as a peristyle hall (a columned courtyard), and dining areas (triclinium).

With what culture was the White Temple associated? What legendary hero is associated with Uruk, the location of the White Temple? Which deity was the White Temple and Ziggurat likely built to honor?

Gilgamesh was the hero, and it was built to honor Anu, the sky god, which were from the culture of Sumer.

What differences are apparent between this work and Egyptian sculpture of the same period?

Greek sculpture shows the male figure nude, while Egyptian sculpture portrays the male figure clothed. Greek figural sculpture in the round is freed from the stone column, while Egyptian figural sculpture is still connected to the stone from which it is carved.

What does the relief sculpture at the top depict?

Hammurabi presenting his law to the god, Shamush.

Why did Sinan the Great move away from the segmented-style mosques?

He wanted to move away from the segmented-style mosques that did not exhibit the degree of monumentality and unity that he wanted, so he used the central plan, as in Hagia Sophia. In this way, the mihrab on the wall that faced Mecca, was visible from almost anywhere within the mosque.

What is Tutankhamen's heritage, and what is significant of Tutankhaten's tomb?

He was born Tutankhaten, and was Akhenaten's son, likely by his lesser wife, Kiya, and his tomb remained hidden and unplundered.

Who was the Niobid painter, and what is he known for?

He was of the most prolific and important artists of the 5th century B.C., Greece. And he is known for red figure paintings of mythological scenes on Greek pottery.

Whose student had Titian been?

He was the student of Giorgione and Bellini, both who explored the expression of poetry in painting, creating works of mystery and mood. Titian continued this approach, although his works are less ambiguous than his former master's, Giorgione.

What was the date the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel was dedicated, and when were Giotto Bondone's frescos completed?

In 1305, the chapel was dedicated, and it is thought that most, if not all, of Giotto Bondone's frescos were completed at this time, and definitely by 1312-13, when they were described in writing.

How was the Agora used in Athens and what crossed the Agora?

It was the center of the political, social, physical, and commercial activities. The Panathenaic road crossed the Agora.

What is a distinguishing quality of the Palace at Persepolis, and what are the size and contents of the Apadena?

It has provided most of our current understanding of Persian art, including the columned hall (Apadena). It is over 200 square feet, and containing 360 columns.

What culture made this sculpture and what is written on this stele?

It is from Babylon, and a Law Code is written on it.

What is one theory about the original use of this work?

It might have been elevated on a pole to be used as a banner, or standard (hence its name).

What was the function and basic structure of the Colosseum?

It was used for games and entertainments, including staged military battles, gladiatorial battles, and sport killing of many prisoners, Christians, and animals. It used concrete in its construction, and the oval seating area was supported by a network of corridors, enclosed by concrete barrel vaults, and is 160 feet tall with 76 numbered entrances.

Whose face is likely the model (though not as a portrait) of the Great Sphinx? What function did the Great Sphinx likely fill, and what other sculptures from the Ancient Mediterranean were similar in function?

Khafre was portrayed in the face of the Great Sphinx. It was likely a guardian statue, which was similar to the Lamassu of the Assyrians and Persians.

What is the location of the Last Supper?

Leonardo painted one of the most striking and memorable works for the refectory of the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan.

What were the roles of the people who likely used the White Temple and why?

Likely only priests and possibly political leaders could use the White Temple because the interior was small.

What kind of terrain was found in Lower Egypt, and what was its location?

Lower Egypt was in northern Egypt, but lower on the Nile River, and it was more fertile, urban, and cosmopolitan than Upper Egypt.

In Etruscan tomb painting, what feelings are expressed, and how were male and female figures differentiated?

Male figures had dark skin, while female figures were painted with light skin. Peaceful, lyrical, and celebratory scenes were painted.

What can be deduced from the miniatures from the Vienna Genesis, based on the process and cost of production?

Manuscript production was a major undertaking, requiring preparation of the animal skin (vellum is usually from goat or sheep), then dyeing the skin purple, writing the calligraphy (in silver ink!), painting the miniatures and binding the manuscript. The patron must have been a very powerful and/or wealthy individual or group.

In what ways did the importance of pilgrimages influence the design of the interior of the Church of Sainte-Foy and other Romanesque cathedrals?

Many churches built in the Romanesque period were specifically pilgrimage churches, holding the relics of a saint, and attracting pilgrims to visit. They were designed to handle large crowds of people navigating through the nave and apse, around the ambulatory with its radiating chapels holding relics (including the reliquary of Sainte Foy), and then out the transept exit.

What kinds of symbolism in The Arnolfini Portrait represent Flemish customs?

Many of the items in the image are also part of the traditional Flemish marriage customs, from the groom offering the bride clogs (seen at the lower left corner), to the single lit candle in the chandelier. Other symbols were added to emphasize spiritual aspects of marriage, including the small dog in the lower center, which was a symbol of fidelity.

Choose the description of each of the following pyramids:

Menkaura-smallest of three, upper left. The three small pyramids beside his pyramid are for his queens Mortuary temple—directly in front of his pyramid. Causeway—long narrow, raised walkway (sometimes covered) leading from mortuary temple to the valley temple that acted as a gateway to his pyramid. Khafre—central pyramid, with Mortuary temple in front. Causeway leads to valley temple and Great Sphinx, and the temple of the Sphinx. Khufu—northernmost temple, the smaller temples were for his queens, and mastabas were placed for his nobles.

In what way were works like this connected to the Reformation of Northern Europe?

Northern European art of the Reformation shows the drastic changes in worldview and religious focus that became a part of the political, social, and artistic world of the Reformation.

What kind of text is included in the print, Allegory of Law and Grace, and how is the human figure used to express the dichotomy presented?

On either side of the tree, which is "dead" on the law side, and "alive" on the grace side, a nude figure appears, but on the law side, the figure flees from a tormenting devil, while on the grace side, he receives Christ's sacrifice, and is made whole. Additionally, at the bottom of the panel are six columns of Bible texts, emphasizing the teachings portrayed in the image.

Who was one of Botticelli's major patrons, and to what is his style often compared?

One of the most well-known of the many artists who worked for the Medici was Botticelli. His style has been compared to the allegorical pageants that were often staged in Florence. In this way, we can see how the drama and display of both Classical and medieval styles are fused into a new, dreamlike Renaissance expression.

Who could enter the Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun-Re?

Only those with the required status, likely only the priests and pharaoh, but perhaps some other royalty as well.

In what ways is Fruit and Insects a vanitas painting?

Particularly because of the presence of the Eucharistic symbols, this work also becomes a kind of vanitas painting, in which the transiency of life is contrasted with the spiritual truths. The insects, particularly the flies, represent decay, while the Autumn is also a time of bounty and harvest, it also foreshadows the end of the year and death.

Where was the main temple area of the Temple of Amun-Re located?

Past the 3rd Pylons, which are large stone entrances.

In what style is the Entombment of Christ painted, and what qualities suggest this?

Pontormo includes all the characteristics of early Mannerist painting, which breaks from the harmonious, rationally structured compositions of the earlier Renaissance. He uses intense, light colors to emphasize the emotional impact, places his figures in a swirling, energetic design, rather than a stable pyramidal format. Instead of having a strong mass in the center of the painting, this area is empty, symbolic of the loss and grief the figures are experiencing. The figures themselves are slightly distorted from a realistic representation, with small heads in proportion to the rest of the body, and each figure is twisting, moving, stepping, or falling dramatically.

What is the function of the Pyxis of al-Mughira, and for whom was it made?

Pyxidae were secular objects (which is the reason for figural elements in the decoration), and often given as gifts to those in the royal household on special occasions. They contained cosmetics and perfumes and were made for both men and women. This work was made for the 19 year old prince, al-Mughira, likely on his coming of age or another important milestone in his life.

Why is there Byzantine architecture in Ravenna, Italy?

Ravenna contains some of the best-preserved Byzantine mosaics and architecture from the early Byzantine period because in 539, Justinian's general Belisarius captured it from the Ostrogoths and made it essentially an extension of Constantinople.

By the 4th dynasty, what Egyptian god had become prominent in Egyptian culture and of whom was the pharaoh considered an incarnation?

Re

What does this etching, Self-Portrait with Saskia, portray?

Rembrandt shows himself and Saskia wearing historical clothing: Rembrandt in a fur-trimmed overcoat and a stylish 16th-century beret tilted at an angle, a plume on its side, and Saskia in an old-fashioned veil. The image is likely an expression of the idea that 'love brings forth art'.

Who were involved in the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels?

Saint Cuthbert was born about the time Aiden established the monastery and later became its most well known bishop, having the Lindisfarne Gospels, which were produced here, dedicated to him. The individuals involved in the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels were Eadfrith, who succeeded the bishop at Lindisfarne after St. Cuthbert's successor, and who is said to have written the text. His successor, Ethelwald, is said to have bound the book, and the hermit: Billworth, who made the ornate metalwork in gold, jewels and silver for the outer covering, and Aldred, who added the Anglo-Saxon text (the original text was the Latin Vulgate, which was written by Eadfrith).

Who was Saint Teresa, and to what was her "ecstasy"?

Saint Teresa had recently been canonized, and was someone who experienced ecstatic visions of angels and wrote of them. In this scene, an angel descends and takes a fire-pointed spear, plunging it into her heart several times, filling her with spiritual joy and love for God beyond description. The experience was also intensely painful.

How was San Vitale named, and what makes it unique in Christian architecture?

San Vitale is named in honor of the 2nd century Saint Vitalis, who was martyred at Ravenna, and the church was dedicated by Bishop Maximus. It is unique in both the architecture of Ravenna from the 6th century as well as among other churches in Italy. It was particularly influential in the group of structures that shape the interior space using octagonal design (particularly in Islamic architecture).

What role did the symbolism of the Trinity play in the design of the interior of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane?

Since the church is designed for the Holy Order of the Trinity, which is a set of three, the triangle is actually the basis for the design, in which the ovals are situated. The diagonals of two triangles form a diamond shape. He divides the horizontal space of the church into three distinct tiers—the wall surface (defined by the height of the columns), the curving entablature transitioning between the vertical walls and oval dome, and the dome floating on the very top, which create the feeling of vertical ascension.

What culture created these statues, and what size are they?

Sumerian, ranging from under a foot to over two and a half feet.

In what cultural context and environment was the Rottgen Pieta made?

The 14th century was a troubled one, with wars, famine, and plague bringing great suffering and death to many. This is the environment in which this work was produced. The suffering of Christ and His mother relate to the environment of intense suffering of those who viewed this work, and who likely found solace in the understanding and pity that Christ had for them, since He had experienced so much pain Himself.

Why is this called the catacomb of Priscilla?

The Catacomb of Priscilla is named after the woman whose villa provided the entrance. She donated the use of her basement and villa, and many tombs are found in this catacomb.

What is some of the important information the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza provides, and how is it portrayed?

The Codex provides information about the pre-conquest Aztec empire and daily life in the early conquest period. In this image, the history and organization of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan (the place of the prickly pear cactus) is portrayed. The city was built in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico in 1325. It shows the physical organization of Tenochtitlan, divided into four triangular sections separated by blue diagonals, representing canals.

What kind of work is the Cornaro Chapel, and where is it inside the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria?

The Cornaro Chapel, located in the left (or north) transept in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, is really an installation work because it integrates sculpture in marble, metal, architecture, painting, and stained glass.

What was the function of the Court of the Lions of this area of the Alhambra?

The Court of the Lions is named after the twelve lions that are part of the white marble fountain in the middle of the patio, one of the most important examples of Muslim sculpture. These lion sculptures throw jets of water in the fountain. The large basin rests on top of the twelve lions encircling it. It is at the center of the section of the Alhambra called the Palace of the Lions, in which the sultana and her family, as well as the king's harem lived.

Where is the House of the Vettii located, who owned it, and from what culture did this style develop?

The House of the Vettii is located in Pompeii, and this style of home was developed from Etruscan homes. The freed slaves, Vettiius Restituts and Vettiius Conviva were the owners.

In what context was the Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece) meant to be used?

The Merode Altarpiece was made for private devotion within a home setting; with its central panel just 24" square, it could be easily folded and moved when needed. But it was based on the style and format of the larger altarpieces made for churches and chapels.

What is the subject shown doing? What significance is the nemes headdress and how was the statue likely positioned?

The Nemes headdress symbolizes the role of the pharaoh, and specifically Lower Egypt. In the sculpture, Hatshepsut is offering Maat, the goddess of wisdom, justice, and order, to the god, Amun. This was one of ten life-sized statues of Hatshepsut lining the processional walkway in the second court.

Who were some of the artists whose work was used to decorate The Sistine Chapel?

The Renaissance artists who contributed work to fill this chapel include Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael Sanzio, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini and Sandro Botticelli.

What does the image of the hall from the Mosque of Córdoba depict, and what is the significance of these horseshoe style arches to the Great Mosque of Cordoba and beyond?

The Visigoths often used the horseshoe-style arch in the architecture they produced after the Roman Empire collapsed and before the Umayyads entered the picture. Through the conquest and influence of the Umayyads, the horseshoe arch eventually spread across North Africa from Morocco to Egypt. The mosque includes a large hypostyle prayer hall (hypostyle means, filled with columns), as well as a lush courtyard, and a covered walkway that encircles it. A minaret was also added, now encased in a squared, tapered bell tower. The vast hypostyle prayer hall mesmerizes with its repeating geometric patterns. Repurposed ancient Roman columns were used, to which were added two-tiered, symmetrical arches that alternated white stone and red brick.

What interior decoration was used in Santa Sabina?

The aisles are separated from the nave by arches supported by columns. These were repurposed from the Temple of Juno, showing the Corinthian capitals. There are 24 marble columns between the nave and aisles.Between each arch is an inlaid stone design showing the chalice of wine and paten (a plate for bread). There are designs in the apse that repeat this motif.

What does the Justinian mosaic depict, and where is it located?

The back wall of the apse choir contains a mosaic of Christ giving a wreath to Saint Vitalis, and the bishop who began the construction of San Vitale offers a model of the church. The Justinian mosaic is placed on the left wall of the same choir apse, at a right angle to the main mosaic, in many ways continuing the procession of attendants moving toward Christ and the martyred saint. Justinian, the emperor of Byzantium, is portrayed in the center (in purple), holding a paten. The bishop Maximus is to the right, with the gold sash, and he is identified by a label above. There is an ornate border, as well.

What is the basic structure and design of the palace?

The basic structure of the palace itself as well as its gardens, is classical, with symmetry, order, and rational, harmonious division of space, including forms directly borrowed from ancient Greek temples.

What are some stylistic cues that inform the viewer that this is a mosaic based on Byzantine aesthetics, instead of Classical aesthetics?

The blue sky of the real world has been replaced by the golden light of spiritual symbolism, and the figures are weightless, abstract, and very linear, rather than modeled with bodies that occupy real space.

Which parts of the Sarcophagus of the Spouses are realistic and which parts are stylized?

The bodies have lifelike muscles and proportions. But the faces portray the Greek Archaic smile, and the waist and bones in the hips are stylized to communicate the idea of reclining, rather than trying to show the actual form of the body as it reclines.

What are some of the important qualities revealed in the plan of the Mosque of Selim II?

The central dome is dominant, and the mihrab, which is at the top center of the dome in this orientation, can be seen pointing to the southeast, toward Mecca. The integration of the square and octagonal base can also be seen clearly, with the half-domes alternating with the shallow alcoves of the flat arched sides.

What is the design of the structure of the Pazzi chapel?

The chapel itself is a rectangular layout containing one square room in the central area, covered by an umbrella-shaped dome, and two sides of the remaining space, each covered by a shallow barrel vault with round windows.

What did the relief sculptures of the centaurmachy and the Atheneans expelling the Amazons out of Athens symbolize?

The defeat of the Persians by the Greeks.

What aspects of this sculpture are realistic and what does this sculpture express?

The details in the faces and muscles, and the clothes. It expresses timelessness.

What are some of the significant measurements and structural design of the Pantheon?

The dome is 142 feet in diameter, and the top of the dome is also 142 feet from the floor. This makes the interior space a continuation of the domed roof, a sphere, extending the dome could fit inside the cylinder. Heavier, denser material was used toward the base, and at the top. Pumice was used to lighten the load toward the top of the dome, and the thickness also decreases toward the top. The use of coffers, which are square indentation all along the interior of the dome, also lightens the load, as well as providing a contrast between the circular forms with the counterbalancing squares. The floor is made of marble, repeating patterns of circles and squares as well.

What is seen of the structure of the Hagia Sophia in the plan?

The dome is set in the center (seen in outline), with semispherical domes and smaller domes rolling organically out from the center dome. It is longitudinal in its axis, with a wide narthex that leads to either the nave or the aisles, but the thrust is forward toward the apse opposite the narthex. The clergy were those who celebrated the liturgy in the nave (the central area below the dome), while the laypeople watched from the aisles to either side.

What does this detail on the doors of the Great Mosque of Cordoba depict?

The entries on the outside of the mosque include a door enclosed in a horsehoe arch. In this entry, there are also latticework windows with poly-lobed arches as well as the horseshoe arches.

What is the basic process for making an etching?

The etching process is one of the intaglio methods of printing, in which incised lines (either cut into the plate with a sharp tool, as in drypoint, or using acid baths, as in an etching), in which ink is added, and when pressed, the damp paper squeezes up into the lines and absorbs the ink.

How does the façade of the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria follow the Il Gesu style?

The façade exemplifies the Il Gesu style as well, with the stacked design, and an upper temple motif, with transitions to the wider floor at the base, using scroll brackets and pilasters, niches.

What function do the gardens fill in the design of Versailles? What is the scale of the gardens at Versailles?

The gardens provide a transitional area between the static architecture and the natural setting beyond. Versailles' expansive gardens are famous for their geometrically serene ponds and canals, carefully aligned terraces, and orderly tree-lined paths. They stretch from the west side of the palace and cover almost 2,000 acres Andre Le Notres's style is apparent in their design. There are 50 fountains throughout the gardens that create focal points for the vast landscape, organizing the space into meaningful sections.

What social, political, and religious influences impacted the purpose of Merode Altarpiece?

The growing dissatisfaction with the clergy may have been one of the influences leading to the popularity of private devotional altarpieces like this one. When religious works were made for private use, they often integrated the secular and spiritual—in fact, some art historians have noted that the separation was almost eliminated completely. The setting of the Annunciation triptych is an ordinary Flemish house—bringing the Biblical narrative into the contemporary world. On the far left are the donor (Peter Inghelbrecht—whose last name means "angel bringer") and his wife, kneeling in reverence while gazing in through the open door to the scene in the central panel, in which the angel, Gabriel announces the incarnation to Mary.

How was the hall of the sisters named, and where is it located?

The hall of the sisters was named after the two big twin marble flagstones that are part of the floor. The Hall is rectangular and has interlacing ceilings. The lighting in this hall and the dome it contains were carefully planned, receiving light from small lateral windows. Its floor is paved with marble and has a small fountain with a jet and a little channel that carries the water to the Patio of the Lions.

What two ways did the artist diverge from the twisted perspective of earlier art?

The horns on the helmet depict those only seen in profile, rather than all of them, Artist hinted at foreshortening in the arm

What was the intended purpose of the Codex Mendoza, and how did this intended purpose change?

The intention was to send the Codex to the Spanish King, Emperor Charles V, but it never arrived because it was taken by French pirates enroute.

What church-type does the interior of Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria follow?

The interior of Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria is an example of the Il Gesu-type of church design, with the strong forward momentum in the nave, no side aisles, but three shallow chapels on each side, and a transept that is also shallow in its horizontal space, in order to avoid breaking the forward momentum of the nave.

How is the Hall of Mirrors significant? How has this room changed in function?

The is one of the most famous rooms in Versailles. It overlooks the parks from the second floor, extending the length of the central section of the structure. While it was the scene of many parties during the time of the French monarchy, this room later contained one of the defining moments of 20th-century history when the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War, was signed here in June 1919.

What is a peplos and how was this statue used?

The kind of dress worn by the figure is a peplos, and this sculpture was used as a votive offering in the temple of Athena.

In Egyptian art, when portraying individuals what was one of the general rules, and whom does this sculpture portray?

The more powerful a person, the larger they were portrayed in proportion to others, and the more idealized and formalized they were depicted. The work portrays a scribe, who is a commoner.

What do the inscriptions on the figures contain?

The name of the donor, the deity to whom the prayers are addressed, and the text of the prayers.

When were the Great Pyramids and Sphinx constructed? What were two main functions of art in Egypt?

The pyramids were made during the Old Kingdom in Egypt. Two main functions of art were to describe ordered existence and defeat death.

How long before the Niobid painter's art did Euthymedes perfect the red figure style and technique of painting, and what was one of the stylistic innovations of the Niobid painter?

The red figure style and technique was developed about half a century before. The Niobid painter used more naturalism, including ¾ view, as well as using the profile view along with profile eyes (instead of using more front view eyes with profile heads).

How many columns are contained in the Hypostyle Hall, and of what material is the roof of the Hypostyle Hall made?

The roof was made of stone slabs, and there were 138 columns.

Who was the patron for Hunters in the Snow (and the other works in its series), and what tradition does this painting continue?

The series was originally created for a local Antwerp merchant, but only five of the six survive today. The surviving paintings include Hunters in the Snow, The Gloomy Day, The Return of the Herd, Harvesters, and Haymaking, each representing about two months of the year. This series continues the tradition of Late Gothic manuscript art, such as Books of Hours, which depict the different seasons through landscape and the human activities in each of the seasons.

What is the history of the site of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, and what are some of the most striking features it contains now?

The site was originally a pagan temple dedicated to Janus (in Roman times), and then was rebuilt by the Umayyad dynasty. The courtyard contains a fountain and an orange grove. When seen from street level, the outer walls conceal the size of the Mosque by the modest height of its outer walls, which rise only to 40 ft. The building was expanded for over two hundred years.

What does the interior of the Hagia Sophia depict?

The view of the Hagia Sophia dome and its pendentive construction is shown here. The light creates a ring around the base of the dome, making it appear to float on light. Some of the columned aisles are seen, here, as well as some of the remaining interior decoration, including the large discs with Arabic script, added after the Islamic conquest.

What materials and shapes are used in the design of the Pazzi chapel?

The wall opens on a small square apse called scarsella covered in a frescoed dome portraying the sky above Florence. The four terra cotta Evangelists that decorate the pendentives have been attributed to Brunelleschi as well. The interior uses both white stucco walls accented with gray stone trim (pietra serena or "serene stone").

Why do the Lamassu have five legs, where were they located, and which culture are they from?

They combine the side view portraying the creature in motion with the front view that shows the creature at rest. They were found in the citadel of Sargon II, which was Neo-Assyrian.

How did the architects of the Acropolis create beauty, and a 38 feet high sculpture of which Greek goddess was originally located in the Parthenon?

They created beauty through harmonies of proportion, and Athena's sculpture originally stood in the Parthenon.

What kinds of beings do these figures portray? What was their purpose?

They portray mortals, as perpetual worshipers.

What is the identifying information for Il Gesu, and for what purpose was Il Gesu founded?

This cathedral is called Il Gesu, and was built in Rome, Italy. The architect who designed the plan of the church was Giacomo da Vignola, and the architect responsible for designing the façade was Giacomo della Porta. It was built in the 16th century A.D of brick, marble, fresco, and stucco. Il Gesu was founded as the mother church of the Jesuit order and is located in the heart of Rome.

What is the identifying information for the Pazzi Chapel?

This work is entitled the Pazzi Chapel, which is in the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy. It was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi c. 1429-1461 A.D. and uses masonry.

What is the identifying information for the Pyxis of al-Mughira?

This work is entitled the Pyxis of al-Mughira, from the Umayyad dynasty. c. 968 A.D. It is made of carved ivory.

What is the identifying information for Angel with Arquebus, and what is significant about the subject and meaning of this work?

This work is entitled, Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei, painted by the Master of Calamarca (La Paz School). c. 17th century A.D. Oil on canvas, likely in Peru or the Andes. The Catholic Counter-Reformation developed a militaristic attitude, often portraying angels as soldiers defending the Church in some way.

What is the identifying information for the Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici?

This work is entitled, Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici and is from the Marie de' Medici Cycle by Peter Paul Rubens, painted between 1621-1625 A.D using oil on canvas.

What are the differences between Tuscan and Greek (Doric) columns?

Tuscan columns are made of wood, are unfluted, and have bases, while Doric columns are made of stone and are fluted.

What tools did Vermeer use to create his paintings, including the crisp perspective?

Vermeer used a variety of tools to create his intimate and serene interiors, including mirrors and the camera obscura.

What is the scale of Versailles? How was the inner courtyard significant?

Versailles is immense, with 700 rooms, 2,153 windows, and contains over 73,000 square yards of floor space, and is over ¼ mile long. In every part of the palace and gardens, Louis XIV's importance is emphasized—as closely as he could come to being a deity. The private rooms of the king and queen overlooked the inner courtyard, known as the Marble Courtyard.

What is the axis on which Versailles was built, and why was this important to the king?

Versailles was built on an East/West axis so the sun would rise and set in alignment with the king's home, which supported his idea of himself as The Sun King. He also connected his own identity with that of Apollo, portrayed in the Apollo Fountain and the Apollo Salon.

What did the Panathenaic festival celebrate?

Victory over the Persian invaders.

In Egypt, where was the traditional place for burial

West of the Nile. Those who were dead were sometimes referred to as "westerners," and to die was to go into the west.

What is shown when the inner layer of wings (shown) is opened, along with the predella?

When the two wings portraying the Nativity and the wings on the predella are opened, the three-dimensional inner cabinet of the altarpiece is shown.

Who was Alberti, and what was his major contributions to the architecture of the Renaissance?

While Alberti began his architectural career later in life, he made a crucial contribution to the architecture in Renaissance Italy. He is also responsible for disseminating in writing Brunelleschi's theories on perspective, allowing artists from many areas to apply these new techniques to their own work. He also was the first to have an extensive knowledge of Vitruvius' treatise, enabling him to have expert knowledge of Roman architecture.

How did Rubens emphasize Marie de' Medici's power in Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici?

While her life was not a heroic, legendary one, her commemorative paintings exaggerate her importance and influence in order to make her seem almost divine. Rubens completed these works in four years, and painted all the figures, but his workshop artists completed the other parts of the paintings. Rubens used every mythological and allegorical metaphor he could in order to dramatize the events of her life.

What is significant about the miniatures from the Vienna Genesis?

While it is likely not the first Christian manuscript to have been made, it is the earliest example currently known. It is called the Vienna Genesis because of its current location, but it was likely originally made in Syria or Constantinople

What is the ratio of proportions in the Parthenon?

X=2Y+1, or the longer measurement is always twice the shorter, plus one.

What are the major qualities of each of the four styles of Roman painting?

1st style: appearance of costly marble, a kind of faux finishing 2nd style: entire walls portray illusionistic scene—walls seem to dissolve into imaginary worlds and scenes 3rd style: similar in some ways to 1st style, with focus on decorating walls to emphasize their structure, but it was more delicate and linear than the 1st style. 4th style: combined elements of the second and third styles, framing the imaginary scenes into controlled spaces, like windows, rather than creating the imaginary scene on the entire wall.

What information about the Forum of Trajan is correct concerning the unique design of its layout?

A basilica replaced the temple building at the end of the forum. A temple was added behind the basilica, which was dedicated to the now deified Trajan, having its own courtyard and two libraries, along with the Column of Trajan in the courtyard. A gateway resembling a pylon was included.

What is a reliquary, and why was it important to the Church of Sainte-Foy?

A reliquary is a container, often ornate and made with costly materials, that holds the relics of a saint. In this reliquary, for Sainte Foy (Faith), the reliquary at Conques held the remains of Saint Foy. She was a 12 year old Christian convert living in Roman-occupied France during the second century who was condemned to die for her refusal to sacrifice to pagan gods. Her remains were some of the most revered in France, so many pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain would stop here, since it was on their way and was an important pilgrimage church in its own right.

Who commissioned the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, and why is it known today?

A wealthy merchant from Padua named Enrico Scrovegni purchased land to build a palace in 1300, and on the site, he also built a private chapel dedicated to the Virgin of the Annunciation and the Virgin of Charity. This work has become an important part of the history of art because of the remarkable frescos inside.

Who was Albrecht Durer?

Albrecht Durer, of Nuremberg in what is now Germany, was the leading artist in the Holy Roman Empire during the 16th century. He also wrote extensively on a variety of subjects related to art, traveling widely, including to Italy. He was the first artist outside Italy to become "famous," and his prolific production of art and high energy enabled him to leave a deep mark on the history of European art.

What theological perspective does the print, Allegory of Law and Grace show?

Allegory of Law and Grace visually depicts Luther's theology. One of the most basic and critical points was the concept of salvation through faith and God's grace. Luther's theology rejected the premise that "good works," could play any role in attaining salvation. In Allegory of Law and Grace a tree divides the picture plane into regions, the left "law" side and the right "grace/Gospel" side, which contrast the roles each play and the defines their relationships.

The Temple of Athena Nike is the most important example of a amphiprostyle—what does this mean?

An Amphiprostyle is a temple with a portico (columned porch) at both the front and back. The most columns this type of temple had was four on each portico, and this example follows this formula.

What information about the Forum of Trajan is correct concerning the architect, funding, and purpose?

Apollodorus of Damascus, who had been Trajan's military engineer from the Dacian campaigns, designed the Forum. Trajan's victory over the Dacians (Romania) was the event that inspired the construction and that was celebrated by it. It was financed with the spoils of those campaigns

What period of Greek art does this work exemplify, and what other culture influenced this period of Greek art?

Archaic Greek, and Egyptian influence is apparent in Archaic Greek art.

What facial expression do both the Kouros and Kore statues have?

Archaic smile.

Who was the viceroy who commissioned the Codex Mendoza, and who were the artists commissioned?

Around 1541, Antonio de Mendoza, who was the first viceroy of New Spain, commissioned a codex from indigenous artists—coming from a long Nahuatl literate tradition.

How is the number eight used both structurally and symbolically in San Vitale?

As seen here, the church is formed by two concentric octagons, the center one rising an additional level to form a clerestory and an octagonal roof. Eight was an important number in early Christian symbolism, representing the number of days from the Triumphal Entry, the beginning of the Passion Week, to Easter Sunday, when Jesus rose from the dead, which can by extension be interpreted as the number symbolizing hope and the strength of God's covenant with us.

How was the interior of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane inspired by both nature and geometry?

Borromini was very influenced by the idea of geometry and nature being inseparable. The interior is an oval—a much more dynamic shape than a circle, which is more stable. The oval also is not a simple oval, but one filled with undulating curves, including gentle niches on either side, hinting at its central plan design.

How did the time period affect the form, function, and style of the Ludovisi Sarcophagus?

By the Late Imperial period, many wealthy Romans had begun to bury their dead instead of cremating them, so more elaborate sarcophagi became common. Early Christians had been burying their dead in the Roman Empire for generations, but had used catacombs and less elaborate burials.

How is the west façade of Chartres Cathedral important?

Chartres' extensive cycle of portal sculpture remains fully intact, and the west façade has been known as the Royal Portal. It is the oldest of the three portals at Chartres. It was carved by 1150, and one of the portals at the cathedral at St. Denis was the model for these sculptures and reliefs. The central portal depicts the Last Judgment, with Christ in the center of the tympanum and surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists. But this portrayal of Christ is unique in cathedral sculpture, because it seems to express both His divinity and humanity.

How was this sculpture revolutionary and pivotal in the development of Renaissance style?

Donatello sculpted the first freestanding nude since ancient times. He reinvented the Classical nude by infusing a Biblical figure with Classical overtones. He uses the contrapposto posture that gives the figure a relaxed, natural stance, and he infuses the ideal proportions of Classical Greek sculpture. He had made an earlier sculpture of David as well, as a symbol of Florentine strength against invaders. This symbol of Florence as David, the young hero of the Biblical narrative of the fight between the giant, Goliath, and the youth, David, was a popular way for Florentines to identify themselves. The Medici also commissioned another sculpture of David from Verrocchio at a later date, to further strengthen this symbolism.

What does this miniature painting of St. Luke from the Lindisfarne Gospels depict, what stylistic influences are present, and who was the artist?

Eadfrith's portraits of the Evangelists comes first in the sequence of decorated pages introducing each Evangelist's Gospel, and this example is of St. Luke. He is shown writing on a scroll (as opposed to St. Matthew, who is writing in a codex), with Luke's symbol, the ox, hovering above him with a green book, indicating the Divine inspiration for St. Luke's Gospel. He is bearded and wrapped in a Roman style garment, showing influence of both the Classical styles as well as the more linear and abstract Hiberno-Saxon style. Eadfrith is a sophisticated artist of both representational works as well as the highly abstracted cross-carpet pages and text illuminations.

What is the media of encaustic, and what does the process and history of encaustic work entail?

Encaustic is pigment that has been mixed into melted wax (generally beeswax), which is painted by heating the wax until it is liquid. It is a very sturdy medium, allowing the works to survive longer than many other media. It was a continuation of the Egyptian encaustic painting method (such as the Faiyum funerary portraits). And it is from the St. Catherine monastery at Mount Sinai, which was a locus of art and learning in the early centuries AD. Despite the use of encaustic, a very permanent media, very few icons from this period have survived. This is due to the iconoclastic controversy that rocked the eastern empire, in which individual works and entire structures were destroyed because of the belief that sacred images broke the second commandment. The history of Byzantine art is very fragmentary before the 9th century because of this widespread destruction.

Which is true of Etruscan and Greek burials?

Etruscan burials were elaborate using sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs, while Greek burials were simple and used only a simple grave marker or stele (although sometimes beautifully sculpted).

What distinguished Etruria from Greece in the role and status of women?

Etruscan women had more freedom and ate meals with their husbands, while Greek women of status lived very separate lives and were isolated from their husbands and the public.

What is an Egyptian palette, and how is this one different from others?

Eye makeup was common in Egypt, to protect eyes from the intense sun, but this one is larger and more elaborately decorated, with specific iconography that commemorates an important event.

How is this work significant in its portrayal of a young woman in a private setting?

Greek women were rarely allowed out of their homes or seen in public, so this is a rare scene of the private life of a young woman in a culture where women's lives were secluded and not usually considered worthy of recording in art or writing.

What about Botticelli's style appealed in particular to the secular leaders of Florence?

He did not seek scientific accuracy in anatomy and perspective, but rather bent any rules necessary to communicate both the elegance and theatricality of this story. The lines and colors are crisp and clear, but also very lyrical---almost flowing, which appealed to the wealthy leaders of Florence. The female nude was also not known since Classical times, so using a Classical myth, that of Venus's birth, was an appropriate subject in which to apply this innovation.

How are the images in the Golden Haggadah "read," and what does it depict?

Hebrew is written from right to left, so the Golden Haggadah opens from the right., and even the images have a different flow. In the four panels, beginning at the upper right, are the plagues, first of frogs, then in the upper left, of lice, and then the bottom right is a grievous "arov" in which beasts attack pharaoh, and the bottom left shows animals dying and dead.

What were the sculptures from the east pediment, and what do these sculptures reveal about Greek art?

Helios, some horses, and Dionysus (or possibly Heracles) are portrayed. The Greek artists understood both the surface shapes of the human form and the ways the muscles and bones worked under the surface as the figure moved, and how the cloth and robes were affected.

What period and culture influenced the Head of a Patrician, and in what ways?

Hellenistic Greek art influenced this sculpture, by opening the door to subjects that were less than ideal. Roman sculpture of this type focuses on stark realism, rather than the ideal.

In what ways is the young woman's father present in the work?

His name is included in the inscription of Hegeso as the daughter or Proxenos, and in the symbolism of her dowry (which represented her father's wealth) in the jewelry box.

What does Velazquez's technique contribute to the impact of this painting?

His painterly technique adds to the ideas of portraying reality and dissolving reality, in which he creates a very realistic scene, but also uses some strokes of paint and shapes that celebrate the qualities of the paint, rather than being used to paint another subject.

How did Caravaggio use value contrasts in his style, and what was this technique called?

His style, which used heightened light and dark contrasts and in which subjects are masked in shadow and illuminated by a dramatic light is known as tenebrism.

How is this Bruegel's work significant in the history of European art?

His work is significant in the history of Western art by raising the importance of landscape painting as its own genre, rather than only used as a backdrop for other subjects.

For whom was The Tete à Tete made?

Hogarth's series is created for the growing middle class (growing in number and power), rather than the landed aristocracy, whose tastes remained more traditional. In this works, there is a strong moral message, but it also makes fun of the aristocracy by telling a story of a fictitious aristocratic family named the "squanderfields," It addresses the concern of marriage for love or money and would have appealed to the middle class.

What does this work portray?

Hu-nefer is led by Anubis to the hall of judgment, where his heart is weights and then he is finally led to Osiris by Horus.

What earlier structure was influential in the design of the façade of Il Gesu, and what other work was influential in its interior design of space? What does the style of the interior of Il Gesu express in its choices of Classical motifs and highly emotional spirituality?

Il Gesu owes a debt to the influence of Alberti's Santa Maria Novella in Florence for its façade. Niches on the façade hold statues, and the entire façade has a unified, harmonious effect. The interior owes a debt to Alberti's Sant' Andrea in Mantua in its interior design of space. The interior of the church, in typical Counter-reformation style, uses Classical motifs and even possibly repurposed Classical pilasters, but expressing a new and highly emotional Christian impact.

What does the term, moralized Bible mean, and who commissioned this and for whom?

In a moralized Bible, each Biblical scene is paired with another describing its moral visually. Textual summaries of the scriptures are provided on either side of the images to explain them. It is highly likely that these books were used for instruction by personal chaplains who served as tutors. The manuscript in which this illumination is found was also probably commissioned by Blanche of Castile, but in this case, as a wedding gift for Marguerite of Provence in 1234.

What political change in the Netherlands caused a split in the style and art of the north and south areas?

In the 17th century, the Netherlands split into the Protestant North (Dutch Republic) and the Catholic South (Flanders), which was ruled by Spain.

For what purpose was the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France painted?

In the dedication page of the manuscript commissioned by Blanche of Castile for her teenage son, Louis IX, during her regency (when she ruled until he was old enough) we see the flowering of Gothic book illumination. Those books commissioned by the monarchy are among the most sumptuous.

What technological and scientific discoveries in the 18th century influenced the painting, Fruit and Insects?

In the early 18th century, worlds beyond that which could be seen with the naked eye became important with the invention of the microscope, so the microcosm also became important, or small settings that symbolized the larger world. Rachel's father was one of the most prominent scientists of his day, particularly in botany and human anatomy, and her work also displays this clear knowledge of the natural world.

In what style was the House of Vettii remodeled, including the frescos during the first century A.D.?

In the fourth style, which combined elements of the previous styles, using illusionistic space in imaginary scenes, along with linear designs. In the fourth style, the illusionistic space was framed in settings, like windows into another world, or paintings like we have today, that are portable, but in Rome, they were painted directly on the wall, with frames painted around them.

What does the Theodora mosaic depict, and what was its purpose?

In the mosaic of Theodora, the Empress of the Byzantine Empire, she also dressed in purple as her husband was in his own mosaic. Her mosaic sits directly across from Justinian's, showing both rulers proceeding toward Christ. Both mosaics are a means of showing honor to the newly built church, as well as advertising the right of the Emperor and Empress to rule. As they show their submission to Christ, so they also show that Christ recognizes them as the rulers of Ravenna and the Byzantine Empire.

What does the image from the Golden Haggadah that includes the Passover depict?

In the upper right, Miriam and the other women begin their song, taking up the timbrel and celebrating their freedom. On the upper left, the scene is shown of the master of the house buying unleavened bread (Matzoh) and sweet paste of fruit and nuts (Charoset) for the Passover. In the lower right the figures are looking for leavening in the house by candlelight, and in the lower left, a man is slaughtering a sheep on the ground, while two are hanging, dead, one already skinned and another being skinned. In the same panel to the left is a man washing the dishes.

On what ideas and theories did Durer base his portrayal of the human figure?

In this engraving, Durer first applied Vitruvius' theory on human proportions (which relate to arithmetical ratios), in contrapposto poses. These are the "ideal" human figures, and were the basis for Durer's "perfect man" and "perfect woman" studies.

In what way does Raphael represent the Classical world and the idea of philosophy as a means to seek truth in this fresco of the School of Athens?

In this fresco, Raphael portrays the great philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists from the Classical world, grouping them according to the topics of their discussion, such as in the center, Plato and Aristotle each hold their treatises while Plato points upward (representing his philosophies), and Aristotle points to the earth, which represents his source of insight as observations of the natural world.

Who is depicted in the icon of the Theotokos and Child?

In this icon, the Theotokos is holding the infant Christ, and gazing forward in a serene pose. They are flanked by the saints Theodore and George, and behind them, two angels look upward to heaven.

What does Lamentation fresco depict?

In this image of the Lamentation, we see the striking humanity of Giotto's figures. The emotion is real, not symbolic. The faces express real anguish, while not over-dramatized. The bodies beneath the clothes seem to have weight and mass, and the space shows some depth as well, with the figures arranged on what feels like ground, rather than on a line or area that represented the ground.

What does the interior of Chartres Cathedral reveal about the structure?

In this image, the nave is seen with the rib and panel vault above. The pointed arches line the nave on either side. The nave is also wider than that of any other cathedral in France (52 feet), and in the center of the nave is a circular maze pattern in the floor with 320 yards of winding shapes

What is depicted in the image looking from the apse in the image of San Vitale?

In this image, the view is from the apse looking back across the nave of San Vitale. It is clear that this is not a basilica, but a centrally-planned design. It has eight piers that alternate with curving exedrae (small rooms or niches) with columned openings.

What is portrayed in the miniature called Jacob Wrestling the Angel, and how is linear perspective used in this example?

In this miniature, several events of the story leading up to and following Jacob Wrestling with the Angel are shown, including the procession of Jacob, his wives, and sons walking on the path, then crossing the bridge, which curls around to allow the narrative to fit into the space provided. The perspective is not rational, linear perspective, but skewed to fit story and communicate ideas

What techniques were used to create the Merovingian looped fibulae?

In this pair of Frankish fibulae, the technique of cloisonné is used, which involved inlaying semi-precious stones and glass into partitioned (the French meaning of cloisonné) areas of metal, creating colorful effects. To produce this, wires were soldered onto a metal base, and the separate areas were filled semi-precious stones or with glass (which was then heated to fuse the glass).

What does the plan of the Great Mosque of Cordoba depict, and in what ways is the structure different from a cathedral structure?

In this plan, the difference in structure of the mosque from the cathedral is apparent. This work contains a columned hall—called a hypostyle hall. There is also a large courtyard filled with trees and a fountain. The Umayyad caliphate imported many items that were from the lands that had originally been under their control, including from their homeland in Baghdad. Some of these items included orange and palm trees.

What else, besides the two concentric octagons, can be seen in the plan of San Vitale?

In this plan, the long horizontal oblong at the top shows the narthex (entrance) to the church, entering into the outer aisle that surrounds the central octagonal nave. The apse is opposite the main entrance, and a semicircular extension flanked by two circular sacristy.

In what way does the expression of this work reveal the humanist ideals of the Renaissance?

In this series of works, Raphael uses two frescos to represent Truth, one using theology and one philosophy, which is this work. That both means of understanding are compatible expresses the Renaissance humanist view.

How did Alberti design this façade?

In this work, Alberti organized the façade and built over three houses from the medieval period, making the structure seem lighter in weight toward the top than the lowest floor, which has smaller windows and has a more austere approach. Flat pilasters supporting full entablatures delineate each story on the palazzo. On the first floor, he used Tuscan pilasters, on the second floor, pilasters using a composite of ionic and Corinthian, and for the third floor, Corinthian pilasters

Why is the Venus of Urbino significant in the study of Renaissance painting?

In this work, Titian established the standard for the reclining female that later artists were to emulate and use as inspiration for their own art. The diagonal of her figure is balanced by the diagonal created in the color of red in the lower left corner portraying her couch, and the red of the background woman's red skirt, which also parallels the other colors in the foreground: the white linen and ivory skin, and dark curtain.

Was this portrayal of Asiel a mainstream subject? Where were works like this popular (and likely made)?

It important to note that the Council of Trent (1545-1563) had denounced angelic depictions and names except Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael. But this ban was not observed in Baroque Spain or its colonies. Portrayals of somewhat genderless angels, clothed in sumptuous garments, and carrying an harquebus (a type of gun) were popular from the late-seventeenth century through the nineteenth century in the viceroyalty of Peru, and became common throughout the Andes.

What is the correct information about the Seated Boxer?

It is a Hellenistic Greek bronze called Seated Boxer, and it was made in 100 B.C. It shows the embrace of portraying non-idealistic figures, in this case, an older man who has been defeated and shows signs of injury and damage. It portrays an aging boxer, seated in defeat, with cauliflower ears, nose and teeth broken, and a tired face. Hellenistic art connects primarily to the emotions, while Classical art appeals more to the intellect—and the concept of the ideal.

What is the origin of this sculpture, and what did the original sculptor call the Spear Bearer (Doryphorus), and why? What is the pose of this sculpture using, with the weight resting on one leg and the other resting?

It is a Roman copy in marble of an original Greek High Classical bronze sculpture. The original sculptor called the Spear Bearer Canon because it was an expression of all the perfect proportions and counterbalances. This sculpture is an example of the contrapposto pose, which was an important innovation in Classical Greek figural sculpture, showing naturalism and balance.

While this is not considered a true portrait, in depicting individual features, why would the subject be less idealized and shown with a gaunt face and full and flabby torso?

It is a symbol of a wise an literate man, a scribe, who does not exert himself physically, but intellectually.

What size is the Bayeux Tapestry, and what does it depict?

It is about 20 inches tall and 230 feet long (although some estimate that it was originally 10 feet longer, since the final scenes are not depicted. It narrates the Norman invasion of England in 1066, including the events in the two years that led up to the conquest as well as events following it. In this image, William and his followers eat a sumptuous feast, with poultry served on spits, and everyone getting their fill.

To which sculptor is the grave stele attributed, and what other Greek artform shows influence in this work?

It is attributed to Kallimachos, and it shows a similarity to Greek vase painting, in the flat background that forms negative shapes as it interacts with the foreground subjects.

What was the original format of Rebecca and Eliezer in the Vienna Genesis, and what does this scene depict?

It is believed that originally about ninety-six folios and 192 illustrations were included in the manuscript. In this image, we see the meeting of Rebecca and Eliezer at the well, and the spring is shown as a water nymph, showing the influence of classical painting on the artist.

What is the identifying information for the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel?

It is called the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, and it includes the Lamentation fresco by Giotto, located in Padua, Italy, and designed by an unknown architect c. 1303 A.D. and made of brick.

In what period and context was the Nike of Samothrace made, and what qualities identify it as such?

It is from the Greek Hellenistic period, indicated by the dramatic movement and emotional content of the sculpture, expressed even in its damaged state. The winged victory stood on the prow of the sculpted form of a Greek warship on a two-tiered fountain for the sanctuary of the great gods in Samothrace. Hellenistic artists sought to communicate the epic.

What is the scale and subject matter of Las Meninas?

It is huge, over 10x9 feet. The title means the maids of honor, and in the central area of the scene, are the infanta (princess) Marguerita and her two maids of honor, along with a woman with dwarfism, a child, and a dog.

Of what material is this sculpture made, and what does this figure represent?

It is made of marble and represents idealized youth

From what culture and from what material is The Sacrophagus of the Spouses made?

It is made of terra cotta and is from the Etruscan culture in northern Italy.

What is the intended impact of the Cornaro Chapel, and how does this relate to the art of the Counter-Reformation?

It is meant to be experienced, rather than merely seen from afar. The goal of Baroque art of the Counter-Reformation was to inspire faith and involve the viewer, and this is something that Bernini achieved very successfully.

What is significant about this portrayal of Victory, and where was this sculpture located?

It is one of the most striking of the portrayals of Nike (Winged Victory) on the parapet, dynamic and realistic. It was located on the parapet of the Temple of Athena Nike.

What was the location of this sculpture of Apulu, and how does this sculpture compare with Greek sculptures of the same period?

It is one of the roof sculptures on the Temple of Minerva. It shows more energy and excitement than the more serene Greek sculptures.

How on the images on this work "read" and which side of the standard is the first side read, and how is the king depicted?

It is read from bottom to top, and left to right, along each tier. The war side comes first. The king is shown larger, so his head breaks through the band that frames the top of the tier in which he is depicted.

What is the identifying information for the Mosque of Córdoba?

It is the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain. Constructed during the Umayyad dynasty c. 785-786 A.D. using stone masonry.

Whom does this sculpture depict, and where was it located

It portrays Hatshepsut and the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

What was the purpose of this work, and what does this sculpture express?

It portrays youth and change. It is a grave marker of a young man.

What style of architecture did the Parthenon use?

It was Doric style, refined with thinner columns than earlier applications. And there were some Ionic columns inside.

During what period and dynasty was the Temple of Amun-Re built, and where is the temple of Amun-Re located?

It was built during the New Kingdom, 18th-19th dynasty at Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt.

During what period was this monument constructed, and who designed it? As whom is Hatshepsut depicted in the surviving relief sculptures in the temple?

It was constructed in the New Kingdom and designed by Senmut. Hatshepsut is portrayed as the daughter of Amun-Re

In whose tomb was this work found and what was the function of this work?

It was found in the tomb of Hu-nefer, who was a scribe in the court of Seti I, who was father to Rameses II. It is a page from the Book of the Dead, which includes prayers and spells from the cult of Osiris (the god of the dead).

What was the likely function of this work?

It was likely ceremonial, possibly even used to apply eye makeup to a statue of a deity in one of the temples, since the center of the front has an area to hold eye makeup.

What was the purpose of this work, and of what is it made?

It was made of gold with enamel and semi-precious stone inlay and is the innermost of 3 coffins and was used in the funerary rituals in Egypt.

What kind of terrain was found in Upper Egypt, and what was its location?

It was rustic and rocky, and it was in southern Egypt (because it was upstream on the Nile, which flows south to north).

Which of the following information is correct concerning the Alexander Mosaic?

It was situated in the House of Faun, Republican Rome, 100 B.C. and made of stone tesserae, which are the individual tiles that build up the mosaic surface. This mosaic depicts the battle between Alexander the Great and Darius II, also called the Battle of Issus in southern Turkey.

What are some of the theories surrounding the style in which Michelangelo portrayed these female figures of the sybils?

Michelangelo portrayed all the female sibyls as muscular and powerful, which shows their strength and importance. Perhaps this was done to communicate their mythological divine status—that they were more than human, or perhaps it was an early statement of the strength and equal importance of women, or perhaps it was simply because Michelangelo's aesthetic sense was so influenced by the sculptural qualities of the figure's muscle and bone, that he enjoyed portraying more masculine qualities in his art, or perhaps it is also because of the availability of models, who were primarily male.

What kind of technical challenges and processes did Michelangelo use to paint the Flood?

Michelangelo worked slowly and laboriously on this scene: there are twenty-nine sections of plaster on the painting of the Flood (indicating the amount of the image that was painted at each time) some sections were possibly plastered by his assistants. Shortly after Michelangelo began painting this fresco, he noticed mold growing on the plaster, which indicated it was drying too slowly. He discovered that for the humid Roman climate, more sand was needed in the plaster. After he began increasing the proportion of sand in the plaster, no more of the frescos had problems.

What does this krater depict?

On one side, Apollo and Artemis murder the children of Niobide with arrows, and on the other side (seen only in part in the image), Heracles is surrounded by several armed warriors.

What is portrayed on the Tympanum (the semicircular area above the doors and beneath the arch) on the Church of Sainte-Foy?

On the Last Judgment Tympanum at Conques, is Christ, who sits enthroned, His right hand pointing upward to the saved and His left hand gestures down to the damned.

What does the front of the Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene?

On the front of the screen, the scene from the Great Turkish War, which was a contemporary event and based on a Dutch print of the same scene. It was a form of propaganda to advertise the power of the vast Hapsburg royal line (who were ruling Spain as well as central Europe where this battle took place).

What does the painting on the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France depict?

On the top tier are Blanche and Louis, each enthroned under their own trefoil (tri-lobed) arch, with miniature towns above the arches. Beneath them are a monk and a younger scribe, with the monk instructing the scribe about creating a book. The scribe works on an illumination on a page that has already been divided into roundels. We can see Blanche in a gesture indicating her own instruction of her son, who listens attentively. This is the dedication page for the Bible that identifies the purpose for the commission and the importance of the book.

What is the significance of the work in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria to Bernini's lifetime achievement?

One of Bernini's most important works is the Cornaro Chapel, located in the north transept of the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (Our Lady of Victory) in Rome.

What was one of Sinan's goals in designing the Mosque of Selim II? What was one of the remarkable quality of Sinan's work?

One of his goals was to surpass the achievement of the Hagia Sophia, making a dome larger than the one of that monument. Another remarkable quality of Sinan's work is that it integrates not only the square with the dome, but also integrates the octagon with these shapes.

Who was the leader who initially established the works on the Acropolis? Where did the monies come from to build the Acropolis? For what were the funds meant to be used?

Pericles established the works on the Acropolis, and the monies came from the Delean League, which were meant to protect Greece from future invasions from Persia.

Who was Peter Paul Rubens, and how was his art significant?

Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish artist, as well as an influential ambassador, traveling extensively. Rubens was known for his swirling compositions, filled with emotional impact and energy, typical of Counter-reformation art.

Whom does this sculpture represent, and what was the expressive purpose of the artistic formulae established during the Old Kingdom?

Pharaoh Menkaura and his Queen, and it was meant to express stability and eternal continuity.

What is some of the symbolism used in the frescos in the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, and why is the symbolism important?

Several frescoes allude to the sins of greed and miserliness, including a scene of Judas being paid for betraying Christ and Christ cleansing the temple, among others. Ironically, some of the local monks felt that the chapel was too ostentatious and seemed to flaunt the family's wealth, rather than make up for the underhanded means of acquiring it.

How did Japanese influence become a part of the Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene?

Since Spain also colonized the Philippines, it traded goods from Japan through the new world, and works with Asian influence were very popular in both New Spain and Spain. It shows formal elements that were inspired by Japanese art, particularly folding screens and lacquer ware. On the bottom of the screen, the artist made the surface appear similar to lacquer boxes, with Asian-inspired decorative elements.

What is significant about the style and subject of Madonna and Child with Two Angels?

Some have speculated that the model for this painting was Lucretia, and the angel turns to give the viewer a mischievous grin as he holds the Christ Child up to His mother. While the scene is very spiritual, it is also very tender, sweet, and intimate, very different from the more symbolic and abstract images of the medieval period and proto-renaissance. He seems to celebrate the tangible world in a delicate, lyrical style, in some ways, much like Botticelli's work.

How does Triumph in the Name of Jesus increase the drama and emotional intensity of the painting?

Some of the artwork literally extends into real space, like stage sets, which is consistent with the theatricality of the work and the drama intended to be part of the experience. Additionally, thin glazes of darker paint enhance shadows on the actual architectural framework in order to increase the illusion of the three-dimensionality and reality of the forms that break the border into real space.

How large were some of the above ground mounds (Tumuli) in Etruscan cemeteries and what was the purpose of the tumuli (above ground mounds) in Etruscan cemeteries?

Some tumuli were over 130 feet in diameter.They covered multiple subterranean tomb structures.

What was the function of the Alhambra, and how did it earn its name?

The Alhambra earned its name because of its reddish walls. The name is an approximation of the Arabic term for red castle. It is located on top of a hill on the left bank of the river Darro, to the west of the city of Grenada, Spain, which was a strategic point, with a view over the whole city and the meadow. The complex is surrounded by ramparts and has an irregular shape.

What is significant about the Basilica of Ulpia? What are some qualities that define its structure?

The Basilica Ulpia, which is part of Trajan's forum, dwarfed earlier basilicas in both scale and ornament. The entrances of the basilica were along the side connected to the forum, rather than on the end. It included apses on both ends, and the interior was lighted by clerestory windows created by raising the nave roof above that of the aisles.

What is the form of the Bayeux Tapestry, and to what other artforms is it stylisicially related?

The Bayeux Tapestry is not actually a tapestry at all, but a work of wool embroidery on linen. It is closely related stylistically to Romanesque manuscript illumination, and its borders contain images of real and imaginary creatures that can also be found in the books of this period.

What is significant about the Chartres Cathedral?

The Chartres Cathedral, also known as Notre Dame de Chartres, is truly a landmark of Western architecture. It is the exemplary expression of the Gothic style in architecture because it employs all the structural elements that define Gothic architecture, including the pointed arch, the rib-and-panel vault, and particularly, the flying buttresses.

What do the different names of the Colosseum/Flavian Amphitheater reveal about it?

The Colosseum is named after the colossal statue of Nero that was next to it. It is a large amphitheater, colossus means huge. It is also called the Flavian Amphitheater after the Flavian dynasty, which rose to power after Nero (the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty) committed suicide in A.D. 68. Vespasian, the first Flavian emperor built the Colosseum on top of Nero's personal parks, which transferred the use of this area from the emperor to the public. It was a shrewd political move and made the Flavian dynasty popular.

What information about the Column of Trajan is correct?

The Column of Trajan was made of marble and was 128 feet tall; it was likely designed by Apollodorus of Damascus. A spiral low relief (bas relief) frieze 625 feet long, narrating the important events in the Dacian campaign in 150 episodes. Apollodorus made the frieze wider at the top, so as its distance from the viewer grows, it also becomes larger to compensate.

What was the usual way the Etruscans worshiped before the 6th century B.C.? What were the similarities and differences in materials between the Temple of Minerva and Greek temples?

The Etruscans originally worshipped out in nature. Greek temples were made of stone, while Etruscan temples were built of wood and terra cotta. Both used gabled roofs.

What is the Golden Haggadah, and where was it likely made?

The Golden Haggadah was probably made near Barcelona in about 1320 and is one of the most remarkable surviving Spanish Haggadot manuscripts from the medieval period. The Haggadah, (meaning 'narration') is the Hebrew service-book used in Jewish households on the Passover Eve, to commemorate the Exodus from Egypt at a festive meal filled with meaning. Haggadot are some of the most frequently decorated Jewish prayer books. Used in home celebrations, Haggadot provided ample opportunities for creativity and expression. In the Golden Haggadah, the manuscript includes both the main text and Passover poems that were part of the liturgy in the Spanish rites. The text is also preceded by a cycle of miniature paintings with tooled gold backgrounds.

What does the Good Shepherd fresco from the Catacomb of Priscilla depict, and in what kind of area is it located?

The Good Shepherd Fresco is at the top of the ceiling in a cubiculum. The Good Shepherd Fresco shows Christ standing in a pose reminiscent of the contrapposto stance of Classical figures. He holds one lamb on his shoulders, and two look up to Him on either side.

What design was the original structure of the Hagia Sophia, what does it communicate through this, and what materials were used? What changes have been added to the original structure?

The Hagia Sophia fuses both the longitudinal plan (i.e., basilica), and the vertically oriented central plan (i.e., San Vitale). It is very different from Roman construction, using brick instead of concrete, and expressing the mysticism of the Eastern Christian faith. After the Muslim conquest of Byzantium, four minarets were added, and much of the interior decoration was changed.

For use in what context was the Isenheim altarpiece made?

The Isenheim altarpiece is a triptych of complex construction— built like a cabinet of statues covered by two layers of folding wings. Here we see the large altarpiece closed. The altar was commissioned for the choir of a monastery church adjacent to their hospital.

What is the identifying information for the Isenheim altarpiece, and what is the difference between its closed and open imagery?

The Isenheim altarpiece was painted by Matthias Grunewald. c. 1512-1516 A.D. using oil on wood. When closed, Grunewald portrayed saints who were especially connected to the themes of illness and suffering. St. Anthony is pictured on one wing, St. Sebastian on the other. Using these and the images of the suffering Savior as both a means to comfort and to inspire, since the work was displayed in a church connected to a hospital. When opened, the altarpiece reveals scenes of the risen Christ, the Nativity, and the Annunciation. The scene of the Resurrection is in many ways, a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection, and Ascension, as Christ is above the ground and hovers over a guard, His glory shining in a huge halo of multiple colors and pure white skin.

What is the purpose of these sculptures, and what do they depict?

The Lamassu guard against visible and invisible foes. The depict a man's head with the body of a winged bull.

What is the significance of the location of the Lindisfarne Gospels?

The Lindisfarne Gospels were made in Northumbria, on Holy Island, which is just off the coast. On this island, an early Christian outpost and monastery were founded in the first half of the 7th century by Saint Aiden, who was a monk from the Columban monastic system (founded by the Irish Saint Columba, or Colum Cille).

What does the Orant fresco, in the Catacomb of Priscilla, depict?

The Orant fresco shows a woman at three stages of her life. On the left is her marriage, and on the right, she sits on a chair (possibly a birthing chair), and nursing a child. In the center is the same woman with arms raised in prayer—in the orant posture, with her eyes raised upward as well. In this image, she symbolizes the resurrection.

How was the Pantheon originally situated and decorated, and how did Greek art influence it?

The Pantheon originally stood at the end of a long, columned courtyard, and the pediment (the triangular area above the columns) originally would have been filled with relief sculptures, possible of the battle of the titans. The porch, with its eight Corinthian columns is inspired by Greek architectural formulae, but the domed cylinder behind this porch is a revolutionary new structure.

What is the history of the Sistine Chapel and its decorations?

The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV in 1475 as the pope's chapel, and the chapel is named in his honor. Shortly after its completion in 1481, Pope Sixtus commissioned many of the finest painters to paint frescos on the walls 30 years before Michelangelo's famous works were commissioned. The ceiling was originally painted by Piero Matteo d'Amelia, whose work was destroyed in the repainting commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 from Michelangelo.

From what culture is this work, what was its purpose, where was it found, and what was found with it?

The Standard of Ur is from Sumer. Its exact use and purpose are mysterious, but it was found in a cemetery, and it was found with musical instruments, golden daggers and helmets, and even chariots.

Where on the acropolis was the Temple of Athena Nike built?

The Temple of Athena Nike was built on the bastion (which forms the foundation). A new parapet was added to help fortify it against the Persians during the Peloponnesian wars, and it was covered in images of winged victory (Nike), in different poses.

What culture built the Temple of Minerva, and what was the likely cultural influence that initiated the building of temples like this one? What is the function of a temple like this?

The Temple of Minerva was Etruscan, but shows Greek influence. This temple would have been an elaborate home for the sculptures of the gods.

What does the Temple of Zeus and Athena portray, how was it situated, and how was it used?

The Temple of Zeus and Athena was on the acropolis at Pergamum, 800 feet above the rest of the city, with the palace at the top, and terraces down the mountainside, with the altar originally integrated into its mountainside vista. It depicts the battle for the cosmos and was a dramatic setting for sacrifices to major gods in the Olympian pantheon.

What is the emphasis in movement of the interior space in the nave of Il Gesu?

The aisles are used to house individual chapels instead of an ambulatory space. The focus is toward the altar. The transepts have also been reduced to large side chapels, rather than extending outward and breaking the forward thrust of the dominant shape of the nave. This strong forward emphasis became the prominent design of Catholic churches.

What symbols and theories influenced Durer's symbolism in this engraving of Adam and Eve?

The animals are symbolic of the four humors, the choleric cat, melancholic elk, sanguine rabbit, and phlegmatic ox that were based on the ancient Greek Hippocrates' theories, but that were expanded by medieval tradition that described the humors as falling out of balance with the Fall. The cat and mouse in the foreground symbolize the predator and the innocent, and this tension also relates the interaction between the two human figures in their Fall into sin.

What culture built the Apadena, and what is another name for the Apadena?

The audience hall of Darius and Xerxes, which is a columned hall. It is from the Persian culture.

How large is the Reliquary from the Church of Sainte-Foy, what materials does it use, and how did it use spoila?

The face in this reliquary was likely originally the head of a Roman statue of a child. The repurposing of old materials and parts of art and architecture in new forms of art is known as spolia. This reliquary has a wooden core, covered in gold and silver gilt, as well as jewels and cameos, and it 33 ½ inches high.

On what work of art is the Alexander mosaic believed to have been based, and what are four artistic qualities that demonstrate the skill in the mosaic?

The famous, but lost painting by Philoxenos of Eritrea in 310 B.C. is thought to have been the basis for this mosaic. Intricate detail, cast shadows, illusionistic space, and dramatic emotional expression convey the skill and expression of this work

What are some of the characteristics of the façade of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane?

The façade is designed as a wave (seen more clearly in the image of the plan). He creates a balance between convex and concave curves. Everything is in motion, but it is a harmonious motion, not chaotic.

What is the general format and order of the frescos in the Arena Chapel?

The frescoes are arranged in a narrative order, called the fresco cycle, which presents the story of the Life of the Virgin and the Life of Christ. Each of the two main sides of the chapel has three registers, the top telling the story of Mary, the middle, telling the story of Christ's incarnation and birth, and the lower register telling the story of the Passion, Resurrection, Ascension, and Pentecost. The Chancel Arch at the east of the chapel, with the altar, contains some of the peaks in the story, and points for special emphasis that transition between one narrative and the next. The west end of the chapel includes images of Christ in glory, but does not work as a transitional point for the narrative. The view shown is looking toward the west end of the chapel.

What is the identifying information for the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza?

The frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza was commissioned by the Viceroyalty of New Spain. c. 1541-1542 A.D. and made using ink and color on paper.

What are some of the compositional techniques that Leonardo used in the Last Supper?

The long table that is placed horizontally situates Christ and His 12 apostles and creates a stark and dramatic stage for the action Leonardo conveys. Jesus, in the center, has just stated, "One of you is about to betray me." Matt. 26:22, and the reactions of the different disciples show their shock, horror, and confusion. Christ is somewhat isolated, and away from the swirling emotion around Him, yet there is also a sadness and loneliness in His isolation, foreshadowing His suffering yet to come. The disciples are groups in four sets of three. Christ is in the center both proportionally as well as the focal point of the linear perspective used in the design. All receding lines converge on the horizon behind His head.

When was the original Virgin of Guadalupe created?

The original image of Guadalupe is considered by some to be an acheiropoieta, a work that is divinely created, rather made by human hands. Others consider the image the work of an indigenous artist named Marcos Cipac (de Aquino), working in the 1550s, so about 150 years before the work shown.

What does some of the symbolism represent in the Pyxis of al-Mughira?

The ornaments include medallions showing lions eating and attacking bulls, which symbolize victory—likely an allusion to the power and importance of the Umayyad Caliphs in Spain, which were rivals of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.

In what sequence did Michelangelo paint the Genesis scenes on the ceiling, and what is the symbolism in this painting?

The painting of the Flood was the first of the Genesis scenes that Michelangelo produced on the ceiling. The image the Ark is, of course, The Church is symbolized by the ark, in which the righteous will be saved.

What information about the Pantheon is correct?

The pantheon reveals the full potential of concrete as a building material and in its ability to shape architectural space. The Emperor Hadrian, who was Trajan's successor, commissioned the Pantheon. He loved Greek art and had an active mind and energetic rule. It is not known exactly how the Pantheon was originally used for worship, but it was a temple dedicated to all the gods (pan-all Theos-gods).

What does the plan from the image set show of the Alhambra, and what does it not show?

The plan focuses on the Nasrid Palaces, while the oldest part of the Alhambra is to the west, and the most recent additions, including the palace of King Charles I is to the south, while additional courtyards and other structures in the Upper Alhambra are to the east-southeast. There are three independent areas in the Nasrid Palaces.

What does the plan of Chartres Cathedral reveal?

The plan of Chartres Cathedral shows its symmetrical and harmonious design. Its wide nave is crossed close to the center with the transept, making the choir and apse larger in proportion to the rest of the structure. It has five radiating chapels along the apse, three larger ones in the center and two smaller ones at either end. The cathedral housed the relic of the tunic of Virgin Mary. Chartres actually has a three-portal layout, which is unique.

What does the plan of Santa Sabina depict?

The plan with the dominant central axis (longitudinal) leading from entrance to apse can be seen clearly in this plan. This is the general focus of later cathedrals, usually with the addition of a transept that intersects the nave in front of the apse to create a cruciform plan (either a prominent transept as in Gothic cathedrals, or understated ones, as in Italian Baroque cathedrals).

How did the artists create the catacombs?

The soft, tufa rock allowed the early Christians to carve passageways and cubiculum, with small shelves on either side of the wall in which bodies were placed after being wrapped, and then the opening was plastered over with marble or terra cotta, depending on the wealth of the deceased. Paintings covered the surface after they had been closed.

Who was the patron for San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, and how much was the commission for designing this church?

The structure was commissioned by Cardinal Francesco Barberini for the Spanish Holy Order of the Trinity, but he later lost interest in continuing his financial support. Borromini essentially designed this for free; he was so excited to have this commission. He had a long rivalry with Bernini, who was far more well-known and financially successful.

How did the architects create a sense of dynamic strength?

The stylobyte (floor platform) bulged slightly in the center, and the columns tilted in slightly, which compensated for optical illusions of a long straight horizontal sagging in the middle.

What are the symbols of hope and new life in the painting, Fruit and Insects?

The tiny bird's eggs can symbolize new life, and the butterfly, which goes through metamorphosis, is symbolic of the resurrection, also an allusion to the Christian theology of hope in Christ's sacrifice.

What does the image of the Liberation from the Golden Haggadah depict?

The top two panels continue the last of the plagues, the death of the firstborn, adding a panel to show their funeral, adding to the importance and impact of this final blow. In the very upper right corner of the right panel, the angel of death is shown. The bottom two panels show, on the right, the pharaoh's cavalry coming after the Hebrews, while the left side shows the same cavalry drowning, with the Hebrews safe from both the water and their attackers. Water is depicted using blue wavy lines in pale and darker shades.

What does the Palette of King Narmer celebrate?

The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, which marks the end of the predynastic period.

How does the interior structure of the Sistine Chapel influence the design of the frescos it contains?

The unified architectural structure of the chapel's interior facilitates the unified sequence of narrative paintings, rather than separate windows in which images are placed, Three tiers of fresco narrative paintings make up each of the sidewalls. The altar wall, also loosely divided into three tiers, portrays a single narrative of the final judgment, which Michelangelo painted for Pope Paul III decades after he had completed the ceiling.

What was the exterior decoration and design of the Colosseum?

There are four tiers on the outside, covered in travertine, it is 160 feet tall and has 76 numbered entrances. On the ground floor, the pilasters that frame the arches are Tuscan, on the second, are Doric, on the third, Ionic, and on the fourth (top), Corinthian. These were purely ornamental, to break up the monotony of the repeating arches. And this design followed the formula usually used in Roman architecture.

Is this Good Shepherd fresco unique, or is it part of a larger tradition?

There are multiple Good Shepherd frescoes in the catacombs, usually in connection to Orants, and many showing additional stories from both the old testament and the stories of Christ's life, such as the story of Abraham and Isaac or the story of Jonah, or the raising of Lazarus. There are also symbols, such as fish, peacocks, quail, and doves, which represent different aspects of Christian beliefs.

Where are the altars, the sacristy, and the cloister shown in the plan of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane?

There are three altars: the main altar and the center back, and two smaller altars on either side of the oval. The sacristy is the rectangular room to the left, but part of the main church corner section. To the right, with a separate door to the street, is the cloister, and behind these two sections include the refectory and passage to the garden (in the upper left corner).

What do the three areas of the Nasrid Palaces contain?

There are three independent areas in the Nasrid Palaces. The first is the Mexuar, which was the part used for State affairs and semi-public concerns. It is located on the west side, close to the entrance. The area of the Comares Palace, which is the thick walled square tower at the northernmost point, and stands 45 meters high, the highest tower in the Alhambra. It and the Emperor's Palace to the east were the official residence of the king. The Comares Palace was decorated in a typically Muslim style. The Palace of the Lions (containing the Court/Patio of the Lions with its fountain), which was the private area of the palace for the Harem, was located directly south of the Emperor's palace and connected by the Hall of the Sisters and includes Christian influences in its style.

What role does the viewer play in Vermeer's painting, Woman Holding a Balance, and what is the scale and subject?

There is a quality of the voyeur in many of Vermeer's paintings, including this one, so that as the viewer, we are unseen and almost intruding on a private scene. It is a very small painting, about 16x15 inches, and in it, Vermeer uses an everyday scene to communicate deeper meaning.

What symbolism is used in the Merovingian looped fibulae?

These fibulae depict the symbol of the eagle, a popular motif in native north European art, and fish. The top of each fibula is in the shape of an Eagle's head, and they may be repeated in a smaller scale along the bottom and two on the edges. Fish are also depicted on the main body of the brooches, with different partitions for their scales.

What information about the Markets of Trajan is correct?

These markets contained shops and administrative offices, indoor market hall, and residential apartments in the upper levels. The three story structure parallels the slope of the ground beneath it. Each single room shop that opened onto the hemispherical facade had its own arched window that lit its attic, above a widely arched doorway that allowed light to enter the main shop area. Those shops that opened into the indoor market were lit by skylights.

What are the three rooms at the top of the diagram (showing the back of the temple) and what was the possible function of these rooms?

These rooms are called the triple cilla, and they were used for housing the sculptures of the three main Etruscan gods: Tinia, Uni, and Minerva.

What is the identifying information for the Merovingian looped fibulae?

These works are called Merovingian looped fibulae and are from Early medieval Europe. They were made in the mid-sixth century A.D. of silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones.

What is the identifying information for Triumph of the Name of Jesus, including its location?

This ceiling fresco is called Triumph of the Name of Jesus, and is located in Il Gesù, which is located in Rome, Italy by Giovanni Battista Gaulli between 1676-1679 A.D. The fresco, Triumph in the Name of Jesus is located above the nave, which includes the same initials, IHS, in light with a cross above them in the central area of the painting portraying the light of Heaven.

What is the identifying information for Self-Portrait with Saskia, and at what point in Rembrandt's life did he make this etching?

This etching is called, Self-Portrait with Saskia, by Rembrandt van Rijn in 1636 A.D. Rembrandt made this etching only two years after his marriage to Saskia, who became one of the artist's favorite models.

What type of work is this folding Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene?

This folding screen (biombo enconchado) originally included six additional panels, so it was twice as long as it is now. It was inspired by the Japanese folding screen, and even takes its name from the Japanese, Byobu.

What is the identifying information about the Last Supper?

This fresco is entitled the Last Supper, and was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494-1498 A.D. While it is a fresco, it is painted as a secco fresco using oil and tempera.

What is the identifying information for the School of Athens, and in what context was it made?

This fresco is entitled, School of Athens, and was painted by Raphael in 1509-1511 A.D. Raphael's School of Athens is part of a fresco series for the Pope Julius II private offices and library in the Vatican. He completed four works that each expresses an important category of understanding: Truth, Good and Beauty.

What symbolism is present in the Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe)?

This icon portrays imagery connected with Immaculate Conception symbolism, drawing motifs from the Book of Revelation and the Song of Songs.

How does this image, The Tete à Tete fit into the larger series, of Marriage a la Mode?

This image is part of a series of six paintings by Hogarth, who was most famous for his work in the media of printmaking. This is the second image in the series, showing the young man, who married the girl for money, coming home after a night of drinking and gambling, and the little dog sniffs at a bonnet, indicating he is also having an affair.

What does the symbolism in The Arnolfini Portrait reveal about culture of the northern Renaissance, particularly the Low Countries?

This integration of the religious sphere and the secular sphere is apparent in Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait, in which many religious symbols are used to communicate the ideals of earthly marriage.

What is the identifying information for Chartres Cathedral?

This is Chartres Cathedral, located in Chartres, France. It was built in Gothic Europe. Original construction c. 1145-1155 A.D.; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 A.D., and the materials used were limestone and stained glass.

What is the identifying information for Santa Sabina?

This is Santa Sabina, one of the early Christian basilica churches. It is located in Rome, Italy and is from Late Antique Europe. c. 422-432 A.D. It is made of brick and stone with a wooden roof.

What is the identifying information for the Golden Haggadah?

This is a miniature from the Golden Haggadah from late medieval Spain. c. 1320 A.D., and is an illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum.

What is another term for the Plaque of the Ergastines, and what event or activity does this sculpture likely narrate, and how was it celebrated?

This is also called the elders and maidens of the east frieze, and the Athenean procession that was part of the Panathenaic festival—part of the celebration of the victory over the Persians. The Athenaean procession began at the agora, with Ergastines carrying a newly woven peplos to the Erecthelion, to clothe a Kore that had been saved from the Persians.

What is the identifying information for the Alhambra?

This is called the Alhambra, and is located in Granada, Spain. It was built by the Nasrid Dynasty in 1354-1391 A.D. It consists of whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding.

What is the identifying information for the Bayeux Tapestry?

This is called the Bayeux Tapestry, is English or Norman, and is from Romanesque Europe. c. 1066-1080 A.D. The media is embroidery on linen.

What is the identifying information for Theotokos and Child between Saints?

This is entitled the Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George and was made in Early Byzantine Europe in the sixth or early seventh century A.D. in encaustic on wood.

What is the identifying information for this area of the Catacomb of Priscilla?

This is the "Greek Chapel" (named after some Greek letters on the walls, not an actual chapel) in the Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, Italy. It is from Late Antique Europe. c. 200-400 A.D. It was made from excavated tufa and fresco.

What is the identifying information for the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France?

This is the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France. It was made in Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 A.D. and is from an Illuminated manuscript, using ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum.

What is the identifying information for the Reliquary from the Church of Sainte-Foy?

This is the Reliquary from the Church of Sainte-Foy in Conques, France. The reliquary itself is from the ninth century A.D., with later additions of gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood.

What is the identifying information for the Sistine Chapel?

This is the Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes, located in Vatican City, Italy. Michelangelo painted the ceiling frescos c. 1508-1512 A.D., and the altar frescos c. 1536-1541 A.D.

What is the identifying information for the St. Matthew cross-carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels?

This is the St. Matthew cross-carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels, from Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 A.D. It is an Illuminated manuscript, made from ink, pigments, and gold on vellum.

What is the identifying information for the Scenes from the Apocalypse?

This miniature is entitled, Scenes from the Apocalypse and is from Bibles moralisées, and made in Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 A.D. It is part of an iIlluminated manuscript, using ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum.

What is the identifying information for Madonna and Child with Two Angels?

This painting is called Madonna and Child with Two Angels, painted by Fra Filippo Lippi. c. 1465 A.D. in tempera on wood.

What is the identifying information for the Venus of Urbino, and who was Titian?

This painting is called Venus of Urbino, and was painted by Titian. c. 1538 A.D. using oil on canvas. Titian was a Venetian artist who was instrumental in the change to painting on canvas, replacing the popular wood panels of the earlier Renaissance and medieval period. He worked on a canvas under-painted with a red ground, which gave his works a rich warmth.

What is the identifying information about the Birth of Venus?

This painting is called the Birth of Venus and was painted by Sandro Botticelli. c. 1484-1486 A.D. in tempera on canvas.

What is the identifying information for Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo, and where would this work have fit into a Casta painting series?

This painting is called, Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo and is attributed to Juan Rodríguez Juárez. c. 1715 A.D. using oil on canvas. It is a typical casta (caste) painting. The first image in one of these series usually depicted a Spaniard with a well-dressed Native women, accompanied by their child, who is labeled a mestizo. As the casta series progresses and the mixing of different races increases, some of the labels used became derogatory.

What is the identifying information for the Hunters in the Snow, and how does this painting relate to the larger work of which it is part?

This painting is entitled Hunters in the Snow and was painted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in 1565 A.D. using oil on wood. This is one of six panel paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder portraying landscape scenes that represent different seasons.

What is the identifying information for the Entombment of Christ?

This painting is entitled, Entombment of Christ, painted by Jacopo da Pontormo from 1525-1528 A.D. It uses oil on wood as the media.

What is the identifying information for the painting, Fruit and Insects? What kind of a career did the artist have?

This painting is entitled, Fruit and Insects, painted by Rachel Ruysch in 1711 A.D. using oil on wood. Ruysch's paintings were very popular during her lifetime, and her career spanned over 60 years. Even in her life, her paintings sold for twice what Rembrandt's did.

What is the identifying information for Las Meninas? How is Las Meninas significant in Velazquez's work?

This painting is entitled, Las Meninas and was painted by Diego Velázquez. c. 1656 A.D. using oil on canvas. Las Meninas is the crowning achievement of Velázquez's illustrious career.

What is the identifying information for Woman Holding a Balance?

This painting is entitled, Woman Holding a Balance, painted by Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 A.D. using oil on canvas, in the Dutch Republic.

How does Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici fit into the larger series of which it is a part, and what does this series depict?

This painting is one of a series of twenty-four monumental paintings that Rubens painted for Marie de' Medici, who was one of the most powerful women in Europe.

What does the painting, Fruit and Insects, portray, and what kind of symbolism is present?

This painting seems to be about Autumn, and the harvest. The grapes and wheat also have Christian symbolic value, particularly of the Eucharist.

What is the identifying information for the print of Allegory of Law and Grace?

This print is entitled, Allegory of Law and Grace, made by Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 A.D. using woodcut and letterpress. It is based on an oil painting of the same title.

What is the significance of the scene of the Last Judgment on the entrance to a church?

This scene would have served as a reminder to those entering the Church of Saint-Foy about the joys of heaven and torments of hell. The last judgment is one of the most common themes of tympanums, reminders of the reward awaiting all at the end of life.

What does the scene of a battle from the Bayeux Tapestry portray?

This scene, from the Bayeux Tapestry (Embroidery) shows the English fighting bravely in the Battle of Hastings, wielding battle axes and javelins, and throwing rocks, but they are no match for the Norman cavalry, who plow into them and defeat them.

What is the identifying information for the Rottgen Pieta, and what does the title communicate about this work?

This sculpture is entitled the Rottgen Pietà, from Late medieval Europe. c. 1300-1325 A.D. It is made of painted wood. A Pieta (meaning pity or mercy) is a visual representation of the Virgin Mary holding Christ's body after the descent from the cross. It is meant as a reflective piece. A Pieta is related to the similar scene of the Lamentation of Christ, which is also taken from the Passion, except the Pieta is more reflective, and quieter. Most commonly it consists of only of the dead Jesus lying on the lap of the Virgin Mary.

What is the identifying information for the sculpture of David, and where was the finished sculpture located?

This sculpture is entitled, David, sculpted by Donatello. c. 1440-1460 A.D. and cast in bronze. Donatello sculpted this bronze for the Medici courtyard

What is the identifying information for the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria?

This structure is called the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, in Rome, Italy. Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed the architecture and sculpted the works inside, in the Cornaro Chapel c. 1647-1652 A.D. Marble (sculpture); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel).

What is the identifying information for the Palazzo Rucellai?

This structure is entitled, Palazzo Rucellai and is located in Florence, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti was the architect who designed it c. 1450 A.D. It was built of stone and masonry.

What is the significance of the Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere window, and where is it located?

This window is called Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere window and is located at Chartres Cathedral. And is also called "The Blue Virgin" because of this intense blue light, that filters through it, and it is also known as "Our Lady of the Beautiful Window" (English translation of the above name). This window is located on the south side of the Cathedral, at the entrance to the choir, and it is one of the few windows to have survived the fire in 1194. No unfiltered light enters the cathedral. Chartres' many blue-tinged and red stained-glass windows create an otherworldly light, unlike any other space in existence, particularly because most of its 12th-and 13th-century stained glass windows survive.

What is the identifying information about Adam and Eve?

This work is called Adam and Eve, by Albrecht Durer in 1504 A.D. It is an engraving, which is a type of print.

What is the identifying information for the miniature called Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis?

This work is called Jacob Wrestling the Angel, and is from the Vienna Genesis. It was made in Early Byzantine Europe in the early sixth century A.D. which was an illuminated manuscript made of tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum.

What is the identifying information for the miniature of Rebecca and Eliezer from the Vienna Genesis?

This work is called Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well, and is from the Vienna Genesis. It was made in Early Byzantine Europe in the early sixth century A.D. which was an illuminated manuscript made of tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum.

What is the identifying information for San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, and what does the title, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane mean

This work is called San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, in Rome, Italy. Francesco Borromini was the architect, designing it from 1638-1646 A.D. of stone and stucco. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane means Saint Charles of the four fountains. It is sometimes called Carolino, or little Charles, since it is a small church, since there are four fountains at this intersection, one at the corner of the church.

What is the identifying information for San Vitale?

This work is called San Vitale and is located in Ravenna, Italy. It is an example of architecture from Early Byzantine Europe. c. 526-547 A.D. and is made of brick, marble, stone veneer, and mosaic.

What is the identifying information for the Arnolfini Portrait?

This work is called The Arnolfini Portrait, painted by Jan van Eyck. c. 1434 A.D., using oil on wood.

What is the identifying information for Hagia Sophia?

This work is called the Hagia Sophia (holy wisdom), built in Constantinople (Istanbul). Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus were the architects, constructing the church from 532-537 A.D. It is made of brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer.

What is the identifying information for the Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe)?

This work is called the Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe), created by Miguel González. c. 1698 A.D. Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe. Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. 16th century A.D. Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

What is the identifying information for the Annunciation Triptych?

This work is entitled the Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece), and is from the workshop of Robert Campin, made between 1427-1432 A.D. and using oil on wood.

What is the identifying information for Mosque of Selim II? Who was the architect, and how does this structure relate to the rest of his work?

This work is entitled the Mosque of Selim II, built in Edirne, Turkey by Sinan between 1568-1575 A.D. of brick and stone. The Mosque of Selim II was designed by the architect known as Sinan the Great when he was almost 80 years old. It was his crowning achievement.

What is the identifying information for The Tete à Tete?

This work is entitled, The Tete à Tete, from the series called Marriage à la Mode, by William Hogarth. c. 1743 A.D. This painting is oil on canvas, but they were also transferred to printed versions.

What is the identifying information for the Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene?

This work is known as the Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene, made for the circle of the González Family. c. 1697-1701 A.D. using tempera and resin on wood, and shell inlay. It was made in the region now in Mexico, but at the time, called New Spain.

What is the identifying information for the Calling of Saint Matthew, and who was Caravaggio?

This work is the Calling of Saint Matthew by Caravaggio, c. 1597-1601 A.D. using oil on canvas.Michelangelo Merisi, known to history as Caravaggio, after the name of his hometown, was one of the most influential Italian Baroque artists.

What is the identifying information for the Church of Sainte-Foy?

This work of architecture is called the Church of Sainte-Foy, located in Conques, France. It was built during the Romanesque period in Europe. c. 1050-1130 A.D

What is the identifying information for the Palace at Versailles?

This work of architecture is the Palace at Versailles in Versailles, France. The architects were Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, constructing this 1669 A.D. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf, including marble and bronze sculptures and gardens.

Where was the Altar of Zeus and Athena built and what are some of the influences and emotional expression in this work?

This work was built on the acropolis at Pergamum and communicates power, empire, and conquest, and these concepts were also influential in the creation of this work.

What changes in society inspired The Tete à Tete?

This work was made during the beginnings of the industrial revolution, and communicates to an audience that is living in a rapidly changing society, politically, economically and socially, which all impacted the morality. It is this change in morality that Hogarth addresses in this series.

What significance does the miniature of the St. Luke Incipit Page have?

This work, the St. Luke incipit page, is the third page in the series of illustrated introductory Gospel pages. Its highly ornate initial letters and words of the Gospel text provide a visual transition from the intensely visual forms of the earlier illustrations and cross-carpet pages to the text itself. The calligraphy throughout is insular majuscule, with a very elegant forming of each of the letters.

What was the purpose of showing King Narmer larger than the other figures? What makes this work exceptional?

To establish Narmer as a superhuman god-king. It is commemorative, rather than funerary, as was the usual practice in ancient Egypt.

How does the sculptor show virtuosic handling of the figure in Victory adjusting her sandal?

Transparent drapery reveals the form underneath as well as adding movement and patterns of light and dark.

What was the metaphor used to describe Sumerian temples originally? How were the White Temple and Ziggurat aligned?

Waiting rooms, implying that it was a place where the priests waited for the deities to descend. The corners were aligned to the four cardinal points.

In what ways was Leonardo's technique in painting this fresco different from buon fresco, and what issues did this cause?

While it has been recently cleaned and restored, the painting remains in poor condition. It was painted as a fresco, but applying the paints to dry plaster (a secco), as opposed to true fresco (buon fresco) which is applied to wet plaster. He mixed oil and tempera, and very quickly, the paint began to flake. While true fresco actually bonds the pigment to the plaster, so that as it dries, the paint becomes part of the wall, when using dry, a secco approach, the paint rests on the surface. If there is any moisture in the wall (from rain, leaky roof, humidity, etc.), the plaster can make the surface paint flake off.

What can be understood from the façade of Chartres Cathedral that is important to the understanding of this work?

While much of the cathedral is in the high Gothic style, the façade was built earlier (before the fire), in early Gothic style. The mismatched west spires show the organic development of the architecture of Chartres. The south spire is a 349-foot high plain Romanesque pyramid dating from the 1140s (on the right), while the north is a 377-foot early 16th-century Flamboyant Gothic spire on top of an older tower (on the left).