APES Chapter 18, 19
Density
# of gas molecules per unit of air volume varies throughout atmosphere because gravity pulls gas molecules toward earth's surface --> lower layers have more gases (more weight) in them than upper layers do and are more densely packed with molecule
Nitrogen Dioxide - WRITE
(NO2) nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to form it reddish-brown gas reacts with H2O vapor in air to form Nitric Acid (HNO3) and nitrate salts (NO3-)
A combination of acidic deposition and other air pollutants can also affect forests in 2 ways. One is by _________ essential plant __________ such as calcium and magnesium from __________. The other is by releasing ions of _________________, which are toxic to the trees, from forest soils. These two effects rarely _______ trees directly, but they can __________ them and leave them vulnerable to ____________
A combination of acidic deposition and other air pollutants can also affect forests in 2 ways. One is by leaching essential plant nutrients such as calcium and magnesium from forest soils. The other is by releasing ions of aluminum, lead, cadmium, and mercury, which are toxic to the trees from forest soils. These two effects rarely kill trees directly, but they can weaken them and leave them vulnerable to stresses such as severe cold, diseases, insect attacks, and drought.
A more intensified water cycle will increase __________ and with more water vapor in atmosphere, will also bring more __________ to some areas due to heavy snowfall or rainfall
A more intensified water cycle will increase drought and with more water vapor in atmosphere, will also bring more flooding to some areas due to heavy snowfall or rainfall
Ocean Acidification
CO2 absorbed by ocean reacts with water to produce carbonic acid --> same weak acid found in carbonated drinks ??? - THIS OR JUST OCEANS ABSORBING CO2???
If you increase output from the sun, you increase __________________ and get _______________. Instead, the data shows that the atmosphere is now heating from __________, which indicates that inputs at ____________, most likely from _____________, play more important role in atmospheric warming.
If you increase output from the sun, you increase the amount of energy that arrives at the top of the Earth's atmosphere and get heating throughout the atmosphere. Instead, the data shows that the atmosphere is now heating from bottom up, which indicates that inputs at earth's surface, most likely from human activities, play more important role in atmospheric warming.
In some areas, soils contain _______ compounds such as calcium carbonate or limestone that can ____________ and ____________, or buffer, some inputs of _______. The areas most sensitive to acid deposition are those with __________________ and those where ________________
In some areas, soils contain basic compounds such as calcium carbonate or limestone that can react with and neutralize, or buffer, some inputs of acids. The areas most sensitive to acid deposition are those with thin, already acidic soils that provide no such natural buffering and those where buffering capacity of soils has been depleted by decades of acid deposition
2 Types of Smog
Industrial Smog Photochemical Smog
Scientific evidence fathered in recent years indicates that...
atmospheric warming has been accelerating since about 1975
Two main factors affecting global, regional, and local climates
average temperature and precipitation
Climate
average weather conditions in a given area measured mostly by temperature and precipitation
Remediation of Particulates - WRITE
bag filters electrostatic precipitators (ionic breeze)
Remediation of Halogens - WRITE
ban of CFCs -> Montreal Protocol
Why are density and atmospheric pressure important?
because they play major roles in the weather
Permafrost occurs in soils found...
beneath 24% of exposed land in northern hemisphere
Life without the ozone layer...
biologically damaging UV rays would reach earth's surface -> cause elevated levels of eye cataracts, damaging sunburns, and skin cancers increase in UV radiation could impair or destroy phytoplankton -> play a key role in removing CO2 from atmosphere and form base of ocean food webs -> destroyed them, eliminating vital ecosystem services they provide too
Soot
black carbon particles -> doesn't reflect sunlight = opposite effect
Nitrous Oxide Examples/Sources
burning fossil fuels, fertilizer, and deforestation combines with water to form nitric acid (acid rain)
What tops the list of human activities that emit CO2?
burning of fossil fuels --> coal
Long Term Exposure to Carbon Monoxide - WRITE
can combine with hemoglobin in red blood cells, which reduces the ability of blood to transport oxygen to body cells and tissues can trigger heart attacks and aggravate lung diseases such as asthma and emphysema can cause headaches, nausea, drowsiness, confusion, collapse, coma, and death
Indoor air pollution can cause...
cancer
An increase in thin, wispy cirrus clouds at high altitudes could...
cause more warming of lower atmosphere by preventing some heat from escaping into space
Effects and Consequences of Acid Rain
causes leaching of metals form substrate.soil causing buildup of toxins like aluminum, mercury, cadmium -> harmful to organisms some essential nutrients for plants in soil leached out -> depletes plant growth some nitrogen based acids can over-fertilize some plants nutrients washed into waterways can cause eutrophication change in pH thresholds will affect which organisms survive sensitive cells can be damaged or killed pH stressed plants more susceptible to pathogens particularly susceptible areas = soils with low calcium content (natural buffer) and already acidic soils (derived from granite) -> soils also susceptible acid rain can travel long distances in atmosphere so pollution not localized
Earth's climate is strongly influenced by...
changes in amount of solar radiation reaching the earth
Climate disruption can harm human...
economies
Technology to Reduce Pollution
electrostatic precipitators: can collect as much as 99% of particulate matter -> creates solid hazardous water (there's no away) catalytic converters: removes up to 90% of hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxide, and carbon monoxide emissions coal cleaning with limestone and scrubbers
Warmer temperatures increase...
evaporation of surface water -> increases relative humidity of atmosphere in various parts of world and creates more clouds that can either cool or warm atmosphere
The UV filtering effect of ozone allows us and other forms of life to...
exist on land and helps protect us from sunburn, skin and eye cancers, cataracts, and damage to our immune systems prevents much oxygen in troposphere from being converted to photochemical ozone - harmful air pollutant when found near ground
Carbon Taxes
fees on each unit of CO2 or CH4 emitted by fossil fuel use
Energy taxes
fees on each unit of fossil fuel that's burned
Biochar
fertilizer that Amazon Basin natives used for growing crops several centuries ago producing it involved burning biomass in low-oxygen environment to make charcoal-like material --> produces no smoke or odor makes excellent organic fertilizer that helped to keep carbon in soil for as long as 1,000 years
Atmospheric Pressure
force/mass per unit area of a column of air force caused by bombardment of surface by molecules in air decreases with altitude because there are fewer gas molecule at higher altitudes
Acid Rain - WRITE
formed when nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides from burning fossil fuels mix with water in atmosphere forming nitric, nitrous, sulfurous, and sulfuric acid
Photochemical Smog
forms on hot, sunny days in urban areas nitrogen oxides, VOCs, and ozone combine to form brownish haze sunlight promotes formation of ozone ->perpetuates it seen in LA and Athens Green NO and NO2 play role in forming it mixture of chemicals formed under influence of sunlight in cities with heavy traffic mixture of primary and secondary pollutants formed under influence of UV radiation from sun
Global Climate Change
gas molecules trap long-wavelength infrared radiation thus heating up earth
The earth's climate is affected by...
global air circulation patterns, large areas of ice that reflect incoming solar energy and help cool the atmosphere, varying concentrations of different gases that make up the atmosphere, and occasional slight changes in ocean currents
Mountain Glaciers - WRITE
good storehouse of ice expand with added snowfall in winter (snowpack) slowly melt during summer months shrinking wherever summer melting exceeds winter snowpack due to warming atmosphere
Reduction of Sick Building Syndrome - WRITE
good ventilation don't smoke limit pesticides/chemical cleaners
Clean Air Act
government established air pollution regulations for key pollutants enforced by states and major cities evolving goals to protect human health and protect materials, climate, crops, visibility and personal comfort i.e: cars after 1999 emit 75% fewer pollutants than cars made before 1970 designates 7 major pollutants as damaging to human health
Industrial Smog
gray smog from burning oil or coal (CO and CO2 combine with particulate matter in air) death of 10,000 in London -> Clean Air Act in England consists mostly of an unhealthy mix of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric cid, and a variety of suspended solid particles in outside air
Primary Pollutants - WRITE ATMOSPHERE
harmful to humans in the form in which they are initially released into troposphere while in atmosphere, some primary pollutants react with one another and with other natural components of air to form new harmful chemicals --> secondary pollutants i.e: Carbon Monoxide
There is no place on the planet's surface that...
has not been affected by air pollution
Temperature Inversion
helps promote or exacerbate smog and pollution in certain areas blanket of warm air prevents mixing and dispersal of cooler air trapped below if cooler air holds pollutants -> pollution stays put Why - as sun sets, ground level air cools faster than air further up, so cool air becomes trapped -> when sun does rise, causes photochemical reactions among collected pollutants forming ozone and smog during daylight, the sun warms the air near Earth's surface -> normally, this warm air and most of the pollutants it contains rise to mix with cooler air above and are dispersed under certain atmospheric conditions, however, a layer of warm air can temporarily lie atop the cooler air nearer the ground because cooler air is denser than the warmer air above it, air near surface doesn't rise and mix with air above --> if condition persists, pollutants can build up to harmful and even lethal concentrations in stagnant layer of cool air near ground
70% of methane emissions during the last 275 years are the result of...
human activities, including livestock production, leaky coal mines, landfills, and the flooding of land behind large dams
Putting a price on carbon emission
in order to include some of harmful environmental and health costs of using fossil fuels in fuel prices carbon taxes, energy taxes
Most aerosols tend to reflect...
incoming sunlight and cool the lower atmosphere
Nitrous oxide (N2O) levels have risen about 20% during the last 275 years, mostly as a result of...
increased use of nitrogen fertilizers
Living organisms and their excrements can pollute...
indoor air i.e: dust mites and cockroach droppings --> asthma
Glacial and Interglacial Periods
interglacial = between ice ages atmosphere has experienced prolonged periods of global cooling and global warming alternating cycles of freezing and thawing
Without ozone, earth's life would have to...
live underground or on the sea bottom to stay alive
Remediation of Sulfur Dioxides - WRITE
low sulfur coal or alternative fuels --> don't burn coal fluidized bed combustion: mix crushed limestone with coal before combustion: calcium binds up sulfur dioxide to create solid, not air, pollution wet scrubbing/flue gas desulfurization: same reaction by spray liquid suspension of limestone on post coal combustion gas
What are the terrestrial areas hit hardest by acid deposition? - WRITE
mountain forests --> tend to have thin soils without much buffering capacity and some such areas are bathed almost continuously in highly acidic fog and clouds --> uncontrolled emissions of sulfur dioxide and other pollutants can devastate vegetation in these sensitive areas
Ozone Layer
much of atmosphere's small amount of ozone concentration in portion of stratosphere keeps 95% of sun's harmful UV radiation from reaching Earth's surface
Where do air pollutants come from?
natural and human sources
Greenhouse Effect - WRITE
natural process plays key role in determining earth's climate occurs when some solar energy absorbed by Earth radiates into atmosphere as infrared radiation (heat) at various wavelengths heat radiated into atmosphere by earth causes molecules of greenhouse gases to vibrate and release infrared radiation with longer wavelengths into the lower atmosphere -> radiation interacts with molecules in air -> increases kinetic energy and warms lower atmosphere and Earth's surface
Large amounts of limestone or ground lime are used to...
neutralize some acidified lakes and surrounding soils --> expensive and temporary --> can kill types of plankton and aquatic plants
Anthropogenic Air Pollutants
not a new problem - romans smelt bad, human fires, etc significant problems since Industrial Revolution Primary, Secondary, Fugitive Pollutants
Non-Criteria Pollutants - WRITE
not highly regulated (still potentially harmful) some overlap with criteria pollutants
Acid Deposition
occurring since Industrial Revolution result of human activities that disrupt natural nitrogen cycle and sulfur cycle by adding excessive amounts of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide to atmosphere regional air pollution problem in areas that lie downwind from coal-burning facilities and from urban areas with large numbers of cars
Any cooling effect clouds might have won't be enough to...
offset long term heating effects of human generated greenhouse gas emissions
Indoor Air Pollution - WRITE
only recently has it gotten serious attention as considerable health risk responsible for 1.6 million global deaths 1 of 5 major environmental risks to human health Sick Building Syndrome
Fugitive Emissions
originate from number of non localized sources (non-point source) escape like fugitives into atmosphere i.e: dust and soil erosion
How to stregnth US air pollution laws?
page 494
Aerosol Effect
particulate matter from volcanoes, fires urban pollution has opposite effect of global warming reflect/block sun's rays and cool earth nuclear winter
Air Pollution
presence of chemicals in atmosphere in concentrations high enough to harm organisms, ecosystems, or human-made materials, or to alter climate
Remediation of Hyddrocarbons - WRITE
prevent escape of VOC gases at source
The best solutions to acid deposition are...
preventative approaches that reduce or eliminate emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates
Radon - WRITE
radioactive gas from decay of uranium and other elements underground 2nd leading cause of lung cancer in US reduced by air pumps, ventilation, and sealing basements
A warmer, CO2 rich world will likely favor...
rapidly multiplying insects, microbes, toxic molds, and fungi that make us sick, as well as plants that produce pollens that cause allergies and asthma attacks
Remediation of NO2 and O3 - WRITE
reduce fossil fuel use reduce temperature of combustion reactions use pure oxygen for combustion (not air with high N2 content) catalytic converters --> in cars now
Using smokestacks reduces ___________ and can increase ______________
reduces local air pollution increase regional air pollution downwind
We could quickly slow atmospheric warming by focusing on...***
reducing black carbon, methane, and hydrofluorocarbons -> because these chemicals are short=lived in atmosphere compared to CO2
Secondary Pollutants
released in form that's initially not harmful, but becomes toxic or hazardous after they're released i.e: acid rain
Carbon Capture and Storage
removing CO2 from smokestacks of coal-burning power and industrial plants and storing it somewhere
Problem with Geoengineering
requires huge investments of energy and materials -> no guarantee it'll work depends on complex machinery running constantly, flawlessly, and essentially forever, primarily to pump something from one place to another in environemnt
Toxic Release Inventory
requires more than 20,000 refineries, power plants, mines, chemical manufacturers, and factories to report release and waste management methods for toxic chemicals
What plays a role in Earth's weather and climate?
rising and falling air currents, winds, and concentrations of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in troposphere
Asthma Triggers - WRITE
secondhand smoke, dust mites, pets, molds, cockroaches
Ocean Geoengineering Proposal
seeding oceans with iron to promote growth of more marine algae and other phytoplankton --> absorb huge amounts of CO2 from atmosphere as they grow die --> Sink to seafloor, carrying carbon with them
Energy POlicy and Conservation Act
set Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) for motor vehicles fuel efficiency of 27.5 miles/gallon (exception of larger cars) reduce nitrogen and sulfur emissions by 90% tax incentives for fuel efficient cars -> being turned down due to lobbying groups representing oil companies
Weather
short-term changes in atmospheric variables such as the temperature, precipitation, wind, and barometric pressure in a given area over a period of hours or days
Since __________ human activities, mainly burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture, in that order, have led to significant ___________
since the industrial revolution have led to significant increases in levels of greenhouse gases in lower atmosphere
Lead - WRITE
soft gray metal used to make various products including lead-acid batteries and bullets once common ingredient of gasoline and paints pollutant found in air, water, soil, plants, and animals chemical element --> lead doesn't break down in environment indestructible and potent neurotoxin can harm nervous system, especially in young children
Higher atmospheric temperatures and higher levels of water vapor in urban areas will also increase...
some forms of air pollution --> Speed up rate of chemical reactions that produce ozone and other harmful chemicals in photochemical smog in urban areas --> cause more pollution-related deaths from heart ailments and respiratory problems
Natural Air Pollutants - WRITE EXAMPLES
spread out over globe or removed by chemical cycles, precipitation, and gravity sulfur compounds: wind erosion, volcanoes, organism waste acidic/caustic particulate matter: volcanoes --> eruptions, ash, etc carbon dioxide: forest fire toxins from dinoflagellates
Remediation of Lead and Mercury and other Metals - WRITE
stop use of leaded fuels remove mercury from ash by electrostatic precipitation (becomes solid waste) reduce coal usage
Gray-Air Smog
suspended particles of salts and soot give smog a gray color
What is the key variable climate specialists watch?
temperature
Flooding of river deltas due to rising sea levels will pollute aquifers because...
the irrigation water will be infiltrated by saltwater
Changes in arctic seawater temperature have slowed...
the jet stream --> as a result, weather conditions can remain in certain areas for longer periods of time???
Aerosol air pollution from human activities has slowed...
the rate of atmospheric warming
Atmosphere
think blanket of gases surrounding the earth divided into different layers defined by temperature differences
Climate Change Tipping Points
thresholds beyond which natural systems could change for hundreds to thousands of years with possibly catastrophic effects i.e: complete melting of summer arctic sea ice
Cilia
tiny, mucus coated, hair-like structures line upper respiratory tract
Kyoto Protocol
treaty to slow atmospheric warming and its projected climate disruption required 36 participating more-developed countries to cut emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2o to certain levels by 2012 (when treaty would expire) less developed countries excluded because such reduction would curb economic growth
Methane source in warmer parts of world - WRITE
tropical wetlands -> if rainfall increases as projected in tropical areas, wetlands will expand and produce more plants, which will eventually decay and produce more plants, which will eventually decay to release methane through anaerobic decomposition
Geoengineering
trying to manipulate certain natural conditions to help counter an enhanced greenhouse effect
Heat Island/Dome
urban areas with asphalt trap large amounts of heat which re-radiates at night keeps city/area perpetually warm which deflects weather that would normally disperse pollutants
Lead and Mercury and other Metals - WRITE
volatile gases or particulate metals that are neurotoxic and can cause death mercury = bioaccumulates lead from gasoline mercury from coal fired power plants and thermostats
SO2 and volcanoes
volcanoes pump massive amounts of So2 into the atmosphere where chemical reactions converted it to sulfate particles, which were thought to have reflected some incoming sunlight into space --> cooling troposphere
Decline in atmospheric sulfate concentrations has played a role in...
warming atmosphere --> effect will grow as sulfate concentrations drop further due to improved air pollution regulations
Chemistry of Industrial Smog
when burned, most carbon in coal and oil is converted to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide unburned carbon in coal ends up in atmosphere as suspended particulate matter (soot)
Droughts***
when evaporation due to higher temperatures greatly exceed precipitation for a prolonged period
Sick Building Syndrome
when majority of a building's occupants experience certain symptoms that vary with amount of time spent in building (for which no other cause can be identified) common signs: irritation to eyes, nose, throat, skin, change in odor/taste sensitivity, neurological symptoms (headaches, dizziness, memory loss)
How is stratospheric ozone produced?
when some oxygen molecules in stratosphere interact with UV radiation from sun
Political and Ethical Problems with Geoengineering
1 country or company could undertake geoengineering project that could be harmful to whole regions or to entire planet --> who takes responsibility for controlling it, who will pay for damages, etc
Greenhouse Gases - WRITE
1% of Earth's lower atmosphere H20 vapor, CO2, CH4, nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), O3 (ozone)
Why do climate scientists not expect aerosols and soot pollutants to counteract or enhance projected climate change very much in the next 50 years?
1. Aerosols and soot fall back to earth or are washed out of lower atmosphere within weeks or months, but CO2 usually remains in lower atmosphere for 100 years 2. Aerosol and soot inputs into lower atmosphere being reduced because of harmful impacts on plants and human health
4 Main Categories of Indoor Air pollution
1. Asthma Triggers 2. Toxic Building Materials 3. Radon 4. Carbon Monoxide
Congress directed EPA to establish air quality standards for 6 major outdoor pollutans...
1. Carbon monoxide 2. Nitrogen dioxide 3. Sulfur dioxide 4. Suspended particulate matter 5. Ozone 6. Lead
Important Aspects of Carbon Footprint
1. Diet - foods vary greatly in greenhouse gases that result from production and delivery, meat 2. Nonfood purchases of common goods (clothing, electronic devices, etc)
The ultimate success of any emissions trading approach depends on...
1. How low initial cap is set 2. How often it's lowered in order to promote continuing innovation in air pollution prevent and control without these two --> emissions trading programs just shifting pollution problems from one area to another
Alarming Facts About Indoor Air Pollution
1. Levels of 11 common pollutants are 2-5x higher inside US homes and commercial building than outdoors 2. Pollution levels inside cars in traffic-clogged urban areas can be up to 18x higher than outside levels 3. Health risks from exposure to such chemicals are magnified because most people in developed urban areas spend majority of time indoors or inside vehicles
Two Basic Approaches to Dealing with Harmful Effects of Global Climate Disruption
1. Mitigation: act to slow it and avoid climate change tipping points 2. Adaptation: recognize that some climate change is unavoidable and try to reduce some of its harmful effects
5 Natural Factors that Help Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution
1. Particles heavier than air settle out as a result of gravitational attraction to Earth 2. Rain and snow help cleanse air of pollutants 3. Salty sea spray from oceans washes out many pollutants from air that flows from land over oceans 4. Winds sweep pollutants away and mix them with cleaner air 5. Some pollutants are removed by chemical reactions
Factors Contributing to Smog
1. Temperature Inversion 2. Heat Island/Dome
2 Types of Areas Especially Susceptible to Prolonged Temperature Inversions
1. town or city located in valley surrounded by mountains where weather turns cloudy and cold during part of year -> clouds block much of winter sunlight that causes air to heat and rise, and mountains block winds that could disperse pollutants --> as long as stagnant conditions persist, pollutants in valley below will build up to harmful and lethal concentrations 2. city with many motor vehicles in an area with a sunny climate, mountains on 3 sides, and an ocean on 4th side -> conditions ideal for formation of photochemical smog, worsened by frequent thermal inversions -> surrounding mountains prevent polluted surface air from being blown away by breezes coming off sea
4 Most Dangerous Indoor Air Pollutants
1. Tobacco Smoke 2. Formaldehyde - emitted from building materials and household products 3. Radioactive Radon-222 Gas - can seep into houses from underground rock deposits 4. Very Small Ultrafine Particles - emissions from motor vehicles, coal-burning and industrial power plants, wood bruning, and forest and grass fires
6 Factors that Increase Outdoor Air Pollution
1. Urban buildings slow wind speed and reduce dilution and removal of pollutants 2. Hills and mountains reduce flow of air in valleys below them and allow pollutant levels to build up at ground level 3. High temperatures promote chemical reactions leading to formation of photochemical smog 4. Emission of VOCs from certain trees and plants in heavily wooded urban areas can play a large role in formation of photochemical smog 5. Grasshopper effect -> occurs when air pollutants are transported at high altitudes by evaporation and winds from tropical and temperate areas through atmosphere to earth's polar areas 6. Vertical movement of air -> temperature inversion
Acidic substances that remain in the atmosphere descend to earth's surface in 2 forms
1. Wet deposition - consisting of acidic rain, snow, fog, and cloud vapor with a pH of less than 5.6 (acidity level of unpolluted rain), takes place within 4-14 days in more distant downward areas 2. Dry deposition - consisting of acidic particles, occurs within 2-3 days of emission, fairly near industrial sources --> resulting mixture is acid deposition (acid rain)
Solutions for removing CO2 produced in the atmosphere or from smokestacks and storing
1. increase uptake of CO2 is by quickly implementing a massive, global tree-planting program, especially on degraded land in tropics 2. restore wetlands that have been drained for farming --> good at taking up CO2 3. plant large areas of degraded land with fast-growing perennial plants --> remove CO2 from air and store it in soil 4. Use of biochar 5. help natural uptake and storage of carbon by preserving and restoring natural forests 6. Carbon Capture and Storage
Stratosphere
11-30 miles --> ??? TEXTBOOK = 11, NOTES = 13 contains less matter than stratosphere but similar composition --> exceptions = volume of H2O vapor is 1/1000 that of troposphere and concentration of ozone much higher where ozone layer is --> filters out harmful UV rays --> temperature increases --> turns UV into infrared
N2O remains in the atmosphere for ___________ and each molecule has ___________ the warming potential of a molecule of CO2 - WRITE
114 years 300x
Methane remains in atmosphere for _________ and each molecule of methane has _______ the warming potential of a molecule of carbon dioxide - WRITE
12 years 25x
Exosphere
300-6,000 miles transition to space satellites orbit made up of widely dispersed hydrogen and helium molecules
Mesosphere
31-50 miles temperature decreases --> coldest part of atmosphere
Normal rainwater has a pH of _____. Acid rain can drop pH to levels of ____.
5.6 2.3
Amount of carbon locked up in permafrost soils is...
50-60x amount emitted as CO2 each year from burning fossil fuels
Troposphere
75-80% of earth's air mass closest to Earth where weather occurs temperature decreases the higher you get 0-7 miles
No-Regrets Strategy
???
Acid deposition damages _____________, contributes to human ____________, and can leach ________________ from soils and rocks into ________________. It can harm ______________ ecosystems. Most fish can't survive in water with a pH _________. As acid precipitation flows through soils, it can release ______________ and carry them into _________________. These ions lead to the suffocation of ______________ by stimulating excessive ___________ formation, which clogs their gills. Acid deposition can harm ________, especially when soil pH is __________. Low pH reduces ______________ and the ability of soils to ____________
Acid deposition damages statues and buildings, contributes to human respiratory diseases, and can leach toxic metals from soils and rocks into lakes used as sources of drinking water. It can harm aquatic ecosystems. Most fish can't survive in water with a pH less than 4.5. As acid precipitation flows through soils, it can release aluminum ions attached to minerals in the soils and carry them into lakes, streams, and wetlands. These ions lead to the suffocation of many kinds of fish by stimulating excessive mucus formation, which clogs their gills. Acid deposition can harm crops, especially when soil pH is below 5.1. Low pH reduces plant productivity and the ability of soils to buffer or neutralize acidic inputs.
Aerosols of various air pollutants are released or formed in the troposphere by ________________. They can _____________ both greenhouse warming effect and cloud formation, depending on _______________
Aerosols of various air pollutants are released or formed in the troposphere by volcanic eruptions and human activities. They can hinder or enhance both greenhouse warming effect and cloud formation, depending on factors such as size and reflectivity
Another way in which governments can address climate disruption is to level economic playing field by greatly increasing government subsidies to businesses and individuals to encourage their use of energy-efficiency technologies, low carbon renewable energy sources, and more sustainable food production methods. This would also include phasing out or sharply reducing subsidies and tax breaks that encourage the use of fossil fuels and nuclear power, unsustainable agriculture, and the clearing of forests.
Another way in which governments can address climate disruption is to level economic playing field by greatly increasing government subsidies to businesses and individuals to encourage their use of energy-efficiency technologies, low carbon renewable energy sources, and more sustainable food production methods. This would also include phasing out or sharply reducing subsidies and tax breaks that encourage the use of fossil fuels and nuclear power, unsustainable agriculture, and the clearing of forests.
As droughts become worse and more widespread, growth of trees and other plants in some areas has declined, which has reduced the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. Soils in some area shave dried out, making surface temperatures hotter. As some forests and grasslands are also drying out, wildfires are becoming more frequent in some areas, and this adds CO2 to atmosphere. Some streams and other surface waters are drying up. In some area, water tables are falling, partly because farmers are irrigating more to make up for drier conditions.***
As droughts become worse and more widespread, growth of trees and other plants in some areas has declines, which has reduced the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. Soils in some area shave dried out, making surface temperatures hotter. As some forests and grasslands are also drying out, wildfires are becoming more frequent in some areas, and this adds CO2 to atmosphere. Some streams and other surface waters are drying up. In some area, water tables are falling, partly because farmers are irrigating more to make up for drier conditions.
As the climate warms, about 9% of western hemisphere's mammals likely won't be able to move fast enough to find safe habitats cool enough for their survival. While animals have moved to new ranges in the distant past to avoid climate change effects, today's landscape includes vast areas of farm fields, four-lane highways, and urban areas that will prevent some species form reaching new ranges. It could also greatly increase populations of insects and fungi that damage trees. Large numbers of dry and dead trees can increase the risk of severe forest fires that would further threaten biodiversity. Forest fires might become more frequent and intense, which would severely degrade some forest ecosystems, add more CO2 to atmosphere, reduce CO2 uptake by trees and plants, and help accelerate projected climate disruption through another positive feedback loop
As the climate warms, about 9% of western hemisphere's mammals likely won't be able to move fast enough to find safe habitats cool enough for their survival. While animals have moved to new ranges in the distant past to avoid climate change effects, today's landscape includes vast areas of farm fields, four-lane highways, and urban areas that will prevent some species form reaching new ranges. It could also greatly increase populations of insects and fungi that damage trees. Large numbers of dry and dead trees can increase the risk of severe forest fires that would further threaten biodiversity. Forest fires might become more frequent and intense, which would severely degrade some forest ecosystems, add more CO2 to atmosphere, reduce CO2 uptake by trees and plants, and help accelerate projected climate disruption through another positive feedback loop
H2O vapor accounts for about ____ of earth's greenhouse effect but it only stays in the atmosphere for only about ___________ on average, compared to ________ for other gases. As air warms, any given volumes of air can hold ___________. Thus, the warming effect of other greenhouse gases can lead to ______________, which in turn ___________ greenhouse effect. Because of this scientists consider CO2 to be ____________ of atmospheric warming related to greenhouse gases, while H2O vapor plays ___________ role.
H2O vapor accounts for about 66% of earth's greenhouse effect but it only stays in the atmosphere for only about 1-4 weeks on average, compared to years for other gases. As air warms, any given volumes of air can hold more water vapor. Thus, the warming effect of other greenhouse gases can lead to a higher level of water vapor, which in turn amplifies greenhouse effect. Because of this scientists consider CO2 to be main engine of atmospheric warming related to greenhouse gases, while H2O vapor plays secondary role.
Helping poorer countries to deal with harmful effects of projected climate disruption makes sense because many of these countries will suffer most from such effects, which have bene caused mostly by more-developed countries.
Helping poorer countries to deal with harmful effects of projected climate disruption makes sense because many of these countries will suffer most from such effects, which have bene caused mostly by more-developed countries.
Higher CO2 levels and warmer atmosphere will likely ________ size of low cumulus clouds. This will allow more ______________ to reach lower atmosphere, which will likely accelerate _______________ toward ____________ estimated temperatures.
Higher CO2 levels and warmer atmosphere will likely shrink size of low cumulus clouds. This will allow more solar radiation to reach lower atmosphere, which will likely accelerate atmospheric warming toward higher estimated temperatures.
Higher temperatures due to atmospheric warming are intensifying water cycle and adding more water vapor to atmosphere. This would increase warming effect because water vapor is a greenhouse gas and leads to more evaporation followed by greater warming in another example of a positive feedback loop***
Higher temperatures due to atmospheric warming are intensifying water cycle and adding more water vapor to atmosphere. This would increase warming effect because water vapor is a greenhouse gas and leads to more evaporation followed by greater warming in another example of a positive feedback loop
Historically, light-colored ice and snow in arctic regions helped to ______ earth by _____________. However, melting of ice and snow has exposed ________________, which reflect __________________. In addition, soot generated by North American, European, and Asian industries is ___________ arctic ice and ____________ its ability to reflect sunlight
Historically, light-colored ice and snow in arctic regions helped to cool earth by reflecting incoming solar energy. However, melting of ice and snow has exposed much darker land and sea areas, which reflect significantly less sunlight and absorb more solar energy. In addition, soot generated by North American, European, and Asian industries is darkening arctic ice and lessening its ability to reflect sunlight
Human caused climate change is expected to thaw out ________________. 10-20% of Arctic's current ___________ might thaw during this century over vast area of arctic tundra. If this happens, a great deal of _____________ will rot and release large amounts of __________ into atmosphere which would accelerate projected warming, which would in turn melt more ____________ in another positive feedback loop.
Human caused climate change is expected to thaw out significant amounts of permafrost. 10-20% of Arctic's current permafrost might thaw during this century over vast area of arctic tundra. If this happens, a great deal of stored organic material will rot and release large amounts of CH4 and CO2 into atmosphere which would accelerate projected warming, which would in turn melt more permafrost in another positive feedback loop.
Anchoring Pipes in Oceans Geoengineering
anchoring large vertical pipes in oceans as part of a system that would allow wave motion to pump nutrient-rich water up from deep-ocean layer to fertilize algae on ocean surface
Measurements of CO2 in bubbles at various depths in ancient glacial ice indicate that changes in levels of these gases in lower atmosphere have correlated fairly closely with changes in global average temperature near Earth's surface during past 400,000 years.***
Measurements of CO2 in bubbles at various depths in ancient glacial ice indicate that changes in levels of these gases in lower atmosphere have correlated fairly closely with changes in global average temperature near Earth's surface during past 400,000 years.
Melting of water adds _________ to northern seas, as could an increase in __________, which is another projected effect of _____________. This additional water could ___________ ocean currents that move _____________, which could ramp up warming in _____________.
Melting of water adds freshwater to northern seas, as could an increase in rainfall, which is another projected effect of atmospheric warming. This additional water could slow or stop ocean currents that move heat around the globe, which could ramp up warming in Greenland.
Most of the rise in global average atmospheric temperature since 1975 couldn't be the result of ________________. Instead, they determined that the energy output of the sun has ________________
Most of the rise in global average atmospheric temperature since 1975 couldn't be the result of increased solar output. Instead, they determined that the energy output of the sun has dropped slightly during the past several decades.
Most of world's forests and lakes aren't being _________________ by acid deposition. Rather, this regional problem is harming forests and lakes that ______________
Most of world's forests and lakes aren't being destroyed or seriously harmed by acid deposition. Rather, this regional problem is harming forests and lakes that lie downwind from coal-burning facilities and from large, motor vehicle dominated cities without adequate pollution controls.
Mountain glaciers play a vital role in the water cycle by _____________________. (Glaciers in Himalayan Mountains in Asia are example --> major source of H2o for large rivers like Ganges, which provides H2o for more than 400 mil people)
Mountain glaciers play a vital role in the water cycle by storing water as ice during cold seasons and releasing it slowly to streams during warmer seasons. (Glaciers in Himalayan Mountains in Asia are example --> major source of H2o for large rivers like Ganges, which provides H2o for more than 400 mil people)
Nitrous Oxide - WRITE
N2O greenhouse gas emitted from fertilizers and animal wastes, and is produced by the burning of fossil fuels
Nitrogen Oxides - WRITE
NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide) reddish brown colored gas (smog) highly reactive formed when nitrogen is heated to 650 degree C readily forms acid rain -> damaging to ecosystem, soils, building materials contributes to eutrophication formed during burning of fossil fuels (power plants, automobiles, plants, trains), lightning, and bacteria that oxidize nitrogen
Atmospheric Composition
Nitrogen Gas (N2) = 78& Oxygen Gas (O2) = 21% Water Vapor = 0-4% (depending on weather) Argon (noble, inert gas) = 1% Carbon Dioxide (CO2) = 0.036% Neon (noble, inert gas) = 0.0005% Methane (CH4) = 0.0002% Hydrogen = 0.00005% Nitrous Oxide (n2O) = 0.00003% Ozone (O3) = 0.000004%
Now, more emphasis on ______________ air pollution instead of getting rid of ______________ pollution
Now, more emphasis on preventing air pollution instead of getting rid of released/produced pollution
Ozone - WRITE
O3 colorless and highly reactive gas major ingredient of photochemical smog can cause coughing and breathing problems, aggravate lung and heart diseases, reduce resistance to colds and pneumonia, and irritate eyes, nose, and throat damages plants secondary pollutants synthesized with solar energy oxygen from NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) added to O2 to make ozone in troposphere near ground level = "bad" ozone --> secondary pollutant -> release other things that become ozone in atmosphere formed during burning of fossil fuels (power plants, automobiles, plants, trains), lightning, and bacteria that oxidize nitrogen -> ??? source and remediation same as NO2??? in stratosphere = "good" ozone because protects us from harmful UV radiation both are actually same chemical --> human activity decreasing beneficial ozone in stratosphere and increasing harmful ozone in troposphere
Methane Examples/Sources
PEAT anaerobic decomposition aniamal waste
Pros and Cons to Emissions Trading
Pro: cheaper, more efficient than government regulation of air pollution Cons: allows utilities with older, dirtier power plants to buy their way out of environmental responsibilities and continue to pollute, makes cheating possible (cap-and-trade is based lsrgely on self-reporting of emissions)
Sulfur Dioxides - WRITE
SO2 colorless, corrosive gas with a suffocating odor damages tissues, major lung irritant reacts with H2O to form acid rain; reflects sunlight formed mainly in coal combustion about 1/3 of SO2 in atmosphere comes from natural sources as part of sulfur cycle other 2/3 come from human sources, mostly combustion of sulfur-containing coal in power and industrial plants, oil refining, and smelting of sulfide ores
How to estimate past temperature changes?
analyzing different types of evidence: radioisotopes in rocks and fossils, plankton and radioisotopes in ocean sediments. tiny bubbles, layers of soot, and other materials trapped in different layers of ancient air found in ice cores from glaciers, pollen from bottoms of lacks and bogs, tree rings, and temperature measurements taken regularly since 1861
The ability of the oceans to absorb CO2 decreases as water temperature ______. As oceans warm up, some of their dissolved CO2 is ______________. As oceans absorb more CO2 and become warmer, they also become ___________, which would result in harmful effects on marine ecosystems.
The ability of the oceans to absorb CO2 decreases as water temperature rise. As oceans warm up, some of their dissolved CO2 is released into lower atmosphere. As oceans absorb more CO2 and become warmer, they also become more acidic, which would result in harmful effects on marine ecosystems.
The energy output of the sun plays the key role in _____________, and this output has varied over ___________
The energy output of the sun plays the key role in the earth's temperature, and this output has varied over millions of years
We must do all we can to avoid...
any and all estimated climate change tipping points
The world's oceans absorb _____ from atmosphere as part of ___________ and thus help to moderate ____________________. It's estimated that oceans remove _____ of CO2 pumped into lower atmosphere by human activities. The oceans also absorb ______ from lower atmosphere. Then, partly driven by _______, ocean currents slowly transfer some of the _____ to the deep ocean where it's __________________.
The world's oceans absorb CO2 from atmosphere as part of carbon cycle and thus help to moderate earth's average surface temperature and its climate. It's estimated that oceans remove 1/3 of CO2 pumped into lower atmosphere by human activities. The oceans also absorb heat from lower atmosphere. Then, partly driven by heat, ocean currents slowly transfer some of the CO2 to the deep ocean where it's buried in carbon compounds in bottom sediments for several hundred million years.
Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere Tropopause Stratosphere Stratopause Mesosphere Mesopause Thermosphere Exosphere
Urban areas normally have ________ outdoor air pollution levels than rural areas have. But prevailing winds can spread ___________________ from urban and industrial areas to the countryside and to other urban areas. Long lived pollutants entering the atmosphere in India and China now find their way ________________.
Urban areas normally have higher outdoor air pollution levels than rural areas have. But prevailing winds can spread long-lived primary and secondary air pollutants from urban and industrial areas to the countryside and to other urban areas. Long lived pollutants entering the atmosphere in India and China now find their way across the Pacific where they affect the West Coast of North America.
Toxic Building Materials - WRITE
VOC's (toulene, xylene, turpentine, carpet, caulking, adhesives, plywood, foam insulation) green treated lumber with copper chromium arsenate, fiberglass microfibers, asbestos, lead pipes, mercury thermostats
Volatile Organic Compounds - WRITE LIQUIDS AND EXAMPLES
VOCs organic compounds that exist as gases in atmosphere or as gases that evaporate from sources on Earth into atmosphere can be liquids that evaporate into atmosphere (benzene, dry-cleaning fluids, etc) i.e: hydrocarbons emitted by leaves, methane
Jet Streams
a high, rapidly moving flow of air that affect global weather patterns
The air we breathe at sea level has...
a higher density than the air we would inhale on top of a high mountain
Another methane source in Arctic Sea
a layer of permafrost on Arctic Sea floor and on many arctic lake bottoms --> methane bubbles up from thousands of seeps on arctic lake bottoms
Almost any chemical in the atmosphere can become...
a pollutant if it occurs in a high enough concentration
Ozone Examples/Sources
absorbs UV radiation depleted by halogenated compounds (fluorine, chlorine)
Copenhagen Amendment
accelerated phase out of key ozone-depleting chemicals
SO2 can be converted to...
aerosols
Particulates - WRITE
aerosols dust, ash, soot, lint, smoke, pollen, spore solid or liquid particles suspended in gas reduces visibility (dirty) particles <2.5 mm enter lung and damage lung tissue some carcinogenic i.e: cigarette smoke, asbestos, volcanoes, forest forests, leaf mildew, pollen
Indoor air pollution is the world's most serious...
air pollution problem, especially for poor people
Emissions Trading???
aka Cap-And-Trade Program enables producers of air pollutants to buy and sell government air pollution allotments in marketplace --> ??? 110 most polluting coal-fired power plants in 21 states to buy and sell SO2 pollution rights set credits???
Thermosphere
aka Ionosphere 52-300 miles temperature increases due to high energy solar radiation --> causes aurora lights
Cap-and-Trade
aka Pollution Reduction Approach include some costs of carbon emissions in market prices place a cap on total human-generated CO2 and CH4 emissions in a country or region, issue permits to emit these pollutants, and then let polluters trade their permits in marketplace has political advantage over taxes, but it is difficult to manage because there are so many different emitters of greenhouse gases approach only works if original caps set low enough to encourage serious reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and are lowered on regular basis to promote further cuts
Hydrocarbons - WRITE
aka Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) easily vaporized organic compounds that often react to form tropospheric ozone varied effects: carcinogens, irritants, neurotoxins, liver/kidney toxins (most highly toxic air pollutants) comes from dry cleaning solvents, paints, adhesives, building materials, etc i.e: astroturf, markets, etc
Criteria Pollutants - WRITE
aka conventional pollutants strong mandates for monitoring SPLONCH(H)
Ozone Depletion
aka ozone hole first reported in 1985 - periodic hole in ozone layer in stratosphere ozone in stratosphere protects us from harmful UV radiation chlorinated and fluorinated hydrocarbons (CFCs) released from coolants and sprays catalyze the breakup of ozone -> CFC's not destroyed in reaction so they're highly persistent prevalent in polar regions because CFC's and Ozone brought close together on ice crystals -> promotes reaction Montreal Protocol = worldwide effort/commitment to reduce CFCs (reduced by 95%)
Ozone Hole
aka ozone thinning annual loss of ozone in upper stratosphere over Antarctica seasonal??? -> reaction where CFC happens more often on surface of ice crystals -> more ice crystals during winters -> ozone hole get bigger -> summer = hole gets smaller
Cap-and-Rebate Scheme
all money made by any trading of permits would go back to public in form of cash payments
Photochemical Reaction
any chemical reaction activated by light
Chlorofluorocarbons - WRITE
chemically unreactive, odorless, nonflammable, nontoxic, noncorrosive compounds inexpensive to make became popular as coolants in air conditioners and fridges, propellants in aerosol spray cans, cleaner fro electronic parts, etc discovered that they're persistent chemicals that destroy protective ozone in stratosphere
Halogens - WRITE
chlorinated and fluorinated hydrocarbons (CFCs) travel to stratosphere and destroy ozone layer which protects us from UV radiation emitted from propellants, coolants, foams, etc
Nitric Oxide - WRITE
colorless gas that forms when nitrogen and oxygen gas in air react under high-combustion temperatures in automobile engines and coal burning power and industrial plants caused by lightning and certain bacteria in soil and water (part of nitrogen cycle)
Formaldehyde
colorless, extremely irritating chemical --> breathing problems, dizziness, nausea, wheezing, rashes, skin or eye irritation, headaches, sore throats, etc can cause cancer
Carbon Dioxide
colorless, odorless gas 93% in atmosphere is result of natural carbon cycle --> rest comes from human activities, primarily burning of fossil fuels and clearing of CO2-absorbing forests and grasslands
Carbon Monoxide - WRITE
colorless, odorless, and highly toxic gas that forms during incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials binds to hemoglobin in blood over oxygen not poisonous, but linked to global warming major sources: motor vehicle exhaust, burning of forests and grasslands, smokestacks of fossil fuel burning power plants and industries, tobacco smoke, and open fires and inefficient stoves used for cooking ends up forming ozone in troposphere
Radon-222
colorless, odorless, radioactive gas that's produced by natural radioactive decay of uranium-238 small amounts contained in most rocks and soil much more concentrated in underground deposits of minerals such as uranium, phosphate, shale, and granite when released from underground deposits -> seeps upward through soil and released outdoors -> disperses quickly in air and decays to harmless levels can cause cancer (lung)
Tipping Elements
components of climate system that could pass climate change tipping points i.e: atmospheric CO2 levels, global average atmospheric temperature
Bunker Fuel - WRITE
concentration of polluting sulfur is 30x higher than that of diesel fuel sold at pumps of US gas stations
Aerosols
consist of microscopic suspended droplets of sulfuric acid and suspended particles of sulfate salts that return to Earth as a component of acid deposition
Suspended Particulate Matter - WRITE
consists of variety of solid particle and liquid droplets that are small and light enough to remain suspended in air for long periods 62% in outdoor air comes from natural sources such as dust, wildfires, and sea salt remaining 38% comes from human sources
High ocean acidity threatens... - WRITE
corals, snails, oysters, and other organisms with shells and body structure composed of calcium carbonate, because it hinders their ability to build and repair such structure populations of phytoplankton that are primary producer species of ocean food webs and remove CO2 from atmosphere
Montreal Protocol
cut emissions of CFCs
Carbon Neutral
cutting net carbon emissions to 0 by 2030
Positive Feedback Loops
cycles of change that cause systems to change further in a certain direction i.e: accelerating melting of arctic ice causes further warming, speeds melting
Ocean acidification will slow the growth and repair of...
damaged coral reefs and could begin to dissolve some reefs by end of century
An increase in thick and continuous cumulus clouds at low altitudes could...
decrease surface warming by reflecting more sunlight back into space
Government Subsidies
direct payments and other forms of financial support
In a warmer world, agricultural productivity will...
drop in some areas --> likely to be worse in areas where farmers depend on monocultures of plants bred to thrive at certain temperatures with certain levels of rainfall rise in some areas in the short run --> at middle to high latitudes with moderate warming --> too much warming = will decreases