approaches + comparison

discuss the contributions of Freud/psychodynamic approach

1. psychoanalysis 2. cultural impact > focus on childhood > continuum of mental health > psychoanalysis

Assumptions of the humanistic approach

3) Free will - we are determine our behaviours and it isn't based on past experienced. We are motivated to use free will to reach our full potential and reach self-actualisation 5) Behaviour is caused by subjective feelings as well as thoughts about yourself (self concept) and how you can learn new things and become a better person

Briefly discuss the value of behaviourism in helping us to understand human behaviour.

AO1 = assumptions of behaviourism and process AO2 = evaluation > uses of animal studies > scientific approach > development and success of therapies

Tatiana's parents are concerned about her mobile phone use. She is an anxious child and has low self-esteem. Tatiana only feels good about herself when she receives messages or positive comments on social media. She feels safe when she has her phone and socially isolated without it. Tatiana's parents worry that her dependence on her mobile phone is starting to affect her well-being and achievement at school. Outline and evaluate the humanistic approach. Refer to Tatiana's behaviour in your answer.

AO2 hierarchy of needs: Tatiana requires her mobile phone to meet her safety needs, 'feel safe', love and belonging needs, 'socially isolated without her phone', 'feels good about herself when she receives messages or comments on social media', self-esteem needs, 'low self-esteem'/ 'feels good about herself when she receives messages or comments' • self-actualisation - 'achievement at school' • conditions of worth linked to feeling the need to text friends and use social media for acceptance and friendship • incongruence and negative feelings of self-worth applied to 'low self-esteem'/ 'feels good about herself when she receives messages or comments' and/or anxiety.

assumptions of behaviourism

All behaviors are learnt from our environment. Focus on observable behavior (behavior that can be seen). Animals and humans learn in the same ways so behaviorists carry out experiments on animals and extrapolate the results to humans. Psychology should be scientific and objective therefore behaviorists use mainly laboratory experiments to achieve this.

Behaviourism AO1

Behaviorism is an approach that states the all behaviour is as a result of conditioning. It believes psychology to be a scientific discipline so only focusses on observable behaviour without any discussion of cognition, using objective laboratory research to study this. They have two mechanisms for learning: operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Classical condition is learning through association, one example being Pavlov's dogs. When a neutral stimulus (the bell), which produces no response, is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food), which produces an unconditioned response (salivation to food), the two stimuli become associated. In this case, the neutral stimulus (bell) has become a conditioned stimulus, which produces a conditioned response (salivation to bell). They are said to be conditioned because they have been learned. Operant conditioning is where behaviour is shaped by consequences. An action can be reinforced positively (adding a positive stimulus) or negatively (removing a negative stimulus) to make the action more likely to occur in the future in anticipation of the same consequence. Or it can be punished positively (adding a negative stimulus) or negatively (removing positive stimulus) to make it less likely to occur in the future in anticipation of the same consequence. The way in which the individual is reinforced, called the reinforcement schedule, can also be changed to yield different behaviours.

Assumptions of the biological approach

Everything psychological is at first biological To fully understand behaviour, biological structures within the body must be examined These structures include: genes, nervous system and neurochemistry. An understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour

psychodynamic approach weakness

Inadequacy of research: · Research uses case studies and is highly speculative. · Didn't always meet the individual (little hans) · Culturally and gender biased (mostly middle classed Viennese women) · Subjective conclusions · Concepts (id, ego defence mechanisms etc) are not empirical · Not scientific - pseudoscience not empirical, falsifiable, objective or replicable. Contradictory evidence: · Where Freud suggests that you develop morality through identifying with Father (aggressive father = aggressive son), Blakemore and Hill say liberal fathers raised children more secure in their masculinity Green - 37 children raised by gay/trans parents, only 1 had gender identity classes as 'non-typical'. Alpha biased and androcentric. Thus, we should question whether we should pay attention to such an essentialist and androcentric theory.

bandura's study strength

Lab study: Thus it has high control and good internal validity. However, it lacks ecological validity as the children could have easily been showing demand characteristics, with one child commenting 'look mummy there's the doll we have to hit. issues with the doll: lacks ecological validity because it looks at aggression against an inanimate object. Bobo dolls invite aggression, especially from young children. however, a doll will not fight back and will not get hurt, and thus the experiment is not similar to the real world. Thus it cannot explain aggression in real life scenarios.

cognitive approach weaknesses

Lacks ecological validity *explain what exological validity is* many of the studies that explore cognition use trivial tasks that do not relate to real life, eg petersen and petersen's nonsense trigrams. Therefore we cannot generalise these to real life situations so it lacks ecological validity. So cognitive psychology is overly abstract and theoretical Computer models do not accurately represent real human processing. machine reductionism, since it ignores human emotion and motivation. Tells is how processing takes place but not why.

humanistic psychology weakness - CC

One significant problem with this approach is that it's focus on taking a purely idiographic approach, subjective experience and free will, all explicitly goes against the scientific method. The humanistic psychologist are not concerned with making any general laws or using scientific experiments to study behavior, and so produce no empirical data. It could also be mentioned that the approach using untestable and not operationalised concepts such as UCPR and congruence as the basis of their approach. Therefore, the approach is not empirical or falsifiable, and cannot be considered to be part of scientific psychology. Cultural bias: Many of the ideas central to this approach, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth are representative to a western individualist culture. Collectivist cultures such as in india, which emphasise the need of the group, community and interdependance, may not identify with the values and ideals of humanistic psychology. Therefore it is an emic approach.

SLT strengths

One strength of SLT is that it acknowledges the importance of cognitive factors. Unlike the behaviorist approach, SLT includes the concept of mediational processes into their explanation, appreciating how cognitive processes must be involved in the learning process. As bandura comments, it would be too time consuming to learn all behaviors through trial and error, and so SLT provides an explanation for the learning of new behaviors quickly which we can see in the real world, which includes some element of cognition. Thus this makes it a more comprehensive explanation. Good evidence from bobo doll studies: Bandura's study involved child aggression to a bobo after being exposed to either aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour. He found that: >aggressive group - aggressive actions repeated >non-aggressive group - virtually no aggression >1/3 of aggressive group repeated verbal aggression >boys produced more aggression. Although: Lab study: Thus it has high control and good internal validity. However, it lacks ecological validity as the children could have easily been showing demand characteristics, with one child commenting 'look mummy there's the doll we have to hit. issues with the doll: lacks ecological validity because it looks at aggression against an inanimate object. Bobo dolls invite aggression, especially from young children. however, a doll will not fight back and will not get hurt, and thus the experiment is not similar to the real world. Thus it cannot explain aggression in real life scenarios.

behaviourist approach strengths

One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is extremely scientific. This is because the experiments and research that form the basis of this approach used scientific methods that were heavily controlled, so that causal conclusions can be drawn. One example of this is the skinner box, where skinner controlled the different reinforcement schedules, the type of food dropped and the structure of the skinner box. Thus the evidence, is falsifiable, objective, replicable and empirical. Therefore, the approach has good internal validity. another strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has been useful in the development of effective psychological therapies for disorders with clear behavioural symptoms such phobias. One example of this is systematic desensitisation, which involves counter conditioning - the pairing of relaxation with increasingly frightening exposure to the feared stimulus, therefore replacing the conditioned response of fear with one of relaxation. It's effectiveness in both short term and long term has been shown by Gilroy et al [ideally give a finding here], thus demonstrating how the behaviourist approach has beneficial real-world application. however, you could argue that SD cannot be used for complex phobias, and thus is not a complete treatment for all phobias, which suggests there is a problem with the theory that lies behind it. If, as behaviourism suggests, all phobias are learned the same way, then they should all be responsive to the same counter conditioning. The fact this is not the case suggests that behaviourism is not as useful of an approach as previously proposed. no cultural bias as it take all cultures into account. This is because it nature nurture - UCS must cause a physiological reflex + biological preparedness hard determinism for behaviourism

Humanistic psychology strengths

One strength of the humanistic approach is that it has positive real world application through person-centred therapy, which has given therapists useful tools for supporting their clinets with low self-esteem and depressive symptoms. One particular positive is that it aims to put the power back into the clients hands. Here the therapist supplies the client with UCPR that they may not have received during childhood, whilst prompting them to find the resolution to their issues themselves. This demonstrates how the humanistic approach has been useful in developing new treatments to improve people's lives. However, one issue is that it cannot be applied to psychotic disorders. This is because sufferers of psychotic conditions lack insight into their condition, and so cannot be encouraged to find their own solutions.

behavourist approach weakness'

One weakness of the behaviourist approach is that it relies on research completed on animals. The approach assumes that all conditioning experiences are equal, and so believes that research studies on animasl can be generalised to humans. Examples of this include, watson and rayner, pavlovs dogs, skinners mice and pigeons. Due to the obvious differences in intelligence, communication and biology between humans and animals, we cannot be sure whether the observed results from these experiments are due to features of the animals that can be generalised to human experience, or whether they are due differences between us and the animals. Therefore, we cannot generalise the results. ignores cognition.

psychodynamic strengths

Practical application: · Developed new therapy -psychoanalysis. This uses dream analysis, free association, projective tests and hypnosis to access the unconscious mind., and to help resolve conflicts within this part of the mind. This is a positive as not only may it help individuals with their issues, but it was also the first psychotherapy, helping to introduce the idea of talking therapies into the field of psychology... · Lead to modern psychotherapies, However, it is criticised for its weak application. inappropriate for schizophrenia, as they lack insight. Another issue is that psychoanalysis is based on issues from childhood. This is a negative as for some people their issues may have been caused by recent events and so it would not apply to those individuals. (Furthermore, if you don't believe in your issues being caused by childhood conflicts, then you will be unresponsive to the treatment), reducing the extent of its application. Explanatory power and cultural influence: · First theory to suggest childhood experiences had an impact on later behaviour, influencing both social policy and psychological theory. This can be evidenced by Bowlby who later developed the (e.g. continuity hypothesis), which had an accumalative affect. Therefore, it had a profound impact on psychology and contemporary western thought.

Nature vs nurture

Psychodynamic = 50/50 all people go through the oedipus complex and resolve it to get superego, and everyone has tripartite personality however, there is the involvement of childhood conflict and psychosexual stages which are controlled by the quality of parental care. Humanistic = 90% nurture 10% nature UCPR and conditions of worth are controlled by parental care, but innate desire for self actualisation could be nature Cognitive = 50/50 says that all believe have the same cognitive processes and abilities, such as the capacity of the working memory being 7 +- 2 as miller magic number states. however, things like schema are based off of nurture and experience biological = 50/50 genes and NT responsible for ehaviour, but phenotype includes environment, neuroanatomy includes neuroplasticity Behaviourism = Nurture everyone is a blank slate who learns everything and behaviour is a consequence of the sum of everything we have experienced SLT = Nurture observation and imitation and vicarious direct reinforcement. Biological preparedness suggests that there is some sort of biological/genetic influence in the development of phobias. Also classical conditioning uses biological reflexes to cause an association

humanistic psychology AO3

S - emphasizes the importance of the subjective experience and each person capacity for self-determination. Hence it takes an idiographic approach and does not attempt to make general laws about behaviour. F - free will - all people are active agents with free will, and so we are all unique. Hence they believe psychology should only concern itself with subjective experience, deeming this the person-centred approach S - Self actualisation - states people have an innate tendancy to reach their fullest potential. Shown as the pinnacle of maslow's hierarchy of needs, where people must achieve the deficiency needs (physiological needs, safety, belongingness, self-esteem etc) before they can self-actualise (a growth need). They believe that growth is an essential part of being human. C - Congruence - Roger argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individuals concept of self (how they see themselves) and their ideal self (who they want to be) must match and therefore have congruence. If not they experience incongruence, accompanied by negative feelings of self worth and the inability to self actualise. U - UCPR - Roger founded the client-centred therapy to fix this, explaining it as coming from a lack of unconditional positive regard during childhood. This is where parents do not love the child unconditionally and may place conditions of worth (restrictions on their love eg I only love you when you do xyz). Hence he used client-centred therapy as a way to give UCPR to clients.

assumptions of the cognitive approach

The main assumption of the cognitive approach is that information received from our senses is processed by the brain and that this processing directs how we behave. These internal mental processes cannot be observed directly but we can infer what a person is thinking based on how they act. mental processes can be regarded as information processing' relevant topics might be: memory

Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

The main assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that all behavior can be explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind. Freud highlights the role of the unconscious mind, the structure of personality and the influence that childhood experiences have on later life. Freud believed that the unconscious mind determines most of our behavior and that we are motivated by unconscious emotional drives.

bandura's study

bandura did a study using independant groups design on children (M+F) aged 3-5. He had them observe aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour against a bobo doll. (control = no behaviour) aggressive interaction = hitting doll with a mallet, kicking it, shouting "pow" as they hit it. the children were then purposefully agitated by being shown a room of toys they can't play with. taken to a room of toys that has a bobo doll Findings: >aggressive group - aggressive actions repeated >non-aggressive group - virtually no aggression >1/3 of aggressive group repeated verbal aggression >boys produced more aggression

cognitive approach

behaviour is due to thought processes considers information processing such as extraction, storage and retrieval of information from memory behaviour is affected by beliefs and expectations called schema, which are cognitive frameworks which help interpret information, developed through experience (eg stereotyping) uses computer model and theoretical models to make inferences since we cannot directly study cognition theoretical models are based on information processing approach to explain behaviour. They are usually pictorial, flow like diagrams which use arrows and boxes to show the stages of mental processes eg working memory model (explains how we cannot do two similar tasks at the same time) Computer model, eg computer model of memory would show LTM as the hard drive and working memory as RAM (random access memory, a store which is cleared after a task is done)

explanation/treatment of behaviour

behaviourism = two process model and behavioural therapy eg flooding and SD SLT = vicarious reinforcement Biological approach = imbalance of NT levels. This may arise from faulty genes. Eg High dopamine causes schizophrenia. Drug therapy such as SSRI Psychodynamic = Unconscious conflicts arising from childhood trauma and the overuse of ego defence mechanisms. Also fixation of a psychosexual stage. Psychoanalysis cognitive approach = Faulty thought processes. CBT humanistic approach = incongruence from lack of UCPR during childhood. Person centred therapy

psychology as a science

behvaiourism = scientific - objective lab research eg skinner box SLT = uses experimental method to draw conclusions about cause and effect, howver bobo doll research was done in artifical setting - and so there are questions about ecological validity biological = scientific. Explored thorugh experimental studies using highly advanced equipment. brain scans, blood tests, gene tests twin studies (nestadt). Psychodynamic = Idiographic appraoch : reliance on case studies and subjective interpretation. case study work was also carried out very badly (via letter communication with the father). Freuds work is pseduoscience (unflasifable conjecture). However, it is possible to test some predictions of psychodynamic theory experimentally (eg oedipus complex) Cognitive = mostly scientific. Scientific methods are used eg loftus and palmer. HOwever, inferences are used since cognition is not a tangible/empirical concept. Hence the approach is not empricial. Humanistic = Free will not determinism and subjective. Behaviour cannot be predicted and is an idiographic approach. Untestable concepts - however there is rogers Q-sort.

psychodynamic approach AO1

caused by conflicts in early life> Unconscious mind: · Instinctual, biological drives and repressed material (childhood conflict) cause behaviour Tripartite personality: · Id - operates on pleasure principle, containing innate and aggressive instincts, and demands instant gratification (unconscious mind) · Ego - develops around 2, using reality principle to keep Id in check. Balance of Id and superego through ego defence mechanisms. · Superego - formed in the phallic stage (around 5) through identification with the same sex parent and the resolution of Oedipus complex. Uses morality principle - sense of right and wrong dependant on standards of same sex parent, punishing ego for doing wrong through guilt. Defence mechanisms: · Unconscious strategies which use energy to manage conflict between Id and superego and prevent ego being overwhelmed. · Repression - pushing threatening thoughts into unconscious mind · Denial - refusal to accept existence of event. Displacement - Directing anger at safe target rather than the responsible powerful individual Psychosexual stages: · Oral (0-1) - Mouth focus of pleasure, breast is object of desire. Consequence of oral fixation · Anal (1-3) - Anus focus of pleasure, pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. Consequence = anal retentive (perfectionist)/expulsive (messy) · Phallic (3-5) - Genitals focus of pleasure, child experience Oedipus/Electra complex (superego develops). Consequence narcissistic + homosexual. · Latent (5-puberty) - earlier conflicts repressed · Genital (puberty) - Sexual desires become conscious + difficulty forming heterosexual relationships. If not complete they experience fixation

discuss the contributions of behavioural psychologists

contributed the theory of classical and operant conditioning role of reinforcement/punishment focus on objectivity and overt behaviour development of SD and flooding

bio approach weakness'

hard determinism - genes control behaviour is not free will reductionist - reduces all human behaviour into one consituent of genes. This ignores all other factors such as cognition

SLT weaknesses

one weakness of SLT is that it ignores biological factors. >SLT suggests that everything is learned through observation, with no bio influence. However, we can see that some people learn behaviors more easily and some things are much easier to learn than others. For instance: >in the bobo doll studies, the boys were found to be more aggressive than girls, this can be explained by testosterone levels. >People find it much easier to learn to fear certain objects and animals (spiders/snakes) when compared to other items such as (plants). The theory of biological preparedness explains this - suggesting that we are genetically programmed to learn links that were relevant in our evolutionary past.

discuss the contributions of the humanistic approach

person-centred therapy Maslows hierarchy of needs - applied in business to investigate motivation of working self worth, UCPR - positive focus on individual - 'bringing the person back into psychology' - unlike other approaches, it helps us to understand how it really feels to be human/to have illness.

biological approach

physical prpocesses and structures affect behaviour genes and inheritance are responsible for behaviour genotype refers to inherited genes phenotype is the observable characteristics of the individual; a result of genes + environment evolutionary psychologists suggest behaviors have evolved. genes determine the structure of the brain and NS, which determines behaviour as structure and function of brain determines behaviour release of NT affects behaviour hormone levels affect behaviour neuroanatomy and neurochemistry

determinism

psychodynamic = hard determinism/psychic determinism humanistic = free will cognitive = soft determinism We can choose our thoughts and behaviours, but this is still limited by our experiences and the limits of cognitive processes. Biological = hard/genetic/biological determinism Behaviourism = hard determinism SLT = soft determinism

Cognitive model strengths

scientific - conclusions are based on rigorous scientific, controlled, systematic and reliable testing. EG loftus and palmer who did an independant groups study to explore leading questions. therefore it has scientific credibility. However, it uses inferences which are assumptions made since cognition cannot be directly studied. These are not objective or empirical and so it loses scientific credibility. useful - practical application with CBT for OCD/depression. suggests it must be caused by faulty thinking so proposes CBT. *how CBT works* - *evidence it does work by march (81% effective solo, 86% with antidepressants* - BB real world application and improves peoples lives.

Bio approach strengths

scientific - scientific methods such as brain scans, drug trials, twin studies = control objectivity and reliability. Useful RW application - understanding synaptic transmission has allowed for the development of drugs to treat mental disorders

social learning theory AO1

social learning theory is an approach that states that behaviour is caused by vicarious learning. This is where an individual observes a model carrying out behaviour, possibly observes the model being rewarded for that behaviour, and proceeds to imitate it. If the behavior is imitated, and then reinforced, we call this direct reinforcement. For social learning to occur, someone must carry out the behavior to be learned. This is called modelling. >A live model could be ones parents >A symbolic model could be someone portrayed in the media imitation of the model is much more likely if the individual identifies with them or aspires to be like them. A person can be a role model if they meet one of the following criteria: >high status/successful >attractive >similar characteristics to observer for instance, children are much more likely to identify and learn from models who are the same sex. Finally, for vicarious learning to occur, one must have mental representations surrounding possible rewards, punishments in expectancies about future outcomes - called mediational processes. For effective social learning the following mediational processes should occur: >Attention - the individual should pay attention to the model >Retention - the individual should remember the behaviour >Motor reproduction - the individual should be able to perform the behaviour >Motivation - be motivated to repeat the action due to expectancy of reward.

give two reasons why behaviorists do not collect qualitative data in their investigations

subjectivity of qualitative data cannot be replicated not associated with the scientific approach

Explain how the superego might affect moral behaviour in the following situation: Jackie sees a T-shirt that she really likes in a store. She is aware that there are no security cameras nearby and thinks how easy it would be to slip the T-shirt into her bag.

the unconscious conflict between the id impulses - Jackie desires the top; the demanding, threatening superego (Jackie does not steal the top (or pays for it at the till) because of guilt even at the possibility of wrong-doing).

Discuss the contribution of behaviourist psychologists such as Pavlov and Skinner to our understanding of human behaviour.

• gave appreciation of how behaviour is learnt and environmentally determined • large scale data gathering and generalisation allowed for development of laws and principles • gave us theories of learning and laws of learning - classical and operant conditioning theories • emphasised importance of consequences, ie behaviour that is rewarded likely to be repeated • emphasised role of reinforcement and punishment - strengthens or weakens learning • insistence on objectivity and study of overt behaviour - raising psychology's scientific status. Credit other relevant contributions. Discussion of possible contributions: • strict scientific methods, objectivity, controlled research, verifiable findings led to raised status of psychology but meant that many aspects of human behaviour could not be studied • implications, eg development of laws and principles enabled prediction and control of behaviour and how these apply to human behaviour • usefulness for aspects of human behaviour, eg therapy, classroom management etc • reductionist approach focusing on lower level of explanation, eg S-R links / associations therefore lacks meaning when it comes to complex human behaviours • focus just on behaviour neglected the whole person, eg in treatment using conditioning only • strongly deterministic - human behaviour is environmentally determined - what of free will? • research mainly with animals therefore generalisation to human behaviour could be limited • discussion about the balance between reliability and validity in behaviourist research • ethical issues, eg as applied to control of human behaviour • comparison with what other approaches offer in explanations of human behaviour.

Outline a psychodynamic explanation for the development of the superego.

• occurs at the Phallic stage of psychosexual development • arises through identification with same-sex parent • and internalisation of his / her moral standards • via resolution of Oedipus / Electra complex • part of the tripartite personality

Mr Benson is a primary school teacher. He has noticed that some of the children in his class push to the front of the queue when it is time to leave the classroom. Suggest how Mr Benson might use vicarious reinforcement to alter the behaviour of these children. Explain your answer with reference to social learning theory.

• positive consequences for the model(s) for performing the desired behaviour, eg allowing the children in the queue to exit first and / or praising them / giving them privileges / stars / edible rewards, in front of all the class, for their orderly conduct. • negative consequences for undesired behaviour eg show the class a video of children being punished for pushing to the front of the queue.