APHY 102 Final

Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system

*SA Node *AV Node *AV Bundle (Bundle of His) *Purkinje Fibers

Compare the formed elements of the blood.

1) Red blood Cells (erythrocytes) - 99.9% 2)White Blood Cells (leukocytes) - 0.1% 3) Platelets - 0.1 %

Differentiate between Type I and Type II alveolar cells.

1. Type I cells. Also called type I alveolar cells, type I pneumocytes, and squamous alveolar cells, these are squamous epithelial cells that make up 97% of the alveolar surfaces. They are specialized to serve as very thin (often only 25 nm in width) gas-permeable components of the blood-air barrier. Their organelles leg, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria) cluster around the nucleus. Much of the cytoplasm is thus unobstructed by organelles, except for the abundant small pinocytotic vesicles that are involved in the turn over of pulmonary surfactant and the removal of small particles from the alveolar surfaces. They attach to neighboring epithelial cells by desmosomes and occluding junctions. The latter reduce pleural effusion--leakage of tissue fluid into the alveolar lumen. Type I cells can be distinguished from the nearby capillary endothelial cells by their position bordering the alveolar lumen and by their slightly more rounded nuclei. 2. Type II cells. These cells, which are also called type II alveolar cells, type II pneumocytes, great alveolar cells, and alveolar septal cells, cover the remaining 3% of the alveolar surface. They are interspersed among the type I cells, to which they attach by desmosomes and occluding junctions. Type II cells are roughly cuboidal with round nuclei; they occur most often in small groups at the angles where alveolar septal walls converge. At the electron microscope level, they contain many mitochondria and a well-developed Golgi complex, but they are mainly characterized by the presence of large (0.2-um), membrane-limited lamellar (mutlilamellar) bodies. These structures, which exhibit many closely apposed concentric or parallel membranes (lamellae), contain phospholipids, glycosaminoglycans, and proteins. Type II cells are secretory cells. Their secretory product, pulmonary surfactant, is assembled and stored in the lamellar bodies, which also carry it to the apical cytoplasm. There, the bodies fuse with the apical plasma membrane and release surfactant onto the alveolar surface. 3. Alveolar marcrophages. Known also as dust cells, these large monocytc-derived repre sentatives of the mononuclear phagocyte system are found both on the surface of alveolar septa and in the interstitium. Macrophages are important in removing any debris that escapes the mucus and cilia in the conducting portion of the system. They also phagocytose blood cells that enter the alveoli as a result of heart failure. These alveolar macrophagcs, which stain positively for iron pigment (hemosiderin), are thus designated heart failure cells.

Describe the steps in clot formation

1. You get a cut (wound) and then you have RBC, platlets and clotting factors floating around. 2. Blood cells and fluid escape the wound. Exposed collagen fibers start the clotting process. 3. Exposed platelets start to adhere to the wound area and release chemicals that attract more platlets. 4.Platlet plug stops external bleeding. 5. Clotting factor increases and causes fibrin to attach and block/seal the wound like a bandaid would. 6. The wound heals and the clotting fibrin and platlets dissolve after it has been sealed

Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, pH

pH range- 7.35-7.45, Which of the following is a regulatory function of blood?maintenance of normal pH in body tissues

How do the different buffer systems work?

A buffer solution is one which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or an alkali are added to it.

Describe steroid hormones

A steroid hormone (abbreviated as sterone) is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens

How do the following hormones affect the urinary system: ADH, aldosterone, ANP?

ADH: allows urea to exit the collecting ducts Aldosterone: released by adrenal cortex; increases Na+ and H2O reabsorption/K+ secretion > increased blood volume > increased blood pressure and decreased urine volume ANP: produced by right atrium with high BP; inhibits ADH, aldosterone, and renin release (lowers water reabsorption in CD) > ^urine volume, decreased blood volume, decreased BP; shuts off RAAS

Which substances get secreted into: PCT, DLOH, ALOP, and DCT

ALOP, DCT

Compare and contrast passive versus active immunity

Active immunity is a form of immunity that develops after a primary immune response which is a response to exposure to a live pathogen and development of symtoms. The cells produce the antibodies themselves. Passive immunity is a form of immunity in which a person's cells do not produce the antibodies, they receive them by an injection of antibodies or antitoxin.

Describe an EKG. What is occurring within the heart during each part of the EKG

An electrocardiogram (e-lek-tro-KAR-de-o-gram), also called an EKG or ECG, is a simple, painless test that records the heart's electrical activity. To understand this test, it helps to understand how the heart works. With each heartbeat, an electrical signal spreads from the top of the heart to the bottom.

What is a trace element?

a chemical element present only in minute amounts in a particular sample or environment. a chemical element required only in minute amounts by living organisms for normal growth

Which metabolic reactions release hydrogen ions into body fluids

Anaerobic respiration of glucose, Aerobic respiration of glucose, Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids, Oxidation of sulfur-containing amino acids

Compare and contrast innate barriers versus adaptive immunity

As its name suggests, the innate immune system consists of cells and proteins that are always present and ready to mobilize and fight microbes at the site of infection. The main components of the innate immune system are 1) physical epithelial barriers, 2) phagocytic leukocytes, 3) dendritic cells, 4) a special type of lymphocyte called a natural killer (NK) cell, and 5) circulating plasma proteins. The adaptive immune system, on the other hand, is called into action against pathogens that are able to evade or overcome innate immune defenses. Components of the adaptive immune system are normally silent; however, when activated, these components "adapt" to the presence of infectious agents by activating, proliferating, and creating potent mechanisms for neutralizing or eliminating the microbes. There are two types of adaptive immune responses: humoral immunity, mediated by antibodies produced by B lymphocytes, and cell-mediated immunity, mediated by T lymphocytes.

How does an autoimmune disease work?

Autoimmune diseases arise from an abnormal immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body (autoimmunity). This may be restricted to certain organs (e.g. in autoimmune thyroiditis) or involve a particular tissue in different places (e.g. Goodpasture's disease which may affect the basement membrane in both the lung and the kidney). The treatment of autoimmune diseases is typically with immunosuppression—medication that decreases the immune response.

What is autoregulation?

Autoregulation is a process within many biological systems, resulting from an internal adaptive mechanism that works to adjust (or mitigate) that system's response to stimuli. While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, it is most clearly observed in the kidney, the heart, and the brain.

Why are B vitamins necessary?

B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, research shows that they are chemically distinct vitamins that often coexist in the same foods. In general, supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific name of each vitamin

Which skeletal muscles are involved in respiration?

Breathing is an active process - requiring the contraction of skeletal muscles. The primary muscles of respiration include the external intercostal muscles (located between the ribs) and the diaphragm (a sheet of muscle located between the thoracic & abdominal cavities)

Describe the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

Carbs begin to digest in the mouth, where enzymes in saliva start breaking complex molecules down into simpler sugars. Chewed-up carbs then pass through the esophagus and stomach with little additional digestion. In the small intestine, they are broken down into the simplest sugar molecules, which are then absorbed through the small intestine walls into the bloodstream and used by the body as fuel or sent for storage in the liver for use at a later time. Fiber, the indigestible cell walls found in carb plant foods such as beans, brown rice and whole wheat, passes through the digestive tract essentially undigested. Protein is found in meat, eggs, dairy products and beans, and is used by the body to build muscle and organs. Protein molecules are quite large. Chewing helps break proteins down into smaller particles for digestion. Chemical protein digestion starts in the stomach, where enzymes start to soften the protein molecules. A number of enzymes, including substances from the pancreas, then break down protein into its component amino acids in the small intestine. Amino acids are absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into the bloodstream and distributed throughout the body to repair injuries and replace dying cells. Fats and oils do not easily dissolve into the watery digestive juices of the intestinal tract. Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, can attach to molecules of both water and fat. Bile breaks up conglomerations of fat in the digestive tract into smaller emulsified particles, where lipase, a fat-digesting enzyme, can break it down. The broken down fat particles -- fatty acids and cholesterol -- are absorbed through the intestinal walls into the bloodstream, where they accumulate in the chest veins and are then carried to fat-deposit areas throughout the body to be stored and used for fuel when necessary

How is water involved in metabolism?

Cell life: Water is a carrier, distributing essential nutrients to cells, such as minerals, vitamins and glucose. Chemical and metabolic reactions: Water removes waste products including toxins that the organs' cells reject, and removes them through urines and faeces Transport of nutrients: Water participates in the biochemical break-down of what we eat. Body temperature regulation: Water has a large heat capacity which helps limit changes in body temperature in a warm or a cold environment. Water allows the body to release heat when ambient temperature is higher than body temperature (1). The body begins to sweat, and the evaporation of water from the skin surface very efficiently cools the body. Elimination of water: Water is an effective lubricant around joints. It also acts as a shock absorber for eyes, brain, spinal cord and even for the foetus through amniotic fluid

Differentiate between mechanical and chemical digestion within the different organs of the GI tract

Chemical digestion is where complex food molecules are broken down to the basic building blocks by enzymes. Mechanical digestion is chewing, churning and segmentation

How is diabetes insipitus different than diabetes mellitus?

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by high levels of sugar in the blood while diabetes insipidus is a disease where kidneys are unable to conserve water. Diabetes insipidus (DI) is a rare disease while diabetes mellitus is very common; "diabetes" in general usage refers to diabetes mellitus. The causes, symptoms, treatment and prognosis for both diseases are different.

What blood types can give/receive to/from other blood types?

Donors with blood type AB... can donate to recipients with blood type AB only. Donors with blood type O... can donate to recipients with blood types A, B, AB and O (O is the universal donor: donors with O blood are compatible with any other blood type)

What happens to the respiratory system with emphysema? Asthma?

Emphysema is a type of lung disease that causes shortness of breath. Many people with emphysema also have chronic bronchitis. Most cases of emphysema are caused by cigarette smoking or long-term exposure to certain industrial pollutants or dust. Complications of emphysema can include pneumonia, collapsed lung and heart problems. The symptoms of asthma are usually detected in childhood. In their children, parents should watch for: coughing, unusual paleness or sweating, fast or irregular breathing, noisy or difficult breathing

Describe the roles of IgG, IgD, IgE, IgA, and IgM.

Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted form (pentamer) with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG. IgA: Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens.[13] Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk. IgG: In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens.[3] The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to fetus. IgD: Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens.It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors. IgE: Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms

Describe the histology of alveoli.

Features of alveoli (plural of alveoulus) are all related to their function as gas exchange areas. 1. They are coated with a pulmonary surfactant, a) to stop the lungs from collapsing, b) to regulate the size of the alveoli, c) to reduce surface tension and d) to increase pulmonary compliance (the ability of lungs to expand) 2. They have a 'grape like' structure to provide the greatest surface area possible, allowing the greatest amount to oxygen to be 'picked up' by the haemoglobin in red blood cells. 3. Their walls are incredibly thin to ensure gas exchange is as quick and effective as possible (imagine it like water coming through really thin fabric vs really thick fabric) 4. Their moistness allows oxygen to dissolve for quick diffusion. 5. They are covered in capillaries so there is a continuous supply of blood, ensuring a high concentration gradient for quick diffusion of oxygen out of the alveolus and carbon dioxide in.

Where can sinuses be found?

Frontal sinuses over the eyes in the brow area Maxillary sinuses inside each cheekbone Ethmoid sinuses just behind the bridge of the nose, between the eyes Sphenoid sinuses behind the ethmoids in the upper region of the nose and behind the eyes

Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin.

Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas, that raises the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers the glucose concentration a hormone produced in the pancreas by the islets of Langerhans that regulates the amount of glucose in the blood. The lack of insulin causes a form of diabetes

What is arteriosclerosis? How does it occur?

Hardening of the arteries, also called atherosclerosis, is a common disorder. It occurs when fat, cholesterol, and other substances build up in the walls of arteries and form hard structures called plaques. Over time, these plaques can block the arteries and cause problems throughout the body.

What is heartburn?

Heartburn is a painful burning feeling just below or behind the breastbone. Most of the time it comes from the esophagus. The pain often rises in your chest from your stomach and may spread to your neck or throat

What can be found in (normal) feces?

Human feces (or faeces; Latin: fæx), also known as stool,[1] is the waste product of the human digestive system including bacteria. It varies significantly in appearance, according to the state of the digestive system, diet and general health. Normally stool is semisolid, with a mucus coating. Small pieces of harder, less moist feces can sometimes be seen impacted on the distal (leading) end. This is a normal occurrence when a prior bowel movement is incomplete, and feces are returned from the rectum to the intestine, where water is absorbed. Meconium (sometimes erroneously spelled merconium) is a newborn baby's first feces

What occurs during hyperventilation?

Hyperventilation is a condition in which you suddenly start to breathe very quickly. Healthy breathing occurs with a healthy balance between breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide. While hyperventilating, you upset this balance by exhaling more than you inhale.

What causes us to inhale and exhale?

INHALATION: Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, Volume of thoracic cavity is increased, Increased volume means decreased pressure, Air rushes in EXHALATION: Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, Volume of thoraic cavity is decreased, Decreased volume means increased pressure, Air is pushed out

Describe a lymphatic vessel.

In anatomy, lymph vessels (or lymphatic vessels) are thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph. As part of the lymphatic system, lymph vessels are complementary to the cardiovascular system

Describe the histology of the glomerular capsule.

In the kidney, a tubular structure called the nephron filters blood to form urine. At the beginning of the nephron, the renal glomerulus is a network (tuft) of capillaries that performs the first step of filtering blood.The glomerulus is surrounded by Bowman's capsule. The blood plasma is filtered through the capillaries of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule. The Bowman's capsule empties the filtrate into a tubule that is also part of the nephron.A glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. Unlike most other capillary beds, the glomerulus drains into an efferent arteriole rather than a venule. The resistance of these arterioles results in high pressure within the glomerulus, aiding the process of ultrafiltration, where fluids and soluble materials in the blood are forced out of the capillaries and into Bowman's capsule. A glomerulus and its surrounding Bowman's capsule constitute a renal corpuscle, the basic filtration unit of the kidney. The rate at which blood is filtered through all of the glomeruli, and thus the measure of the overall renal function, is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

What happens during normal inspiration/expiration?

Inspiration: 1) Expansion of the intrapleural space and an increase in negative pressure 2) This negative pressure generates airflow because of the pressure difference between the atmosphere and alveolus 3) Air enters, inflating the lung through either the nose or the mouth into the pharynx (throat) and trachea before entering the alveoli 4) Chest expand and diaphragm flattened Expiration: 1) Pressure difference in lung and atmosphere which is pressure is higher in lung, cause air to move out of bronchioles, to airways and outside 2) Chest become smaller and diaphragm in dome shape.

What parts make up the nephron?

Kidney nephron drawing with labels of the following: the Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, descending limb of loop of Henle, ascending limb of loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.

Describe the different glands associated with the lymphatic system. What are their functions?

Lymph - a fluid that contains white blood cells that defend against germs. Lymph vessels - vessels that carry lymph throughout your body. They are different from blood vessels. Lymph nodes - glands found throughout the lymph vessels. Along with your spleen, these nodes are where white blood cells fight infection.

What types of cells provide our immunity?

Lymphocytes are responsible for the astonishing specificity of adaptive immune responses.

What is metabolic acidosis? How is it caused? How can it be corrected?

Metabolic acidosis is a condition in which there is too much acid in the body fluids. Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces too much acid, or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. Lactic acidosis: Results from a buildup of lactic acid. It can be caused by: Alcohol.

Describe the different types of motility and mixing within the digestive system.

Motility Muscular contractions that mix and move forward the contents of the digestive tract Two types of digestive motility Propulsive movements Push contents forward through the digestive tract Mixing movements Serve two functions Mixing food with digestive juices promotes digestion of foods Facilitates absorption by exposing all parts of intestinal contents to absorbing surfaces of digestive tract

Describe the layers of the GI tract.

Mucosa: Lining of the lumen Composed of 3 layers (epithelial, areolar connective, smooth muscle) Contains lymph tissue Submucosa: Contains the submucosal enteric neural plexus that controls GI secretions and localized blood flow Contains many glands which open into the lumen by way of ducts Contains lymph tissue Muscularis externa: Skeletal muscle tissue Voluntary motor control Found in mouth, pharynx, upper esophagus and lower portion of the anal canal Smooth muscle tissue Found in the remainder of the GI tract Has nervous innervations Serosa: Secretes serous peritoneal fluid Superficial layer of the viscera located in the abdominopelvic cavity

What is produced during nucleic acid metabolism?

Nucleic acid metabolism is the process by which nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are synthesized and degraded. Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotide synthesis is an anabolic mechanism generally involving the chemical reaction of phosphate, pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Destruction of nucleic acid is a catabolic reaction. Additionally, parts of the nucleotides or nucleobases can be salvaged to recreate new nucleotides. Both synthesis and degradation reactions require enzymes to facilitate the event. Defects or deficiencies in these enzymes can lead to a variety of diseases

What factors can influence heart rate and/or blood pressure?

Nutrtion, smoking, alcohol, exercise, medications,

How is inhibin used in the body?

One of two hormones (designated inhibin-A and inhibin-B) secreted by the gonads (by Sertoli cells in the male and the granulosa cells in the female) and that inhibit the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) by the pituitary gland. The inhibins are also involved in the control of the production of gametes and embryonic and fetal development. Because inhibin-A is elevated in the blood serum of women carrying a fetus with Down syndrome, inhibin-A is included in the maternal serum screening tests for Down syndrome in the second trimester of pregnancy.

Which substances get reabsorbed within the: PCT, DLOH, ALOP, DCT?

PCT, DLOH, gets reabsorbed,

Differentiate between paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, and exocrine glands

Paracrine glands are similar to endocrine glands but instead of secreting material into the bloodstream or into their ducts, their products act on the target cells by diffusion of their material into the extracelular space or in the immediately subjacent connective tissue. Autocrine glands are These are glands whose secretions act on the gland itself. Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood rather than through a duct. Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products into ducts. They are the counterparts to endocrine glands, which secrete their products directly into the bloodstream. Typical exocrine glands include sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and many glands of the digestive system.

How are pheromones different than hormones?

Pheromones are a type of hormone that are mainly for the purpose of attracting others and are a big part of the deciding factor to how they act around you. Hormones in general are your body's way of regulating your levels and systems. Hormone and pheromone levels are closely linked though, since a pheromone is a type of hormone.

Compare and contrast pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation.

Pulmonary circulation - carries blood from heart through lungs back to heart. Allows for exchange of gases w/in lungs where CO2 is exchanged for O2 - Systemic circulation - carries oxygenated blood from heart to tissues and organs of body and returns O2-poor/CO2-filled blood back to heart Describe the coronary circulation route Blood leaving the left side of the heart flows directly from the aorta into the coronary arteries and then returns to the right side of the heart via the cardiac veins.

Identify the major arteries/veins of the body.

Pulmonary,Cornonary Arteries,Pulmonary Vein, Hepatic Vein, Carotid Artery, Pulmonary Artery, Cappillaries, Internal Carotid Artery, Inferior Vena Cava, Vertebral Artery, Great Saphenous Vein, Venules, Right Atrium, Brachiocephalic, Left Ventricle, Veins, Arterioles, External Iliac, Systemic, Portal System Artery, Left Atrium, Superior Vena Cava, Mesenteric (superior / inferior) arteries

What terms are used to describe an increase or decrease in urine output?

Renal failure (also kidney failure or renal insufficiency) is a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste products from the blood.[1] The two main forms are acute kidney injury, which is often reversible with adequate treatment, and chronic kidney disease, which is often not reversible. In both cases, there is usually an underlying cause. Renal failure is mainly determined by a decrease in glomerular filtration rate, the rate at which blood is filtered in the glomeruli of the kidney. This is detected by a decrease in or absence of urine production or determination of waste products (creatinine or urea) in the blood. Depending on the cause, hematuria (blood loss in the urine) and proteinuria (protein loss in the urine) may be noted. In renal failure, there may be problems with increased fluid in the body (leading to swelling), increased acid levels, raised levels of potassium, decreased levels of calcium, increased levels of phosphate, and in later stages anemia. Bone health may also be affected. Long-term kidney problems are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

How does the respiratory system aid in maintaining proper blood pH

Respiration controls the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood. If respiration slows, CO2 increases, causing a respiratory acidosis. If respiration quickens or deepens, CO2 decreases, promoting a respiratory alkalosis. This is helpful if there is another process going on that impacts the pH of the blood. For instance, in diabetic ketoacidosis, the pH decreases in the blood due to the production of ketoacids. The respiratory system responds by increasing respiration and decreasing CO2 to help bring the pH of the blood up toward normal. The pattern of breathing patients in DKA develop is called Kussmaul breathing - deep and fast. This is a classic sign of DKA.

Compare serum versus plasma.

Serum- an amber-colored, protein-rich liquid that separates out when blood coagulates. the blood serum of an animal, used especially to provide immunity to a pathogen or toxin by inoculation or as a diagnostic agent. Plasma- the colorless fluid part of blood, lymph, or milk, in which corpuscles or fat globules are suspended.

What are the functions of the nasal passageways?

The nasal passage is responsible for ridding any harmful pollutants inhaled from the air. The nasal passages also contain the olfactory membranes that provide information regarding airflow to other sensory organs. About.com states that the nasal passages provide the first barrier to any pollutants that could cause infection in the body. The mucus in nasal passages first traps the irritants, and the hair-shaped cilia pushes the dust, mites, smoke and other pollutants out of the body or through the body towards the stomach acids.

How is interleukin-1 used?

The Interleukin 1 family (IL-1 family) is a group of 11 cytokines, which plays a central role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses to infections or sterile insults.

What parts of the brain affect respiration?

The Respiratory Center is located in the Medulla Oblongata. It responds to changes in the pH of the blood, not CO2 like most people think. The CO2 molecule is too large to cross the blood brain barrier. The CO2 is carried in the blood combined with water which forms H2CO3, carbonic acid. Any acidic solution has a higher concentration of H ions than alkaline solutions. It is the H+ that cross the barrier and stimulate the Respiratory center to innervate the phrenic nerve. This causes the diaphragm to contract pulling air into the lungs. Exhalation occurs when the stretch receptors, located in the lungs, give enough feedback to the Respiratory Center to stop the nervous impulses. Exhalation is normally a passive process as the lungs recoil from being stretched. This is a greatly simplified picture of how the system works. There is the Pneumotaxic Center, the Apneustic Center and peripheral chemoreceptors which also play a role in the regulation of breathing. Low oxygen levels also stimulate breathing. This is mediated by the peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and the Aortic arch. Remember, this is how the system works in a normal situation. Disease states alter this pattern and that's how a doctor can can know pretty much what the problem is just by watching you breathe. They do chest x rays, blood tests etc. to confirm their suspicion

How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother?

The Rh factor can cause problems if you are Rh negative and your fetus is Rh positive. This is called Rh incompatibility. These problems usually do not occur in a first pregnancy, but they can occur in a later pregnancy.

How is the ANS used to regulate blood pressure?

The autonomic nervous system regulates the blood pressure via several mechanisms. It regulates the degree of constriction or dilation of the blood vessels in body. Constriction of the blood vessels will result in an increase in the blood pressure and dilation of the blood vessels will result in a decrease in the blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system also alters the cardiac output, which will influence the blood pressure. Cardiac output is determined by multiplying the heart rate x the stroke volume. The stroke volume being the amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat. The sympathetic nervous system ("fight or flight" system) results in an increase in heart rate and strength of heart contraction leading to a greater stroke volume. This increased cardiac output results in an elevation in the blood pressure usually. The parasympathetic nervous system is the "rest and digest" system that results in a decrease heart rate and stroke volume, which results in a lowering in the blood pressure. So, the autonomic nervous system controls the blood pressure through a few mechanisms and they usually occur simultaneously.

What is the function of the glomulerus?

The blood plasma is filtered through the capillaries of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule. The Bowman's capsule empties the filtrate into a tubule that is also part of the nephron. A glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation

What is BMI? BMR

The body mass index, or BMI, is a scale that provides an indication of your overall body composition and fat. Your basal metabolic rate, or BMR, is a measure of the amount of energy your body requires to perform its normal vital functions at rest. Your BMI and BMR are related in the sense that a lager body composition is generally associated with a higher BMR.

What are the functions of the cardiovascular system?

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. This system has three main functions: Transport of nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes).

What are the parts of each of the digestive organs?

The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The alimentary canal is made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory organs that help your body to digest food but do not have food pass through them. Accessory organs of the digestive system include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. To achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major functions take place in the digestive system: Ingestion, Secretion, Mixing and movement, Digestion, Absorption,Excretion

Differentiate between the functions of the different organs of the GI tract.

The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract—also called the digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus.

Describe the nervous system's role for digestion

The digestive system is under control of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The ANS controls body process that are not under our conscious control. This means that when we eat food, we don't need to think about how our body will digest it. The Autonomic Nervous System automatically does what needs to be done. The digestive system is also controlled by hormones released by glands in the body

What are the functions of the digestive system

The function of the digestive system is digestion and absorption. Digestion is the breakdown of food into small molecules, which are then absorbed into the body. The digestive system is divided into two major parts: The digestive tract (alimentary canal) is a continuous tube with two openings: the mouth and the anus.

How can GFR be altered (increased/decreased)?

The glomerular filtration rate can be altered by changing afferent arteriole resistance, efferent arteriole pressure, or the size of the filtration surface, or by a process called renal autoregulation

How does stress affect immunity?

The immune system is defined by the National Cancer Institute as a complex system of cells, organs and tissues that protect the body from bacteria, viruses and micro-organisms that try to invade it. Scientists and researchers have known for years that there is a connection between stress and the immune system. A report in the November 1990 edition of Psychological Bulletin, states that stress suppresses immune system function and that, over time, the immune system does not adapt but instead continues to wear away. What was intended to protect the body, begins to harm it when unregulated. The effect of stress on the immune system has been linked to cancer, AIDS and other autoimmune disorders

What functions does each of the respiratory structures serve?

The organs of the respiratory system are designed to perform two basic functions. They serve (1) as a air distributor and (2) as a gas exchanger for the body. This system also effectively (1) filters, (2) warms, and (3) humidifies the air we breathe. Sinuses influence sound production, and the nose makes the sense of smell possible.

Describe the pathway of blood into, through, and out of the heart- including valves.

The oxygen poor blood enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava, is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, then it pumped through the pulmonary valve through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. The left atrium receives oxygen rich from the lungs and pumps it through the mitral, or bicuspid valve, to the left ventricle where it is pumped through the aortic valve to the aorta. The blood then goes through many other arteries then veins and goes back to the right atrium when oxygen poor.

What is the function of lymph?

The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a clear, colorless fluid containing white blood cells that helps rid the body of toxins, waste and other unwanted materials.

Compare and contrast the renal cortex and the renal medulla

The renal cortex is the outer portion of the kidney between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. In the adult, it forms a continuous smooth outer zone with a number of projections (cortical columns) that extend down between the pyramids. The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. The renal medulla is split up into a number of sections, known as the renal pyramids. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits up to form the interlobular arteries.

How do the respiratory centers increase breathing rates? Why?

The respiratory centers that control your rate of breathing are in the brainstem or medulla. The nerve cells that live within these centers automatically send signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract and relax at regular intervals.

How are the left lung and right lung different from each other

The right lung is divided into three lobes, or sections. Each lobe is like a balloon filled with sponge-like tissue. Air moves in and out through one opening -- a branch of the bronchial tube. The left lung is divided into two lobes. The pleura are the two membranes, actually one continuous one folded on itself, that surround each lobe of the lungs and separate the lungs from the chest wall.

What are the functions of the accessory organs/glands in the digestive system?

The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but they have a role in digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.

At any given moment, where can blood be found in the body?

The veins

What are the parts of respiration?

There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body's exterior.

What is: tidal volume, inspiratory capacity, expiratory capacity, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, vital capacity, total lung capacity?

Tidal volume is the lung volume representing the normal volume of air displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation when extra effort is not applied. In a healthy, young adult, tidal volume is approximately 500 mL per inspiration or 7 mL/kg of body mass. INSPIRATORY CAPACITY. : the total amount of air that can be drawn into the lungs after normal expiration expiratory capacity: Forced expiratory volume (FEV) measures how much air a person can exhale during a forced breath. The amount of air exhaled may be measured during the first (FEV1), second (FEV2), and/or third seconds (FEV3) of the forced breath. Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the total amount of air exhaled during the FEV test. The inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), about 3,100 mL, is the additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after the inspiration of a normal tidal volume. The expiratory reserve volume (ERV), about 1,200 mL, is the additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after the expiration of a normal tidal volume. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME. : the additional amount of air that can be expired from the lungs by determined effort after normal expiration—compare inspiratory reserve volume. Vital capacity: the greatest volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs after taking the deepest possible breath. The total lung capacity (TLC), about 6,000 mL, is the maximum amount of air that can fill the lungs (TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV). The vital capacity (VC), about 4,800 mL, is the total amount of air that can be expired after fully inhaling (VC = TV + IRV + ERV = approximately 80 percent TLC).

Describe tropic hormones.

Tropic hormones are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target. Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary.

What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma? How do these create different blood types?

Type A blood has the A antigen and the Antibody anti- B, Type B blood has the B antigen and the Antibody anti-a Type AB has antigens AB ,Type O blood has no antigens, and both the antibodies anti-a and anti-b ,AB is the universal receiver and O is the universal donor. However, if B type blood is injected into their systems, anti-B antibodies in their plasma will recognize it as alien and burst or agglutinate the introduced red cells in order to cleanse the blood of alien protein. Individuals with type O blood do not produce ABO antigens

What are the differences between fat and water soluble vitamins?

Vitamins are classified into two groups: water-soluble and fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins, which include all of the B vitamins, are easily absorbed into the body. If you consume more of a water-soluble vitamin than you need, the excess will be excreted, not stored. This means the risk of an overdose is low, but you have to constantly replenish your stock. Fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A and D, require bile acids to help absorb them, but your body keeps stocks of the excess for ready us

What is bile? How does it work?

a bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.

Describe the different roles of vitamins/minerals in the body. What happens if you have a deficiency of a specific vitamin/mineral?

Vitamins are complex chemical substances contained mainly in food. They enable the body to break down and use the basic elements of food, proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Certain vitamins are also involved in producing blood cells, hormones, genetic material and chemicals in your nervous system. Unlike carbohydrates, proteins and fats, vitamins and minerals do not provide calories. However, they do help the body to use the energy from food. Most vitamins cannot be made in your body, so they must be acquired from food. One exception is vitamin D, which is made in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight. Bacteria present in the gut can also make some vitamins. Minerals are specific kinds of nutrients that the body needs in order to function properly. A mineral deficiency occurs when the body doesn't obtain the required amount of a mineral.To stay healthy, the body requires different amounts of each mineral. Specific needs are outlined in the recommended daily allowances (RDA). They can be obtained from food, mineral supplements, and food products that have been fortified with extra minerals. A deficiency often happens slowly over time. It can be caused by an increased need for the mineral, lack of the mineral in the diet, or difficulty absorbing the mineral from food. Mineral deficiencies can lead to a variety of health problems, such as weak bones, fatigue, or a decreased immune system.

What are aquaporins? Podocytes? Pedicels?

Water is a polar molecule with H+ and OH- ions. So as expected , it cannot diffuse throught the lipid bilayer coz it can't penetrate through the non polar fatty acid tail of the lipid bilayer. So it difusses readily through the cell membrane by a group of membrane proteins called AQUAPORINS that forms channels through water can diffuse. The concentration of these water channels differ in different membranes. Podocytes (or visceral epithelial cells) are cells in the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus. Pedicel- a small stalklike structure connecting an organ or other part to the human or animal body.

What makes carbon monoxide so toxic?

When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it takes the place of oxygen in hemoglobin, the red blood pigment that normally carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Because carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin several hundred times more strongly than oxygen, its effects are cumulative and long-lasting, causing oxygen starvation throughout the body. Prolonged exposure to fresh air (or pure oxygen) is required for the CO-tainted hemoglobin (carboxyhemoglobin) to clear.

How is active transport used in the renal tubule? Passive transport?

Within the kidney nephron system, there are many areas where active transport is used to exchange substances between the tubules and the capillaries surrounding the nephron. Generally, all reabsorbtion and secretion activity that occurs within the kidney is due to active transport. Active transport is used within reabsorbtion to bring back all good and necessary nutrients into the blood stream if they had previously diffused passively into the tubular network. Reabsorbtion materials include: glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, bicarbonate ions and some water. This reabsortion occurs within the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and within the loop of Henle. Scecretion uses active transport to deliberately place some salts and urea into the proximal and distal convoluted tubules. Passive transport occurs commonly within the kidney in various parts of its anatomy. This usually occurs within the nephron and is as follows: Firstly, small soluable molecules can passively diffuse into the liquid in Bowman's Capsule from the Glomerulus. These molecules are usually molecules of glucose, urea, salts and water and diffuse from the capillaries into the solution of plasma without the use of energy. This particular action is known as passive filtration as blood pressure plays a part in forcing the blood into the Glomerulous. Secondly, in both the proximal convoluted tubule and the loop of Henle, osmosis of water occurs whereby the water moves from the more concentrated environment within the tubules to the less concentrated environment of the capillaries. This therefore creates a balanced concentration of water within and outside the tubules throughout the nephron network. Depending on the release of the hormone ADH, water can diffuse out of the collecting duct into the nearby capillary. This action is used when water needs to be conserved within the body and is because ADH makes the walls of collection duct permeable to water. Thirdly, salts can passively diffuse out of the thin walled section of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle and into the Medulla

What is cholesterol? What is its role within the body?

a compound of the sterol type found in most body tissues, including the blood and the nerves. Cholesterol and its derivatives are important constituents of cell membranes and precursors of other steroid compounds, but high concentrations in the blood (mainly derived from animal fats in the diet) are thought to promote atherosclerosis.

What is a hormone and how does it act

a regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action. a synthetic substance with an effect similar to that of an animal or plant hormone. a person's sex hormones as held to influence behavior or mood. Hormones are made by endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, pancreas, and ovaries. But how do they work in our bodies? Why are they important? Read more about different hormones, the glands that produce them, and the work that they do.

What is pus?

a thick yellowish or greenish opaque liquid produced in infected tissue, consisting of dead white blood cells and bacteria with tissue debris and serum.

What risks are associated with secondary smoke?

for children, secondhand smoke exposure raises the risk of the following conditions: Ear infections, Asthma attacks, Lung infections, such as bronchitis and pneumonia, Coughing and wheezing, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), Heart disease,Cancer.

What substances should be found in urine? Which should not?found

found: sodium, potassium, urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, bicarbonate ion Not found: glucose, blood, proteins, RBCs, hemoglobin, WBCs, bile

Describe the layers of the heart and pericardium

is a double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the great vessels. The pericardial sac has two layers, a serous layer and a fibrous layer. It encloses the pericardial cavity which contains pericardial fluid.

What terms are used to describe abnormal heart rhythms?

is any of a group of conditions in which the electrical activity of the heart is irregular or is faster or slower than normal.[1] The heartbeat may be too fast (over 100 beats per minute) or too slow (less than 60 beats per minute), and may be regular or irregular. A heart beat that is too fast is called tachycardia and a heart beat that is too slow is called bradycardia. Although many arrhythmias are not life-threatening, some can cause cardiac arrest.

Trace the pathway of urine from the nephron to the body's exterior.

nephron = functional unit, glomerulus, bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra, urethral orifice

Differentiate between primary and permanent teeth

primary incisors are larger mesiodistally than in height 2. permanent teeth - yellower, primary teeth more white primary =20 teeth - no 3rd molar or premolars 4. Primary teeth have no mamellons in primary teeth, they are proportionally larger 6. Thinner on primary teeth a) roots are widely spread on primary - bold or flared roots [bc permanent teeth are forming between the roots] b) roots are frequently thin from mesial to distal on primary c) root trunk - very small or nonexistent on primary very prominent on primary teeth -you get a large cervical ridge on primary teeth -important in restorative standpoint

Compare and contrast primary versus secondary immune responses.

primary: body is first exposed to antigen, lymphocyte is activated. secondary: same antigen is encountered at a later time. It is faster and of greater magnitude.

Describe the different enzymes/chemicals used within digestion, where they are used, and what they digest

proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids., lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule., amylases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars such as glucose., nucleases split nucleic acids into nucleotides

Who regulates pituitary gland secretion?

the hypothalamus sends "messages" to the pituitary gland to release hormones

What is hematocrit?

the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood. an instrument for measuring this, typically by centrifugation

Describe differences between T cells and B cells.

there are different types of b cell and t cell. both are lymphocytes, a subclass of white blood cell. the t cells are mainly used in identifying antigens and releasing chemicals which attact macrophages (big immune cells which 'eat' antigens), to destroy the antigen. b cells are used in the production of antibodies. when they encounter a new antigen, plasma cells and memory cells are formed from the devision of a b cell. the memory cell remembers the antigen and which antibody to use, while the plasma cell makes the antibodies to fight a particular antigen or class of antigens

Describe the different leukocytes and their origins

they come from pluripotential hematopoietic stem cells.Made in the bone marrow