APLAC FALL FINAL BENNETT FHS

straw man fallacy

a fallacy of argument in which a speaker attributes an easily refuted position to his or her opponent, one that the opponent wouldn't endorse, and then proceed to attack the easily refuted position (straw man) believing you have undermined the opponent's actual position. BOB: The government should put more money into health and education and less into the defense budget. SUE: I can't believe you hate our country so much that you want to leave it vulnerable to terrorist acts by cutting military spending. Your lack of patriotism is no reason to divert funds from the defense budget.

persuasion

a form of argument; the act of seeking to change someone else's point of view through appeals to reason or emotion

begging the question

a form of circular reasoning; a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or dispute. Maria has never stolen anything. She can't be the bicycle thief.

faulty analogy

a logical fallacy in which a comparison between two objects or concepts is inaccurate or inconsequential. MEDICAL STUDENT: "No one objects to a physician looking up a difficult case in medical books. Why, then, shouldn't students taking a difficult exam be permitted to use their textbooks."

equivocation

a logical fallacy in which an ambiguous term is used in more than one sense, making the argument misleading. DRIVER: The sign said fine for parking here, and since it was fine, I parked there.

premise

a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based.

claim

a statement that asserts a belief or truth

assertion

a statement that presents a claim or thesis

counterargument thesis

a thesis statement in which a summary of a counterargument, usually qualified by although or but, and precedes the writer's opinion. Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popularity has less to do with storytelling than with merchandising.

red herring

a type of fallacy that is an irrelevant topic introduced in an argument to divert the attention of the audience from the original issue. A student is caught cheating by his professor and says, "I know I was wrong to cheat, but my parents are going to be so disappointed. They're going to kill me."

circular reasoning

a type of reasoning in which the proposition is supported by the premises, which is supported by the proposition, creating a circle in reasoning where no useful information is being shared. LOGICAL FORM: X is true because of Y. Y is true because of X. Piracy is wrong because it is against the law, and it's against the law because it is wrong.

precedents

actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent actions.

qualified argument

an argument that is not absolute. It acknowledges the merits of an opposing view, but it develops a stronger case for its own position.

open thesis

an open thesis is one that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay. The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.

TONE: objective

based on facts rather than feeling or opinions; detached; unbiased; nonpartisan; impersonal; open-minded

TONE: introspective

characterized by introspection, the process of looking within oneself; inward-looking; reflective; brooding

deduction

deduction is a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). The process of deduction is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism: MAJOR PREMISE: Eating fruit is healthy. MINOR PREMISE: Bananas are a type of fruit. CONCLUSION: Eating bananas is good for my health.

first-hand evidence

evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it's from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

qualitative evidence

evidence supported by reason, tradition, precedent or logic

second-hand evidence

evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data

TONE: lethargic

feeling a lack of energy or lack of interest in doing things; indifferent; apathetic; dull; torpid

syllogism

from the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second, "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. MAJOR PREMISE: All men are mortal. MINOR PREMISE: Socrates is a man. CONCLUSION: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("All men").

induction

from the Latin inducere, "to lead into," a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization. Regular exercise promotes weight loss. Exercise lowers stress levels. Exercise improves mood and outlook.

TONE: ambivalent

holding simultaneous and contradictory attitudes or feelings; uncertain; vacillating; undecided; mixed

enthymeme

in Toulmin argument, a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason: The bank will fail (claim) because it has lost the support of its largest investors (reason). In classical rhetoric, an enthymeme is a syllogism with one term understood but not stated: Socrates is mortal because he is a human being. (The understood term is: All human beings are mortal.)

backing

in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant.

introduction (exordium)

in classical oration, the first part of the five-part structure; a rhetor introduces the subject or problem to an audience while trying to win their attention and good will.

refutation (refutatio)

in classical oration, the fourth part in the five-part argument structure; addresses the counterargument—the rhetor recognizes and refutes opposing claims of evidence. It is a bridge between the writer's proof and conclusion (peroratio).

narration (narratio)

in classical oration, the second part of the five-part argument structure; provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing. The narratio puts an argument in context by explaining what happened, when it happened, who is involved, and so on.

rebuttal

in the Toulmin model, a rebuttal gives voice to possible objections. Writers need to anticipate such conditions in shaping their arguments.

reservation

in the Toulmin model, a reservation explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.

warrant

in the Toulmin model, the warrant expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.

TONE: flippant

lacking proper respect or seriousness; glib; facetious; flip; cheeky; insolent; impudent

logial fallacy

logical fallacies are potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.

evidence

material offered to support an argument.

TONE: impish

mischievous; naughty; playful; devil-may-care

TONE: incredulous

not able or willing to believe something; feeling or showing a lack of belief; skeptical; disbelieving; suspecting; mistrustful

TONE insipid

not interesting or exciting; dull; boring; tasteless; flat

sweeping generalization

occurs when a writer asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of some. Children should be seen and not heard. Mozart was a child when he composed his first symphony; therefore, Mozart should not be seen or heard.

quantitative evidence

quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers—for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, census information

conclusion (peroratio)

the fifth part of the five-part argument structure of classical oration; the conclusion bring the argument to a satisfying close by summarizing the case and moving the audience to action.

authority

the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his or her subject and confident in that knowledge

pacing

the speed or tempo of an author's writing. Writers can use a variety of devices (syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing of their words. An author's pacing can be described as fast, sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.

confirmation (confirmatio)

the third part of the five-part argument structure of classical oration; usually the major part of the text, the confirmation includes the proof needed to make the writer's case. The rhetor offers detailed support for the claim, including both logical reasoning and factual evidence.

post hoc ergo propter hoc

this fallacy is Latin for "after which therefore because of which," meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation. LOGICAL FORM: 1. A occurs before B. 2. Therefore A is the cause of B. ATHLETE: I had been doing pretty poorly this season. Then my girlfriend gave me this neon laces for my spikes and I won my next three races. Those laces must be good luck...if I keep on wearing them I can't help but win!

inference

to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong. As we have seen in the multiple-choice selections that we have been trying, you must be careful to note the connotation—negative or positive—of the choices.

TONE: derisive

using ridicule or scorn to show contempt; mocking; jeering; sneering

TONE: morose

very serious, unhappy, and quiet; having a sullen and gloomy disposition; dreary; lugubrious; miserable; morbid; saturnine

qualifier

words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim, making it less absolute: usually, in a few cases, under these circumstances, etc.

didactic

Designed or intended to teach; instructive, educative, pedagogic.

cryptic

Difficult to understand; having or seeming to have a hidden meaning; hidden, arcane, enigmatic, mysterious.

brusque

Direct, brief, and unfriendly; short and abrupt; blunt, curt, gruff.

diatribe

A bitter, sharply abusive denunciation, attack, or criticism.

rhetorical triangle

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.

dysphemism

A figure of speech which is defined as the use of disparaging or offensive expressions instead of inoffensive ones, such as croaked, kicked the bucket, and bit the dust for deceased.

rapport

A harmonious or sympathetic relationship established between speaker and audience; built through friendly introductions, complimenting, showing respect, and conveying optimism.

epitaph

A phrase or statement written in memory of a person who has died, especially as an inscription on a tombstone.

epigraph

A phrase, quotation, or poem that is set at the beginning of a document or component. The epigraph may serve as a preface, as a summary, as a counter example, or to link the work to another text.

epigram

A pithy saying or remark expressing an idea in a clever and amusing way. "I can resist anything except temptation." —Oscar Wilde, The Importance of Being Earnest

coherence

A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the units that, by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for coherence.

stance

A speaker's attitude toward the audience (differing from tone, the speaker's attitude toward the subject).

truism

A statement that is obviously true and says nothing new or interesting. Actions speak louder than words. Don't yell fire in a crowded theater.

aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. "Dream as if you'll live forever. Live as if you'll die tomorrow." —James Dean "Where there's smoke, there's fire."

inflammatory

Tending to excite anger, disorder, or tumult; incendiary, seditious, provocative, fiery.

audience

The person or persons to whom an argument is directed; the listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences.

argument

1. Spoken, written, or visual text that expresses a point of view; 2. The use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct from persuasion, the attempt to change someone else's point of view.

bandwagon appeal (ad populum)

a fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended on the grounds that everyone else is following it. For example, if your friends get you to jump off a bridge by telling you that everyone else is jumping off the bridge, you would be guilty of "jumping on the bandwagon."

epithet

An adjective or descriptive phrase expressing a quality characteristic of the person mentioned. In the Odyssey, Homer refers to Odysseus as "master mariner," "man of many resources," and "the great glory of the Achaeans."

invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

exigence

An issue, problem, or situation that causes or prompts someone to write or speak.

expletive

An offensive word or phrase (such as "Damn it!") that people sometimes say when they are angry or in pain.

vexed

Annoyed or worried; aggravated, exasperated, galled, peeved.

non sequitur

Latin for "it does not follow," a fallacious argument in which its conclusion does not follow from its premises. RALPH WIGGUM: Martin Luther King had a dream. Dreams are where Elmo and Toy Story had a party and I was invited. Yay! My turn is over! PRINCIPAL SKINNER: One of your best, Ralphie. —"The Color Yellow," The Simpsons, 2010

purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve; the goal of an argument. Purposes include entertaining, informing, convincing, exploring, and deciding, among others.

sesquipedalian

From a Latin word meaning "words that are a foot and a half long," it is a stylistic device defined by the use of words that are very long and have several syllables. "O! they have lived long on the alms basket of words. / I marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word; /for thou art not so long by the head as / honorificabilitudinitatibus: thou art easier / swallowed than a flap-dragon...." —William Shakespeare, Love's Labours Lost

euphemism

From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

rhetoric

From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

portentous

Giving a sign or warning that something usually bad or unpleasant is going to happen; trying to seem important, serious, or impressive; baleful, direful, foreboding, ominous.

persona

Greek for "mask." The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience; the voice or figure of the author who tells and structures the story and who may or may not share of the values of the actual author.

candid

Impartial and honest in speech; straightforward, frank, forthright, direct.

ad hominem

Latin for "to the man," a fallacy of argument in which a writer's claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his or her character. SCIENTIST A: Global warming is a trend that will continue with disastrous consequences unless we limit our coal consumption. SCIENTIST B: You're an alcoholic and you cheat on your wife. Therefore, you can't be trusted to understand the complexities of global warming.

facetious

Joking or jesting, often inappropriately; jocular, frivolous, witty, amusing.

conciliatory

Making someone more friendly or less angry; appeasing.

nostalgic

Marked by a pleasure and sadness caused by remembering something from the past and wishing you could experience it again; wistful, sentimental, regretful.

context

The entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including the writer's purpose(s) for writing; the intended audience; the time and place of writing; the institutional, social, personal, and other influences on the piece of writing (whether it's, for instance, online or on paper, in handwriting or print); and the writer's attitude toward the subject and the audience.

kairos

The opportune moment; in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most opportune ways to make it.

tone

Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

synthesis

The combination of two or more ideas in order to create something more complex in support of a new idea.

speaker

The person or group who creates a text. This might be a politician who delivers a speech, a commentator who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an advertisement.

occasion

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.

subject

The topic of the text; what the text is about.

text

While this term generally means the written word, in the humanities it has come to mean any cultural product that can be "read"—meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated. This includes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography, performances, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.

closed thesis

a closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make. The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make then not only legendary children's books but also enduring literary classics.

hasty generalization

a fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence. Smoking isn't bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.

appeal to false authority

a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials. This type of fallacy is commonly seen in advertising when celebrities are used to hock products with which they have no expertise. ACTOR: I'm not a doctor, but I play one on TV. You trust me when I say that Super Relief 2000 is the fastest acting, most effective medicine you can take to cure your most acute aches and pains.

assumption

a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based.

claim of fact

a claim of fact asserts that something is true or not true. "The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last three decades..." —Anna Quindlen

claim of policy

a claim of policy proposes a change. "Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it belongs." —Anna Quindlen

claim of value

a claim of value argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong. "There's a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn't announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs, and busy cities where it has been laying waste." —Anna Quindlen

either/or fallacy (false dilemma)

a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other. You either with God, or you are against him.