APES Chapter 10, 11

How Should We Protect and Sustain Freshwater Lakes, Rivers, and Fisheries?

Freshwater ecosystems are strongly affected by human activities on adjacent lands, and protection of these ecosystems must include protection of their watersheds.

Describe economic services of forests

Fuelwood, lumber, pulp to make paper, mining, livestock grazing, recreation, and jobs.

How should we meet and sustain parks and natural reserves?

More effective protection of existing parks and natural reserves as well as protection of much more of the earth remaining undisturbed land area.

What is another way to reduce pressure on tree harvest?

Use of tree-free fibers for papermaking is another way to reduce pressure on tree harvest.

Define ecological tipping point

the point of no return

Describe what happened in natural capital degradation in deforestation

water pollution and soil degradation from erosion Acceleration in flooding local extinct of specialist species hab. loss for native and migrate species release CO2 and loss of CO2 absorption

Describe the importance of offshore fishing zones

A country's offshore fishing zone extends 370 kilometers from its shores. 1. Ocean areas beyond these Exclusive Economic Zones, called the high seas, are difficult to monitor. 2. The World Conservation Union helped establish a global system of marine protected areas (MPAs). 3. There are about 4,000 MPAs; however, most MPAs allow ecologically harmful activities like trawling, dredging, and resource extraction.

What percentage of earths surfaces do forests take up?

30% excluding Antarctica and Greenland

What percentage of forests are second growth, primary forests, and tree plantations?

60% of all forests are second growth, 36% are primary forest, and 4% are tree plantations.

How should we focus on protecting ecosystems and their biodiversity rather than distinct species?

1. Map and inventory ecosystems. 2. Identify the most endangered ecosystems. 3. Restore degraded ecosystems. 4. Make development biodiversity-friendly via tax breaks.

What are the primary causes of tropical forest destruction?

1. Population growth and poverty drive subsistence farmers to tropical forests where they attempt to farm. 2. Government subsidies make tropical forest resources cheap—relative to their full ecological value. 3. Degradation begins when roads are cut into the forest for logging. Selective cutting removes the best timber (high grade). 4. Healthy rain forests do not burn, but logging, settlements, grazing, and farming have fragmented the forest; they dry out, making them more flammable. 5. Burning contributes to global climate change, accounting for 17% of the annual greenhouse gas emissions.

What approached do scientists take to study how natural systems recover and are learning to speed repair operations?

1. Restoration returns a degraded habitat to a condition as close to its natural state as possible. 2. Rehabilitation involves trying to restore an ecosystem to a functional state rather than is original state. 3. Replacement is replacing a degraded ecosystem with a productive pasture or tree farm. 4. Creating artificial ecosystems is another possibility.

What percentage of marine species and freshwater species may face extinction?

A. Many fish species are threatened with extinction. 1. 27% of marine species and 71% of freshwater species may face extinction within the next 60-70 years.

How is protecting marine biodiversity challenging? What National Laws and International laws and treaties help protect them?

A. Protecting marine biodiversity is challenging because it is difficult to monitor the impact of the human ecological footprint, oceans are unseen by most people, oceans are often thought to be inexhaustible resources, and most of the ocean area lies outside of the jurisdiction of any nation. 1. National and international laws and treaties include CITES, the 1979 Global Treaty on Migratory Species, the US Marine Mammal Protection Act, the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Whale Conservation and Protection Act, and the International Convention on Biological Diversity.

Describe the Case Study: Deforestation and the fuelwood crisis

About half the wood harvested each year in the U.S., and three-fourths of that in developing countries, is used for fuel. Rings of deforested land surround cities, and the demand for fuelwood in urban areas exceeds the sustainable yield of nearby forests. Community forestry projects involve local people in planting small plantations of fast-growing fuelwood trees in community wood lots. People can use more efficient, less polluting woodstoves, solar ovens, or electric hotplates powered by windpower to reduce the demand for fuelwood.

What are the major threats to forests?

Accidental and deliberate introductions of forest diseases and insects are a major threat to forests.

Clear cutting forests: advantages and disadvantages

Advan.: Higher timber yields, maximum profits in shorter time, can reforest fast growing trees Disadvan.: Reduces biodiversity, destroys and fragments wildlife habitats, and can lead to pollution flooding, and erosion expeci. on slopes

Describe the Case Study: Can we restore the Florida Everglades?

An ambitious restoration project is trying to undo the human damage in South Florida's Everglades. The natural Everglades is half its original size and is drying out, leaving it vulnerable to fire and invasion by nonnative species. Everglades National Park was set up in the lower part of the Everglades, but water didn't flow into it and human activity caused disturbances. Ninety percent of the wading birds are gone and other vertebrates are reduced in number by 75-95%. Florida Bay has become saltier and warmer due to lack of water flow from the Everglades and the Kissimmee River. Loss of water flow and input from crop fields and cities has caused large algal blooms on the bay. These blooms threaten coral reefs and hinder diving, fishing, and the tourist industry of the bay and the Florida Keys. The U.S. Army Corp of Engineers has begun a restoration project funded by the state and the federal government to restore the meandering river and flow of water to the Everglades. It has several ambitious goals, which include restoring curving flow of more than half of the Kissimmee River, removing 250 miles of canals and levees south of Lake Okeechobee, buying 93 square miles of farmland and allowing it to flood to create artificial marshes, creating a network of artificial marshes, creating 18 large reservoirs to ensure water for south Florida's present and future population and the lower Everglades, and building new canals, reservoirs, and pumping stations to capture and return to the Everglades 80% of the water flowing out to sea.

Define old growth/primary forest

An uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for 200 years or more

What is an approach to biodiversity conservation?

Another approach to biodiversity conservation is to protect those areas where vital ecosystem processes are being impaired.

What Are the Major Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services?

Aquatic species and the ecosystem and economic services they provide are threatened by habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation, all made worse by the growth of the human population and resource use.

How is biodiversity valuable to humans

B. Biodiversity can be valuable to local communities that develop eco-tourism markets.

What is the projected percentage of people living on the coast in 2020? How can this population growth effect the ocean?

By 2020, 80% of the world's population will live near coasts. Population growth and pollution have drastic effects on ocean systems. 1. Pollutants such as nitrogen from fertilizers can cause algal blooms and eutrophication. 2. Toxic pollutants can kill some aquatic life forms. 3. Plastic garbage in the oceans is having detrimental effects on wildlife.

_________ threatens aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services

Climate change threatens aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems services.

How does climate change threaten forests?

Climate change threatens many forests. 1. Some species are sensitive to heat.

What is the significance of wetlands, and the amount that is still left in the world

Coastal and inland wetlands are important reservoirs of aquatic biodiversity; they provide ecological and economic services. 1. Despite their value, the U.S. has lost more than half of its coastal and inland wetlands since 1900. 2. Wetland loss in the U.S. will get worse as global warming leads to rising sea levels, which will put many coastal wetlands under water.

Describe what the three-tiered classification scheme Congress established.

Congress established a three-tiered classification scheme: 1. Wild rivers are relatively inaccessible; they are not permitted to be widened, straightened, dredges, filled or dammed. 2. Scenic rivers are free from dams, mostly undeveloped, of great scenic value, and accessible in some places by roads. 3. Recreational rivers are readily accessible by roads and may have some dams or development along their shores. 4. In 2009, Congress increased the total length of wild and scenic rivers by half. Still, less than 1% of the country's total river length is protected.

How should we manage and sustain grasslands?

Controlling the numbers and distribution of grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.

Describe how and why deforestation is widespread across the planet.

Deforestation is widespread across the planet and is continuing. 1. World Resources Institute surveys indicate that original forest cover has decreased by about 46%. 2. Global deforestation is occurring by at least 0.2-0.5% per year, with most losses taking place in developing countries. 3. If conditions don't change within the next 10-20 years, 40% of the world's remaining forests will have been logged or converted to other uses.

What are the different effects of harvesting methods on the environment?

Different harvesting methods affect the continuing growth of forests. 1. In selective cutting, intermediate-aged/mature trees are cut singly or in small groups. 2. Clear-cutting removes every single tree in one cutting. 3. Strip cutting removes a strip of trees along the contour of the land and spreads the cutting out over several decades.

How do the different types of fires affect forest ecosystems?

Different types of fires affect forest ecosystems. 1. Surface fires usually burn underbrush, leaf litter, and small seedlings, but most wild animals survive. They have benefits such as burning flammable ground material to prevent more destructive fires and release nutrients, stimulate germination of some seeds, and control pathogens and insects. 2. Crown fires are extremely hot and leap from treetop to treetop. Buildup of ground litter increases likelihood of crown fires that result in greater destruction and soil erosion.

How should we manage and sustain forests?

Emphasizing the economic value of their ecosystem services, removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting old-growth forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.

How can environmental degradation be reversed partially?

Environmental degradation can be partially reversed through ecological restoration.

What does the establishment of habitat corridors help with?

Establishment of habitat corridors helps to support more species and allows migration of vertebrates with large ranges. 1. Migration of individuals can occur when environmental conditions deteriorate within a range. 2. They can also threaten isolated populations by allowing movement of pest species, disease, fire, and exotic species between reserves. 3. They may be costly to acquire, protect, and maintain.

How can fire management be improved?

Fire management can be improved. 1. The Smokey Bear educational campaign taught that fire is bad. Ecologists suggest that putting out all fires increases the risk of a catastrophic fire event. 2. According to the Forest Service, severe fire could threaten 40% of federal forest lands due to fuel buildup. 3. Risk can be reduced via prescribed fire, allowing natural fires to burn, clearing vegetation from around structures, and manual thinning in fire prone areas. .

What are major threats to forest ecosystems?

Forest ecosystems provide services far greater in value than the value of raw materials obtained from forests. Major threats are: Unsustainable cutting and burning of forests, along with diseases and insects, all made worse by projected climatechange, are the chief threats to forest ecosystems.

How are forests classified, and describe old growth forests/frontier forests, and second-growth forests.

Forests are classified according to their age and structure into two major types. 1. Old growth/frontier forests are storehouses of biodiversity because of the ecological niches they provide for wildlife species. 2. Second-growth forests develop in an area after human activities or natural forces have removed them.

Describe the Case Study: Many cleared forests in the US have grown back

Forests cover about 30% of the land area in the United States. Early in the nation's history, forests were decimated. Today, however, forests cover more land area in the U.S. than they did in 1920. Much of this is second growth. On the other hand, much of the nation's old-growth forest has been replaced with simplified tree plantations.

Forests provide valuable _______ and _________. Forests provide habitats for what fraction of terrestrial species?

Forests provide valuable ecological and economic services. 1. Forests provide habitat for about 2/3 of all terrestrial species.

What are government subsidies intending to do?

Government subsidies that are intended to keep businesses afloat can encourage overfishing.

What do grasslands provide, and how much have we impacted them?

Grasslands provide many important ecological services yet are the second-most altered ecosystem.

Describe the Science Focus: Ecological restoration of a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica.

Guanacaste National Park in Costa Rica is the site of one of the world's largest ecological restoration projects. The project involves local community members in the restoration effort. Many local students have been trained in restoration ecology. This project is guided by the belief that it will ultimately fail unless the local communities see some economic benefit in its success.

What threatens marine biodiversity the most? What fraction of fish extinctions is it blamed for?

Harmful invasive species increasingly threaten marine biodiversity. 1. Blamed for 2/3 of fish extinctions in the United States, and may cost the nation about $16 million/hour.

What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services?

Identifying and protecting severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots), sustaining ecosystem services, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate.

What factor would reduce pressure to harvest trees on public and private land?

Improving the efficiency of wood use would reduce pressure to harvest trees on public and private land.

Describe the Case Study: Grazing and urban development in the American West - Cows or condos?

In the U.S. southwest a growing number of ranchers are selling their property to developers. This has fragmented the grazing areas available. Conservation easements have been established, which bar future owners from developing land. The main goal is to preserve western lands and areas suitable for grazing.

What is required to fill of deposit dredge material? What policy has a goal of zero net loss?

In the U.S., a federal permit is required to fill or deposit dredge material into many wetlands. 1. The U.S. federal policy is a zero net loss goal; mitigation banking allows destruction of some wetlands as long as the same type of wetland is created elsewhere.

______________ are assigned to each fisherman, and these can then be bought, sold, or leased like private property.

Individual transfer rights (ITRs) are assigned to each fisherman, and these can then be bought, sold, or leased like private property.

What is Integrated Coastal Management, and is it a good idea?

Integrated coastal management is a community-based effort to develop and use coastal resources more sustainably. 1. The idea is to find cost-effective, adaptable solutions to preserve biodiversity while meeting economic and social needs.

Describe the Case Study: Can the Great Lakes survive repeated invasion by alien species?

Invasions by nonnative species have upset the ecological functioning of the Great Lakes for decades, with more invaders coming. At least 162 nonnative species have invaded the Great Lakes since the 1920s. Measures have been taken to control a number of these species. Sea lampreys are one of the biggest threats and have depleted a number of the sport fish species in the lakes. Zebra mussels were brought into the lakes in ballast and have become very aggressive pests since they have no known natural enemies. They have displaced native mussel species, clogged pipes and piers, fouled beaches, and have spread to other parts of the U.S. Quagga mussels invaded the Great Lakes in 1991 and Asian Carp are now found within a few miles of Lake Michigan..

Describe the Case Study: the great jellyfish invasion

Jellyfish are often found in large swarms or blooms of thousands, even millions of individuals. In recent years, the numbers of these blooms observed by scientists and fishers have been rising and more frequent jellyfish stings have had a harmful economic effect on a number of popular tourist beach areas. Each year, the stings of lethal jellyfish kill dozens of people—far more than the annual average number of people killed by sharks. In addition, jellyfish blooms often cause beach closings, disrupt commercial fishing operations by clogging nets, and close down coal-burning and nuclear power plants by clogging their cooling water intakes.

Describe the Science Focus: How invasive carp have muddied some waters

Lake Wingra in Wisconsin receives excessive nutrients from runoff and is populated by invasive species, including carp and purple loosestrife. The carp devour the algae that would normally stabilize sediments on the lake bottom. Scientific experiments that involved excluding carp from a study area showed that algae recolonized and the lake water became noticeably clearer. There is now an effort to remove the carp from the rest of the lake to alleviate the effects of this invasive species.

Describe how different sized reserves help protect a variety of habitats.

Large reserves are usually the best way to protect biodiversity, but in some locales several well-placed, medium-sized, isolated reserves may be a better way to protect a variety of habitats. 1. Buffer zones establish an inner zone of intact habitat. 2. The United Nations has established 553 biosphere reserves globally, based on this principle.

What are life-raft ecosystems?

Life-raft ecosystems are those in which people live in extreme poverty and must degrade ecosystem processes to survive.

Describe how livestock impacts the grasslands.

Livestock often overgraze on rangelands (non-managed grasslands) and pastures (managed grasslands), causing soil and erosion and exploitation by invasive plants.

Describe the Science Focus: Ocean Acidification the other CO2 problem

Ocean water is basic. When atmospheric CO2 combines with ocean water it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). As ocean water becomes less basic, the level of carbonate ions drops. Many aquatic species use carbonate ions to produce calcium carbonate. Harmful effects are already being felt. In Oregon, oyster larvae have died off in large numbers in recent years. According to most scientists, the only way to slow these changes is through a quick and sharp reduction in the use of fossil fuels around the world.

What is one way to prevent overfishing?

One way to prevent overfishing is to develop better ways to protect fish populations. The maximum sustained yield mathematical model is used, but indications are that it has hastened the collapse of most commercially valuable stocks for several reasons.

Define Optimum sustained yield. What is another approach to multi-species management, and what is the past uses of these managements?

Optimum sustained yield is a concept that takes into account interactions with other species and allows more room for error. Another approach is multi-species management of a number of interaction species, which accounts for competition and predator-prey interactions. 1. There has been limited management of several large marine systems, such as the Mediterranean Sea. 2. Many fisheries scientists and environmentalists are interested in using the precautionary principle for management of fisheries and marine systems.

How can overfishing have drastic effects on biodiversity?

Overfishing can have drastic effects on biodiversity. 1. Global fishing is taking 57% more than sustainable yield. 2. Overfishing can lead to commercial extinction, which occurs when it is no longer profitable to continue fishing the affected species. 3. When populations of predatory species dwindle, invasives can take over.

How are Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists working together to protect grasslands? How can Invasive Plants be combated?

Ranchers, ecologist, and environmentalists in the United States are working together to protect grasslands by rotating livestock. E. Invasive plants can be combated with herbicides, mechanical removal, and controlled burning.

What does Reconciliation Ecology involve?

Reconciliation Ecology involves inventing, establishing, and maintaining new habitats for species to coexist with humans.

How can reconciliation ecology help aquatic ecosystems?

Reconciliation ecology can be directed at bringing back reefs, mangrove forests, coastal marshes and sea grass beds.

Describe the Science Focus: Putting a price tag on nature's ecosystem services

Researchers have attempted to devise a method to place a monetary value on ecosystem services. They hope that these efforts will make people aware that: ecosystem services are essential for humans and their economies, the economic value of ecosystem processes is substantial, and sustainably managed ecosystems are a long-term source of income.

Why are rivers/streams important ecological and economic resources?

Rivers/streams are important ecological and economic resources, but they can be degraded by overfishing, pollution, dams, and water withdrawal.

Describe the Case Study: Madagascar: An Endangered center of biodiversity

Roughly 90% of the species found in Madagascar are unique. They are also the most endangered due to severe habitat loss. Only about 17% of the island's original vegetation remains. Despite efforts to preserve Madagascar's biodiversity, less than 3% of its land area is officially protected.

Describe the Science Focus: Certifying sustainably grown timber and products such as the paper used in this book

Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) is part of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which certifies timber and products generated from environmentally sound and sustainable practices. Still, as of 2009, only 5% of the world's forested area is certified. B. Improving the efficiency of wood use would reduce pressure to harvest

How are scientists helping to sustain marine biodiversity?

Scientists are advocating an ecosystems approach to sustaining marine biodiversity. 1. This would entail a network of protect marine reserves, closed to extractive activities. 2. Studies show that fish are larger, reproduce more often, and are present in greater variety. 3. Less that 1% of the world's ocean area is closed to fishing in marine reserves.

Describe the Science Focus: Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park

Scientists are monitoring the gray wolves that have been reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park. The effects of this reintroduction have been many. They are impacting the populations and behaviors of large grazing animals. This has helped to restore riparian zones that were degraded by elk. Coyote populations have also been decreased. It will take decades of research to understand the way these animals impact the functioning of their ecosystem.

Describe the Core Cast Study: The plight of sea turtles

Sea turtles have been roaming the oceans for more than 100 million years. Today all seven species are in danger of extinction mostly because of human activities. Trawler fishing has destroyed much sea turtle habitat. Turtles are hunted for leather, and their eggs are taken for food. Ocean pollution is another major threat to sea turtles. Rising sea levels will flood many nesting habitats and change ocean currents.

What are the different ways to harvest trees?

Selective cutting, clear-cutting, and strip cutting. (all has self explanatory definitions)

Describe the Case Study: Why should we protect sharks?

Sharks are a keystone species. Media coverage of shark attacks greatly exaggerates the danger from sharks. For every shark that injures or kills a person, people kill about 1.2 million sharks. About 32% of the world's open-ocean shark species are threatened with extinction. Sharks are especially vulnerable to population declines because they grow slowly, mature late, and have only a few offspring per generation.

Describe the rotation cycle of cutting and regrowth of monoculture tree plantations

Short usually twenty to thirty years, in tropical can be six to ten years.

What are different ways communities help the aquatic systems?

Some fishing communities regulate fish harvests on their own and others work with the government to regulate them. Influx of large modern fishing boats and fleets has weakened the ability to regulate and sustain local fisheries. Many community management systems are now co-managed, where community and government work together to manage fisheries. 1. Central government sets quotas for various species and divides the quotas among communities. 2. Government may also limit fishing seasons and regulate gear to be used. 3. Each community then allocates its quota among members.

Ecosystem services of Forests

Supports energy flow and chemical cycling, reduce soil erosion, absorb and release water, purify water and air, influence local and regional climate, store atmospheric carbon, and provides numerous wildlife habitats.

What are the two types of fires that affect forest ecosystems?

Surface fires (burn only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor, kills mature trees allows wild animals to escape) and crown fires (extremely hot fire that leaps from treetop to treetop, burning whole trees)

What does sustainable management of freshwater fish promotes?

Sustainable management of freshwater fish involves encouraging populations of commercial/sport fish species, prevents overfishing, and reduces or eliminated less desirable fish populations.

How Should We Manage and Sustain Marine Fisheries?

Sustaining marine fisheries will require improved monitoring of fish and shellfish populations, cooperative fisheries management among communities and nations, reduction of fishing subsidies, and careful consumer choices in buying seafood.

What Should Be Our Priorities for Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity?

Sustaining the world's aquatic biodiversity requires mapping it, protecting aquatic hotspots, creating large and fully protected marine reserves, protecting freshwater ecosystems, and restoring degraded coastal and inland wetlands.

Why was the Columbia river altered?

The Columbia River has been altered by 119 dams and withdrawal of water for agriculture.

What is the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act?

The National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act was passed in 1968 to protect rivers and river segments with outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, wildlife, historical, or cultural values.

Describe the Case Study: Stresses on US public parks

The U.S. National Park system includes 58 major national parks. Their popularity brings pollution and associated problems with overuse. Non-native species threaten biodiversity in parks, which are often isolated amidst development. Inadequate budgets add to the challenges faced by our national parks.

What are the greatest threats to the biodiversity of oceans? What are some threats towards aquatic ecosystems?

The greatest threat to the biodiversity of oceans is loss and degradation of habitats. 1. Coral reefs, mangrove forests, and coastal wetlands are under great pressure from human activities. 2. Trawling and dredging are major threats to sea bottom habitats. 3. Dams and excessive water withdrawal are destroying freshwater habitats.

Describe the Case Study: Identifying and Protecting biodiversity in Costa Rica

The most impressive country for conserving its land and natural resources has been Costa Rica. It has established a system of reserves and national parks, and it devotes a larger portion of its land to biodiversity conservation than any other country. It has consolidated its parks and reserves into eight megareserves, which help generate a $1 billion per year in ecotourism industry. Costa Rica once had one of the highest rates of deforestation and now has one of the lowest.

What is the environmental impact of logging roads?

The presence of logging roads increase erosion and sediment runoff, fragment habitats, and contribute to loss of biological diversity. 1. They expose forest to invasion by nonnative pests, diseases, and wildlife species.

What are the different threats to freshwater ecosystems?

There are many threats to freshwater ecosystems, including habitat destruction, invasive species, climate change and overharvesting fish.

How many national parks are there, and which provides the greatest biodiversity?

There are more than 1,100 national parks in more than 120 countries. 1. Parks in developing countries possess the greatest biodiversity, but are least protected.

How can we reverse the harmful effects we have on biodiversity in the next few decades?

There is evidence that the harmful effects of human activities on biodiversity can be reversed over the next two decades. 1. This must entail an ecosystem approach to protecting biodiversity. 2. Priorities should be mapping aquatic biodiversity, identifying and preserving hotspots, creating fully protected marine reserves, protecting and restoring lakes and rivers, initiating ecological restoration projects worldwide, and finding ways to raise the incomes of people who live near protected waters.

What are the three patterns of marine biodiversity?

Three patterns of marine biodiversity are: 1. The greatest marine biodiversity occurs in coral reefs, estuaries, and on the deep-sea ocean floor. 2. Biodiversity is higher near the coasts because of great variety of producers, habitats, and nursery areas. 3. Biodiversity is higher in the bottom region than in the surface region of the ocean.

Why do watersheds need to be protected?

To protect rivers and lakes from excess pollutants, watersheds need to be protected.

How can we utilize grasslands in a sustainable way?

To utilize grasslands in a sustainable way, we must control the number and distribution of livestock.

Describe the distribution, and destruction of Tropical Forests.

Tropical forests make up 6% of the earth's land area. 1. They once covered twice as much area. Most destruction has occurred since 1950. 2. At least half of the world's terrestrial plant and animal species are found in tropical rainforests.

How Can We Protect and Sustain Marine Biodiversity?

We can help to sustain marine biodiversity by using laws and economic incentives to protect species, setting aside marine reserves to protect ecosystems and ecosystem services, and using community-based integrated coastal management.

How Should We Protect and Sustain Wetlands?

We can maintain the ecosystem and economic services of wetlands by protecting remaining wetlands and restoring degraded wetlands.

How can people reduce deforestation and degradation of tropical forests?

We must help settlers learn methods to practice in small-scale sustainable agriculture and forestry. 2. We must harvest sustainable fruits and nuts in the rain forests. 3. We should consider using debt-for-nature swaps, which allow countries that owe foreign aid/foreign debt to act as custodians of protected forest reserves in order for debt to be forgiven. 4. We can allow corporations and countries that emit a lot of carbon dioxide to pay tropical countries to protect their forests. 5. Initiate replanting programs. 6. We can reduce our demand for products that encourage unsustainable resource extraction.

Define tree plantation

a managed forest containing only one or two species of trees that are all of the same age. Usually harvested when its commercially valuable. When managed carefully plantations can produce wood at a rapid rate

Define second-growth forest

a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession. Develops after human activities

Surface fire benefits

burn away flammable material free valuable mineral nutrients release seeds from cones of trees stimulate germination help control destructive insects, tree diseases

Define secondary ecological succession

ecological succession in an area in which natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil at the bottom sediment has not been destroyed

What is the downside of tree plantations?

less biological diversity, less sustainable than old-growth and second-growth forests because they violate nature's biodiversity. Does not provide the wildlife habitats and ecosystem services such as water storage and purification. Depletes the topsoil of nutrients and hinder the regrowth of any type of forest on such land.

Forests losses concentrated where?

less devel. countries such as trop. areas in Latin America, Indonesia etc.