APUSH Ch 32-34

Fireside chats

30 famous speeches delivered by FDR over the radio station so that some 35 million Americans could listen to his words from the comfort of their homes. He initially informed the American citizens that it would be safer to keep their money in banks than "under the mattress." He directly spoke to the Americans and he convinced them to put their trust back in banks just as they were reopening.

The Potsdam Conference

A 17 day long conference held in July 1945 near Berlin where President Truman met with Stalin and English leaders Churchill and Clement Attlee. They told Japan that it would have to surrender or be destroyed, but there was no response.

London Economic Conference

A 1933 meeting between 66 Nations to discuss economics. The goal was to stabilize international currency rates; however, Franklin Roosevelt did not want to do this because it prevented the United States from inflating its own currency, so he pulled his representatives out of the conference. This contributed to a worsened economic crisis throughout the world as well as increased nationalism within individual countries. It also isolated the United States, which made dictators rise up more easily.

Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act

A 1934 law that reversed the high tariffs that had existed since the United States Civil War by allowing the president to negotiate lower tariffs with trade partners without Senate approval. This was created under the common agreement between Roosevelt and Secretary Hull that if a country wanted other countries to purchase its goods, it had to import goods from them. Hull believed that tariff barriers were what had choked off foreign trade, so if the United States and other countries could agree to mutually lower tariffs, trade would result and be beneficial to both nations.

Women's Army Core (WACs)

A group that, along with the Woman Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service, allowed almost 216,000 women to be employed in non-combat duties during World War II.

Bracero Program

A program established in 1942 via an agreement with the Mexican Government. It recruited temporary Mexican agricultural workers to the United States to replace the farmers who had gone to war in the United States draft. These workers worked in the West, and the program continued until 1964, sponsoring 4.5 million Mexican workers to cross the border.

Office of Price Administration

An agency that existed from 1941 to 1947 that regulated the consumer economy by rationing supplies like cars, tires, fuel, and sugar. It did this by curbing inflation by creating caps on the prices of goods. It also controlled rent in parts of the country overwhelmed by war workers. It was extended after the end of World War II to continue preventing inflation.

Keynesianism

An economic theory based on the thoughts of John Maynard Keynes that central banks should adjust interest rates and governments should use deficit spending and tax policies to increase purchasing power. This would help decrease the depression that was still largely present.

Social Security Act

A 1935 law passed by New Dealers that provided unemployment and old-age insurance as well as provisions for the handicapped, blind, and others. This was funded by a payroll tax on employers and employees and was similar to European social security though slightly more restrictive as one had to be in certain jobs to receive welfare in the United States. However, it did benefit over 45 million people by 1939. It was part of the "New Deal Order."

Quarantine Speech

A 1937 speech given by FDR in the isolationist capital of Chicago, where he asked for "positive endeavors" to quarantine the dictators of places like Germany and Italy through economic embargoes. He gave this speech in response to recent aggressions by Japan and Italy. Isolationists protested in response to his speech because they did not want to become even remotely involved in the upcoming war, and this would do exactly that.

Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill was the prime minister of England during World War 2. He was inspired to become a strong leader after the fall of France. He met with FDR multiple times to discuss issues of the world and war. The first conference was on a warship off of Newfoundland. At one point, together they made the eight-point Atlantic Charter, accepted by both men and later endorsed by the Soviet Union.

Lend-Lease Bill

A 1941 law created after FDR was elected for his third term to assist England in its fight against Hitler. It allowed Americans to sell as much arms as possible to any country that was defending itself against the Axis Powers. It used the motto, "send guns, not sons" to represent that by sending goods to these countries, the United States would be sparing the lives of its citizens. The countries were intended to return the goods or their equivalent in money, so some saw this as a way to remain relatively neutral while helping the world defeat the Nazis. However, the United States ended up spending $50 billion in goods sent to other countries, which was much more than what FDR thought would be spent by actually joining the war, as based on the expenses of WW1. Hitler saw this as a declaration of economic war by the United States because the Nazis likely would have defeated England without the United States's help. As a result, he began attacking US ships shortly after.

FLSA

A New Deal labor legislation that regulated minimum wage and maximum hours for workers involved in interstate commerce. It outlawed child labor under the age of 16. However, the fair labor standards act excluded agricultural, service, and domestic workers, so many blacks, Mexican Americans, and women did not benefit from this law.

Korematsu v. US

A US supreme court case where the supreme court upheld the constitutionality of sending thousands of Japanese Americans to internment camps. Although these Americans had never done anything to threaten the US, many felt it was right to lock them away due to the attack on pearl harbor and their ethnicities. Although, during this case, the US had no problem enforcing its decision to keep the Japanese Americans in internment camps, 40 years later in 1988, the government officially apologized and gave $20,000 to each surviving Japanese American who had been interned.

War Refugee Board

A United States agency that existed from 1944 to 1945 that helped rescue Jews from German-occupied territories and provided relief to inmates at concentration camps like Auschwitz. This organization brought roughly 150,000 Jews to safety in the United States, but this was minuscule in comparison to the 6 million that were killed.

Battle of Iwo Jima

A battle between the Allies and Japan near the end of the war. It was a tiny island outside of Japan, but it would be a crucial safe haven for injured American bombers. After a 25 day long battle with 40,000 American deaths, Iwo Jima was captured in March 1945.

Battle of Midway

A battle fought near Midway island 1000 miles northwest of Honolulu from June 3-6, 1942. Here, Admiral Nimitz led a carrier force to strike Japan and destroy 4 vitally important carriers, causing them to retreat. This land would have been important for Japan to obtain as it would allow them to launch further attacks on Pearl Harbor and bring the weakened American pacific fleet into destructive combat and even negotiate a cease-fire in the Pacific. This goal was not obtained, and this marked the end of Japan's many seemingly unopposed victories throughout the world.

Fair Employment Practices Commission

A commission established by FDR to monitor and ensure that everyone complied with the order preventing discrimination in defense industries, meaning that African Americans should be able to fight in the war and get jobs as easily as white people. Racial discrimination would not be allowed at all in defense plants operating under contract with the federal government. This was created in response to the threats of a massive "Negro March on Washington" to demand equal opportunity in war jobs and the military.

War Production Board

A committee established in 1942 by the order of FDR to direct all war production including the allocation of raw materials to maximize the nation's War Machine. It had sweeping powers over the US economy and was abolished in November 1945 After Japan was defeated. This, however, was before it had orchestrated American factories to produce 40 billion bullets, 300,000 aircraft, 76,000 ships, 86,000 tanks, and 2.6 million machine guns. This was largely led by Henry J Kaiser as he produced ships in as little as 14 days.

Grand Coulee Dam

A dam on the Columbia River erected as part of the Public Works Administration's projects. It is the largest manmade structure since the Great Wall of China and was an extremely important structure. It made the irrigation of water to millions of acres of farmland possible at a time when the government was trying to reduce farm surpluses as well as created a lot of electrical power in a region with little industry and no market for additional power.

CCC

A government program, short for the Civilian Conservation Corps, passed by Congress in 1933 that hired young, unemployed men to improve the environment by working in reforestation, fire-fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage. This saved many men from lives of crime, and, though it did receive some criticism, it improved the United States physically and economically as most of the money made by these men was sent home to help their struggling families.

Dust Bowl

A huge dust storm in the Great Plains region brought by drought and overworking of land during the 1930s. Much farmland was destroyed and people even died. A major cause of it was the overworking of land due to the agricultural mechanical advancements that allowed farmers to work more land faster than they ever could before. It led many people of the regions known as "Okies" and "Arkies" to migrate into California.

Wagner Act

A law also known as the National Labor Relations Act that protected the right of labor to organize in unions and bargain collectively with employers. This created uprisings by the CIO as they performed sit down strikes to become the sole bargaining agency for companies. The Wagner act also established the National Labor Relations Board to monitor unfair labor practices by employers. This was the beginning of many labor protests.

National War Labor Board

A law created by FDR that mediated disputes between labor and management that led to strikes and undermined the war effort. It also adjusted wages to control inflation and prevent it from reaching all time highs like greedy capitalists wanted.

ABC-1 agreement

An agreement developed in Washington, D.C. between January 29 and March 27, 1942. It said that if the United States were to enter into WW2, they would, along with the allies, put all their power into protecting the British Commonwealth, meaning they would be "getting Germany first. Their offensive would be against Germany while all other fronts would become defensive. This was very important following Pearl Harbor because many Americans wanted to attack Japan first rather than Germany.

Neutrality Act of 1939

A law created in 1939 altering the previous neutrality laws of 1935, 1936, and 1937. It said that European nations could buy munitions if they transported them themselves and paid in cash, or the "cash-and-carry" policy. This was different from the embargo created by the previous neutrality acts to keep the United States entirely uninvolved in other countries' affairs. However, after the official declaration of war by England and France due to Hitler's attack on Poland, many Americans fought neutrality. This loosened restrictions in response to interventionists but caused further fear in isolationists. Roosevelt also was now allowed to declare danger zones that American merchant ships could not enter.

Johnson Debt Default Act

A law made in 1934 that prevented nations with already acquired debt from borrowing from the United States to fight in wars. It left these nations to fend for themselves in difficult times of battle, which reminded many nations of the actions from World War 1.

Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act

A law passed in 1933 that created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. This insured individual bank deposits up to $5,000, ending the unstable banking that had existed for a century and created the Great Depression.

Executive order No. 9066

A law signed on February 19th, 1942 by FDR. It authorized the Secretary of War to create military zones from which certain categories of people could be excluded. It also forced the removal of 120,000 Japanese Americans from the Western military zone. This was due to historic anti-japanese sentiment and the panic following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Most of these people were interned in relocation camps in the West. The order was rescinded in December 1944, and in 1988, legislation passed an official government apology and gave $20,000 to every surviving Japanese American who had been interned.

Atlantic Charter

A meeting off of the coast of Newfoundland in a warship in August 1941 where FDR and Winston Churchill signed a covenant outlining a future path to disarmament, peace, and permanent general security. Generally, it outlined what democracies wanted for the world at the end of the war by opposing imperialistic annexations to promote self-determination, choice of government by the people, and disarmament. It even said that governments that had been abolished by dictators should be regained by the people. Initially, only Churchill and Roosevelt endorsed it, but the Soviet Union did as well later in the year it was created. It inspired the founding of the United Nations and raised awareness for the rights of individuals following WW2.

Congress of Racial Equality

A military group of African Americans founded in 1942 that was committed to nonviolent "direct action" for gaining equality. At the time, even though FDR had issued orders calling for equality, there was still a lack of, which could be seen in the fact that African Americans that were accepted into the military were put in service branches rather than combat units. This group was committed to the "Double V," which was victory over fascism abroad and racism in the United States. It became a major force in the civil rights movement after World War 2.

Battle of the Coral Sea

A naval battle fought in May of 1942. In this battle, an American carrier task force with assistance from Australia inflicted heavy losses on the Japanese. This followed a series of almost easy wins for the Japanese, and it was the first time in history where all fighting was done by carrier-based aircraft, so neither fleet directly saw the other.

The Grapes of Wrath

A novel written by John Steinbeck in 1939. It could be described as the Uncle Tom's Cabin of the Dust Bowl as it told the story of those who endured the Dust Bowl and struggled to live in the new place that they migrated to.

court-packing plan

A plan created by FDR to add a new justice to the Supreme Court for every justice over the age of 70 who refused to retire with a limit at 15 Supreme Court justices at a time. He did this so that he could have new justices in the Court who were not extremely conservative like 6 out of the 9 justices who were over 70 were. This ended up being a mistake for Roosevelt as many criticized him for trying to disrupt the system of checks and balances, and it lost him much support. It was not approved, and Congress even approved full pay for justices over 70 who retired, encouraging them to do so and therefore making it so Roosevelt would not be able to put many new justices in the Court even if his plan was improved. Despite the criticism, it did soften the Supreme Court, causing some New Deal acts to be enforced that previously likely would not have been.

Good Neighbor Policy

A policy created during Roosevelt's presidency in attempts to improve relations with the other countries of the Americas, although it was originally begun by Herbert Hoover. It decreased United States intervention in the countries of Latin America, and the United States removed troops from many places, except Guantanamo. This would not only make the allied nations become allies with the United States if they were needed to help defend the western nations from the dictators of Europe, and it would prevent the aggressor nations from using the neighboring nations of the United States against the country. This was tested when Mexico invaded some United States oil reserves, and American men wanted Roosevelt to deploy military intervention, but he negotiated peacefully, resolving the issue after three years.

Appeasement

A policy followed by the leaders of Britain and France at the 1938 Munich conference between the leaders of those countries as well as Germany, Italy, and the United States. This meeting was called after pleading for months. The nations used this appeasement in an attempt to prevent Hitler's further reign with the help of Mussolini. They believed by giving Hitler the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, he would stop invading other countries.

TVA

A revolutionary New Deal project that brought cheap electrical power, full employment, low-cost housing, and environmental improvements to the Tennessee Valley that had previously housed some of the poorest people in America. It created cheaper rates of electrical power that had previously seemingly been astronomical previously. The support this received from New Dealers caused many dams to be built nationwide providing hydroelectric power.

Sunbelt

An area in the south of the United States that had previously been seen as the land of economic problems. When the war came in 1938, Roosevelt took the land and federally financed it with $6 billion to create facilities and better the area.

Spanish Civil War

A war that occurred from 1936-1939 that was seen as a smaller version of World War 2. Spanish rebels, headed by General Francisco Franco, rose against the government in Madrid. Hitler and Mussolini supported the rebels as they overthrew the loyalist Regime with some help from the Soviet Union. Some Americans were confused by the war as they supported the Soviet Union, but others wanted to defend the existing Spanish government against the rebels. 3000 American men and women in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade fought in this war. Furthermore, it was an example of attempted neutrality for the United States as the country sent arms to both the existing Spanish government and the rebels. This, however, further supported the rebels when they had much more support than their opponent, and allowed the democratic government to be defeated. It proved to the dictators of the world that the United States would make many sacrifices to remain neutral, which made them believe that a war would be easy to win.

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler was the ruler of Germany beginning in 1933 and most dangerous dictator of his time. He had great power but was a very impulsive man, meaning many of his decisions were not well thought out. He gained control of the Nazi party by making political capital of the Treaty of Versailles, which forced Germany to take the blame for the destruction caused in World War 1, and Germany's unemployment due to depression. This caused Germany to appear as a national economic disgrace. Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations in 1933 and began secretly and illegally rearming the nation. He allied with Mussolini in 1936 in the Rome-Berlin axis. Throughout the later 1930s, he invaded many nations and killed nearly 6 million Jews while encouraging many Germans to join his army.

How did the Wagner Act and the Fair Labor and Standards Act change the lives of workers in the United States?

After the abolishment of the NRA, the Wagner Act and Fair Labor and Standards Act emerged. The Wagner Act created a new National Relations Labor Board for administrative purposes and allowed labor to engage in self-organization and to bargain collectively through self-chosen representatives again. Under the NRA, unskilled workers had made unions like the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the ranks of skilled workers. The CIO eventually suspended upstart unions associated with the Wagner Act due to lacking feelings of sympathy for unskilled workers. The CIO then performed a sit-down strike in the factory building of General Motors at Flint, Michigan until it was named the sole bargaining agency for its employees. CIO-organized employees were granted rights of unionization by the United States steel company to prevent an uprising, but one steel company, the Republic Steel Company in South Chicago, fought CIO- organized employees, resulting in the Memorial Day massacre. This was all due to the uprisings of CIO- organized employees when the Wagner Act allowed for the formation of unions. The CIO was later formally reconstituted as the Congress of Industrial Organizations as it acquired 4 million members including about 200,000 African-Americans. In 1938, Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act, which established a minimum wage and maximum hour levels in industries involved in interstate commerce. The minimum wage was set to be $.40 per hour in a 40-hour workweek. Children now had to be 16 to work. Many employers opposed these regulations as they had benefited from low wage labor, but the exclusion of agricultural, service, and domestic workers allowed employers to continue as they were in those fields. As a result, many blacks, Mexican Americans, and women did not benefit from the law. This law improved the lives of many Americans by allowing them to make more money for less work and creating a safer environment for children. The Wagner Act allowed workers to unionize and fight for what they believed was right, despite some destruction that resulted from it.

AAA

Also known as the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the AAA was a law that used millions of dollars to help farmers pay their mortgages. It was created when Roosevelt took office to help assist struggling farmers following the Great Depression. AAA also stands for the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, which raised the prices of agriculture by paying farmers to produce fewer crops. This was with the intention that higher prices would increase farmers' purchasing power and therefore help alleviate the Great Depression. It was not widely accepted, so when it was part of an unconstitutional declaration, it was not widely missed.

Bataan Death March

An 80 mile long march to prisoner-of-war camps made by the Americans and Filipinos who surrendered to the Japanese forces after holding out against them to the point where they only had mules and monkeys to eat. They finally surrendered, and not a month later the Japanese completely controlled the Philippine archipelago. This march was the first act of vicious cruelty in the Pacific war.

What were the long-term goals of the Tennessee Valley Authority?

An act was passed in 1933 creating the Tennessee Valley Authority by the Hundred Days Congress. This agency worked to discover how much it would cost for the production and distribution of electricity, which was paid for by many Americans at the time though they believed that the rates were excessive especially considering the power supply was from water-power sites that were public domain. The TVA would then be able to evaluate the fairness of rates charged by private electricity companies. Utility corporations fought against the TVA and stated that the low cost of TVA power was due to dishonest bookkeeping and a lack of taxes. New Dealers, however, admired the plan for bringing full employment, cheap electric power, low-cost housing, plentiful cheap nitrates, restoration of eroded soil, reforestation, improved navigation, and flood control to the Tennessee River Valley, which had 2.5 million of the poorest Americans. This turned a poor area into a flourishing one, and many New Dealers in other states wanted similar events to occur. Later, dams would be built in other places, and hydroelectric power would ensue, leading to the growth of the urban west. Overall, the TVA achieved its goal of creating jobs for struggling Americans by improving the costs of electrical power.

How did congress respond to FDR's calls for action?

As soon as he became president, FDR was ready to start making a change. He declared a nationwide banking holiday from March 6-10 before open banks in a more secure way. He then called democratic congress into session for the "Hundred Days" where they created a remedial legislation partially derived from earlier progressivism but in an effort to deal with an emergency. Roosevelt's new deal program focused on relief, recovery, and reform for the initial immediate recovery in the first two years and then to work for long-term recovery and reform of current abuses that produced the boom and bust economy. The deal was not the best constructed that it could be, but congress quickly passed it as its members were just as ready to be done with the economic catastrophe that was the Great Depression as all Americans were. Congress quickly passed "must legislation," or bills drafted by White House advisors. Congress also gave FDR blank check powers by passing laws giving legislative authority to him, meaning he could take the nation anywhere, whether right or wrong, with little stopping him.

How did polio change Franklin Roosevelt? Why would this matter politically?

Before polio, FDR was seen as a tall, athletic, and charming man; however, sometimes people believed that he was a "lightweight" in the sense that he was not a very strong man. A man like that likely would not have best led the United States following times as severe as the Great Depression. When FDR got polio, he lost his ability to walk, but that did not stop him. He moved past the horrible card that life had dealt him and became a stronger man for it. After moving past the loss of his walking ability, it seemed that he could face any challenge. This made the public see him as a stronger man that they knew could get the country through the trying times of the Great Depression, and it made him more relatable. Instead of being a privileged rich man, he was now a man that had endured hardship, and nearly all common Americans had struggled in different but similar manners to FDR. Overall, polio made him stronger and more likable to the public, increasing his chances of election to the presidency.

How did the New Deal eventually figure out how to help the Agricultural sector?

Before the New Deal, farmers had struggled to make money for years initially due to overproduction followed by struggling to sell during the Great Depression. Many farms were foreclosed and corn was taken to burn for fuel as some counties were placed under martial law. During the New Deal, the Emergency Congress established the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. The administration used "artificial scarcity" to establish "parity prices" for basic commodities, which gave a product the same value it had from 1909-1914. The AAA also paid farmers, using money from taxed processors of farm products who got money from consumers, to reduce their farmland to stop the surplus that reduced prices. The AAA, however, was ended when the Supreme Court declared its regulatory taxation provisions unconstitutional, but there was not much opposition to this because the AAA did things like using dead pig meat as fertilizer that could instead feed starving humans. Shortly after, the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936. This made farmers agree to have smaller acres by paying them to plant soil-conserving crops. 2 years later, the Second Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 was approved, which provided parity payments for acreage restrictions on certain crops, which meant national income was shared more.

Benito Mussolini

Benito Mussolini was the Fascist ruler of Italy beginning in 1922. He allied with Hitler in 1936 in the Rome-Berlin axis and later would ally with Japan as well. He, specifically, looked to create an empire in Africa, attacking Ethiopia in 1935. The Ethiopians, with their spears and ancient firearms, were easily beat by the bombers and tanks of the fascist Italians. The League of Nations did not stop him, although they could have, because they did not want to embargo oil and risk global hostilities. He supported Hitler all throughout his reign, assisting him in invading other countries and ridding them of Jews.

Describe the Hull-Roosevelt policies towards trade.

Both Hull and Roosevelt thought that trade was a two-way street between nations, meaning that if a country hoped to sell its goods to others, they must also buy goods from other nations. As a result of the expression of these beliefs, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934. This would contribute to relief and recovery by reviving the low-tariff policies of the New Dealers. While this law did not create a wholesale tariff revision because of the dangerous uncertainties that would cause, it did amend the Hawley-Smoot law Roosevelt wanted to lower existing tariff rates by up to 50% as long as the other country involved in trading lowered their rates as well. Pacts made could be done without the approval of the Senate. By the end of 1939, Hull had negotiated pacts with 21 countries, increasing foreign trade. This created some peace in the world and bettered economic and political relations with Latin America. Overall, the reciprocal Trade Agreements Act broke high tariffs that had persisted since the Civil War and paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that followed World War 2.

Charles Coughlin

Charles Coughlin was a Catholic priest in Michigan known as "microphone messiah." In 1930, he began broadcasting with the slogan "Social Justice'' and promoted anti-New Deal ideas to about 40 million radio fans. His preachings were very anti-semitic, fascistic, and demagogic so much so that he was silenced by superiors in the Church.

Chester Nimitz

Chester Nimitz was an important admiral in the Battle of Midway. He was a high-grade naval strategist, and that allowed him to skillfully help the United States in this battle. He directed a carrier force under Raymond A. Spruance against the invading Japanese fleet. The fighting was done by aircraft and the Japanese stopped fighting after losing 4 aircraft carriers to his force. He also coordinated attacks with the naval, air, and ground units against Japanese territories later in the Pacific during the times of island hopping.

Why was the congressional push for neutrality "shortsighted?"

Congress began pushing for neutrality as nations like Germany, Italy, and Japan seemed to be initiating a war by creating the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937. They said that when the president declared the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically take effect like the prevention of American munitions dealers from selling arms to belligerents. Previously, there had been freedom of the seas so that the United States could continue trading with nations involved in the war. This, however, was "shortsighted" because it made it seem as though the United States had full power to declare war or peace, and that by declaring neutrality, other nations would not involve the United States in war. In this hiding of some sense, the United States failed to act when it could have helped prevent further war when it was starting. It instead allowed the dictators to control the war and when the United States would become involved. Furthermore, by refusing to help any nations, the United States was leaving the previously allied nations at a disadvantage against Italy, Germany, and Japan, who had prepared financially and with enough resources to fight the war they planned on. By refusing to help anyone, the United States was helping the dictators.

Cordell Hull

Cordell Hull was the secretary of state during Roosevelt's first presidency who was sent as one of the representatives to the London Economic Conference. He had similar beliefs as Roosevelt when it came to tariff policies, and both men worked together leading to the establishment of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1914. Once it passed, Hull negotiated with 21 nations by the end of 1939 to have lowered tariff rates to increase trade between those countries and the United States. This contributed to better relationships with other countries, especially those of Latin America.

How did New Deal policies actually help save capitalism?

Despite the criticism, the New Deal actually helped save capitalism. The New Deal balanced the human budget by accepting the federal government as morally bound to preventing starvation by managing the economy. America's economic system did not collapse, and national income was more fairly distributed. Roosevelt also argued against popular resentments against business and rid American capitalism of some of its worst abuses, which encouraged more citizens to interact with businesses. He supported business and much of the money he spent was to support citizens who had no funds, therefore putting money back into the economy and allowing for capitalism to prosper more than it had recently.

Why do many Americans still hold a positive view of US involvement in WWII?

Despite the mass destruction that the United States contributed to in WWII, many Americans still have a positive view of the American involvement in the war. It was very difficult for Americans to conceptualize the destruction that was occurring around them while many were merely working in factories. Even those fighting in the war did not realize what was occurring with the mass execution of Jews until they saw it for themselves. Washington had turned away Jews at the beginning of Hitler's rule, and now it was clear that it was them who had set them up for death. However, the average American did not know this and therefore was ignorant to the initial abandonment. Furthermore, despite the dropping of the atomic bombs and killings of even innocent citizens of Axis countries, I believe that many Americans believe that the United States entered the war to save England after France fell. Likely in their eyes, America helped save the world from complete dominance by Hitler.

Douglas MacArthur

Douglas MacArthur was a general in the United States military who held a defensive position at Bataan as the Japanese attacked. His army of Americans and poorly trained Filipinos held off the Japanese until April 9, 1942. They struggled as they only had mules and monkeys to eat by the end of it, but they held on and sacrificed themselves for the greater cause. He left his troops near the end of the battle, as ordered by the United States government to secretly go to Australia and head a resistance there. His troops were also the ones fighting to hang onto New Guinea in early 1943 as it was the last buffer protecting Australia from the Japanese. His troops completely conquered New Guinea after fighting through Jungle hell against the Japanese, and it was the first victory that would lead to a return to the Philippines. He brought 650 ships and 250,000 men to Leyte Island on October 20, 1944, saying "People of the Philippines, I have returned... rally to me." He defeated the Japanese at Leyte then went to the main Philippine island Luzon on January 1945, and he conquered the island in July. At the end of the war, he conducted an official surrender ceremony on September 2, 1945 on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

How did minority groups and women contribute to the war effort? Describe multiple groups in your answer.

During WW2, a draft was issued in the US, sending 15 million men to battle. However, around 216,000 women fought in the war as well. These women were involved in the Women's Army Corps or Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service. Although some men were excluded from the draft because they were needed in industry back home, many previous factory workers were taken from their jobs and forced to go to war. That means that many women took over the difficult factory work. This was especially important because there was such a demand for supplies. More than 6 million women were employed in jobs outside of their homes, and this was astounding considering that over half had never worked for wages before. Thousands of daycare centers were set up by the government to care for the children of these women, and they were not shut down following the war as many women wanted to continue working. Overall, though, the amount of women that went to work in the United States was small in comparison to that of the Soviet Union or Britain. This still foreshadowed new women's rights movements despite the fact that many women left their jobs to mother more children and as factories reemployed men following the war. Many farms were also empty, so an agreement was made with Mexico in 1942 that brought thousands of Mexican agricultural workers known as braceros across the border to harvest fruit and grain crops in the West. This program even lasted for 20 years following the end of the war.

Dwight Eisenhower

Dwight Eisenhower was a military general that was known for leading the attacks against the French-held land in North Africa. He was well experienced in organization and conciliation. He led 400,000 men and 850 ships in the mightiest waterborne attack in history. He trapped the German-Italian army in Tunisia and forced them to surrender. He also was the main commander in the D day attack due to the fact that the majority of the troops were American. Furthermore, in April 1945, he led troops to the Elbe River south of Berlin where they met the Soviets and saw the mass murder of the Jews that had occurred throughout the war.

What qualities did Eleanor Roosevelt bring to the campaign of 1932 and the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt?

Eleanor Roosevelt endured a difficult childhood, but that allowed her to grow to be a strong and glowing First Lady. She was very passionate about activism joining the Women's Trade Union League and the League of Women Voters. She traveled with FDR and even represented him alone in some of his campaigns. She brought female activists with her to Washington and continued to fight for equality in the country. She battled authorities in Birmingham, Alabama for segregation issues and even straddled lines separating whites and blacks to show unity. Overall, she brought strength due to her rough upbringing, and that is what allowed her to refuse to give up on the great causes she fought for. For that, she was well respected as one of the greatest First Ladies.

Eleanor Roosevelt

Eleanor Roosevelt was the wife of FDR and the niece of Theodore Roosevelt. She overcame a difficult childhood and helped FDR immensely with his political career. She was considered the "conscience of the New Deal '' and she even traveled on his behalf on some of his campaigns. When she was young, she worked in a New York settlement house and joined the Women's Trade Union League as well as the League of Women Voters. She was the most active First Lady in history as she fought for the impoverished and oppressed. She worked very hard in these fields even confounding the local authorities in Birmingham, Alabama and fighting segregation there by standing in the middle of the aisle separating whites from blacks. Her relationship with her husband, however, was not the best due to his infidelities.

What was controversial about the Allied insistence on an "unconditional surrender" of the Axis powers?

FDR and Churchill agreed to invade Sicily and increase pressure until the Axis powers agreed to an "unconditional surrender." This, however, was controversial in many ways. The Soviets were already suspicious about separate Allied peace negotiations, and this surely would only worsen their suspicions. It would also stall charges of broken armistice terms that were created in 1918. Additionally, the idea of an "unconditional surrender" meant that the Allies were admitting to being weak as they could only make offerings with words rather than violence like the Soviets wanted. Many people thought that the "unconditional surrender" would spur the enemy to fight in one last bunker resistance while discouraging antiwar groups in Germany from revolting. Although it is unknown whether an "unconditional surrender" would actually shorten or lengthen the war, many people thought it would bring a final bloody battle. It would, however, bring a reconstruction following the war.

Why did FDR take the nation off the gold standard?

FDR took the nation off of the gold standard by ordering all private holdings of gold to be surrendered to the Treasury for paper currency. This allowed him to take the nation off of the gold standard. The Emergency Congress supported this by canceling the gold-payment clause in all contracts and authorizing payment by paper money. This was in order to protect the melting gold reserves and to prevent panicky hoarding. A "managed currency" was arising, and this would lead to inflation. Inflation would relieve debt and stimulate new production, and this would result from Roosevelt's Treasury's gold purchases increasing. They began buying gold for $21 per ounce in 1933 and eventually paid $35 per ounce in 1934. This increased the amount of power in circulation but methods were criticized by some. This scheme ended in 1934 when FDR returned the nation to a limited gold standard for international trading purposes. The United States would pay internationally with 1 ounce of gold equaling $35; however, there would be no domestic purchases with gold. This was all due to FDR's riddance of the gold standard.

Describe the end of the war in Europe and Japan.

Following the Battle of the Bulge, the end of the war was close. In April 1945, the Soviets invaded and captured Berlin in a spur of violence. On April 12, 1945, FDR died of a cerebral hemorrhage and Truman was sworn in. Shortly after, on April 30, 1945, Adolf Hitler committed suicide with his mistress in an underground bunker. On May 7, 1945 the remainder of the German government surrendered unconditionally and May 8 was proclaimed V-E Day, standing for victory in Europe. The Allies rejoiced. Meanwhile, the Allies continued to fight against Japan as American submarines quickly sunk Japanese merchant marines, destroying 1042 ships or about 50% of Japan's merchant fleet. The Allies also bombed Japanese cities from captured Mariana Islands with a massive firebomb raid occurring March 9-10, 1945 destroying 250,000 buildings and killing 83,000 people. Meanwhile, General MacArthur returned to the Philippines and the Japanese navy tried to wipe out his transport and supplies. 3 battles occurred by sea and air, and the Americans won all 3. Then, MacArthur conquered the Philippine island Luzon in July though it cost him 60,000 men. Iwo Jima was then captured as a haven for injured Allies and Okinawa was captured to have closer bases to attack from, although Okinawa cost a lot as the kamikazes attacked. Later, Americans were planning an invasion of the island, and, although Japan knew it could not win, instead of unconditionally surrendering, it sent a secret peace offer to Moscow. Americans heard the message, though, and the Potsdam Conference followed where America, Britain, and the Soviet Union told Japan they should surrender or would be destroyed. After no overwhelming response, the first atomic bomb was launched against Japan as it had been funded by a blank check from FDR due to scientists like Einstein's convincing. The first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan on July 16, 1945, killing or wounding 180,000 people with 70,000 dying instantaneously. Then, on August 8, Stalin overran Manchuria and Korea in 6 days. The following day, another atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, causing 80,000 people to go missing or be killed. On August 10, Japan sued for peace with the condition that Hirohito remain emperor. This was accepted on August 14, 1945. The formal end of the war with Japan occurred on September 2, 1945 with official surrender ceremonies conducted by General MacArthur on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Americans at home celebrated V-J day.

Why did the United States establish a "Germany first" strategy?

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, many Americans adopted a "Japan first" attitude as they wanted to avenge the horrible military defeat that they had just faced at the hands of the Japanese. However, the US government had previously signed the ABC-1 agreement with Britain claiming that they would enter the war with the attitude of "getting Germany first. The reason for this was that if America used its forces to attack Japan, Hitler could more easily overpower Britain and the Soviet Union, making Germany the only power in Europe. However, if the United States used its forces against Hitler and the Nazis first, then they would not have to worry about Hitler while the Allies attacked Japan. They would, however, send some troops to Japan to prevent them from inflicting further damage. There was a lot of pressure on Roosevelt to attack Japan first, but he stood by his previous decision and all war methods were based upon that.

Frances Perkins

Frances Perkins was the Secretary of Labor and was notably the first female cabinet member of the United States. She stood among Eleanor Roosevelt as one of the most respectable and influential women at the time; however, she was highly criticized by many male businessmen and politicians.

Francisco Franco

Francisco Franco was the leader of the rebels that fought to overthrow the existing democratic Spanish government in the Spanish Civil War. He and his rebels were supported by Mussolini and Hitler, as well as by the Soviet Union. Furthermore, when the United States sent arms to support both the rebels and the existing government, it became easier for Franco and his rebels to succeed and overthrow the government. The three-year-long war proved him to be a victor.

Franklin Roosevelt

Franklin Roosevelt was the fifth cousin of former President Theodore Roosevelt. He was the governor of New York and a choice democratic nominee for the presidential election of 1932. He was born into a wealthy family and graduated from Harvard before serving in the New York Legislature, becoming a nominee for vice president, and serving as assistant secretary of the navy. Franklin Roosevelt's suave and conciliatory nature was comforting to the American citizens following the Great Depression, which is what made him a choice presidential candidate. He was a tall, athletic, and attractive man that was struck by polio in his 30s; however, he pushed through and became a stronger and more relatable man for it. He was widely popular as he easily beat Al Smith for the 1932 democratic nomination as he was a very convincing and respectable man. He was frugal, but he understood that spending money was worth it to benefit the country, and in that sense, he was ready to make great reforms without being wasteful. As president, he did so for many years, lowering unemployment rates and creating a prosperous country following the trying times of the Great Depression.

George Patton

George Patton was an important general in the D Day invasion. He commanded the American armored divisions against many attacks in France. Before that, he led the 7th army in the invasion of Sicily. His forces also played a role in defeating the German counterattack in the Battle of the Bulge before he led them across the Rhine River into Germany.

Describe the aggressive actions of Germany and Japan between 1937 and 1939.

Germany and Japan partook in many actions that ultimately led to the second world war. In 1937, Japanese militarists started the invasion of China at the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing. This seemed to have been an event that began the war, but Roosevelt did not declare it so so he could continue to send China the munitions they depended on, although Japan purchased munitions from the United States as well. In December 1937, Japanese aviators bombed and sank the American gunboat the Panay in Chinese waters. Two men were killed and 30 were wounded. This, however, did not trigger the United States to declare war because Tokyo apologized and paid an indemnity. This, however, further proved how much the United States wanted to stay neutral, so the Japanese began slapping and stripping Americans in Japan. In 1935, Hitler had defied the Treaty of Versailles by introducing compulsory military service. The next year, he defied the Treaty again by marching into the German Rhineland. He then persecuted and killed many Jewish people within Germany's territory. He encouraged German citizens to fight, creating strong air and land forces, inevitably killing around 6 million innocent Jews, many by gas chambers. In March 1938, he invaded Austria and Czechoslovakia soon followed. Roosevelt as well as the leaders of France and England badgered Hitler and Mussolini to sit down for peaceful settlement. In September 1938, they did so in Munich, Germany. Roosevelt's country was unprepared for war, so he promised Hitler the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) if he stopped his invasions. He agreed, and in March 1939, Czechoslovakia was erased from the map.

Harry Truman

Harry Truman was the democratic nominee for vice president in the 1944 presidential election. He was the running mate of FDR, taking the spot of Wallace. He was, at the time, the senator of Missouri and was recently nationally recognized as the chairman of a Senate committee conducting an investigation of wasteful war expenditures. Additionally, he was well liked and no one really had anything against him.

Huey Long

Huey Long a Louisiana senator, who was said to "have more brass than a government mule," published the "share our wealth" program, promising to make "every man a king." He said that every family would receive $5,000 as taken from the wealthy to give to them. He was assassinated in Louisiana in 1935 as many people feared he would be a fascist dictator. He and Coughlin raised questions about the connections between fascism and economic crisis and even made Soule fear that FDR would become a dictator as other supreme rulers rose around the world.

According to the author, Hoover did not stand a chance in the 1932 election, do you agree with his stance?

I agree with the author's thought that Hoover did not stand a chance in winning the 1932 election. Hoover was a great asset to the United States during World War 1 as he promoted being conservative and saved food to feed thousands of people in the Allied nations, allowing them to further fight in the war. However, in the trying times of the banks crashing and the Great Depression, Hoover proved that he was not fit to lead the country. FDR, however, was a very strong governor of New York and he was very relatable due to the trauma he had experienced. He was also a very eloquent man and the people felt that he would be a very trustworthy and beneficial leader. Even if FDR was not as admired as he was, I still believe that he would have won the election due to the fact that many Americans felt as though Hoover had failed them and the country. Therefore, 4 more years with Hoover in office likely felt like a waste to many Americans.

How did Social Security in America differ from its European counterparts?

In 1935, New Dealers passed the Social Security act. This law created federal-state unemployment insurance as well as provided security for old age. This meant that once people reached a certain age, they would receive regular payments from Washington ranging from $10-$85 a month as financed by a payroll tax on employers and employees. Dependents like the blind, physically handicapped, delinquent children, and others received provisions. This American Social Security system was inspired by some of the highly industrialized European nations that were used to the urbanized Eleconomy that differed from the farm economy that had jobs for people of all ages, as America had had for years. However, American workers had to be employed in certain kinds of jobs to receive welfare whereas it was generally universal in Europe.

Rome Berlin Axis

In 1936, Germany and Italy became allied nations under Hitler and Mussolini. Both countries had intervened on behalf of the leader Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War and signed the treaty following it.

Why were most Americans reluctant to become involved in world affairs during the 1930s? Explain

In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini united in the Romer-Berlin Axis, making two very dangerous nations allied. Additionally, Japan resented the Treaty of Versailles and wished to expand imperialism. In 1934, Japan ended the 12-year long Washington Naval Treaty and used torpedoes in London, ending its naval disarmament a year later. All three nations, Germany, Italy, and Japan, withdrew from the League of Nations, and Japan joined the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy 5 years later. When Mussolini easily defeated the Ethiopians, it showed just how much power these uprising nations had. This further encouraged Americans to isolate themselves from world affairs in the 1930s, as they seemed to believe that because the United States was geographically so far from the other nations, avoiding involvement would prevent the United States from facing harm from these nations. Americans were scared of being drawn into totalitarian aggression and wanted a constitutional amendment to be created, preventing Congress from declaring war unless there was an invasion. The Johnson Debt Default Act was also created, which prevented nations from borrowing money from the United States when they already had substantial debt, which would help keep the United States out of the war through other nations.

Describe the naval deal that was brokered between Great Britain and the United States.

In 1940, Britain was all that was standing between Hitler and world domination. The British put up a strong fight as the Royal Air Force even caused Hitler to push back his planned September invasion. However, there was a lot of destruction and many Americans became sympathetic and wanted to help Britain. The Committee to Defend America by aiding the Allies was formed among others that supported America breaking isolation and helping Britain. However, equally as many people supported isolationism and thought it would be better to save all of the United States's power to defend itself if Hitler so chose a transoceanic battle. FDR felt he could not sit silent, though. He did not declare war. Instead, he chose to help Britain by aiding their need for destroyers as German submarines were starving England by attacking their shipping boats. In September 1940, Roosevelt transferred 50 old-model, four-funnel destroyers left from World War 1 to Great Britain in exchange for Britain giving the United States 8 valuable defensive base sights stretching from Newfoundland to South America. This action of transferring ships was legally questionable especially considering that Roosevelt made this decision without going through Congress. This was unpopular with anti-administration republicans and isolationists, but advocates for helping Britain supported FDR widely. This, however, was not seen as being particularly neutral from Hitler's point of view.

How did the fall of France affect military preparedness in the United States?

In April 1940, Hitler invaded and overcame Denmark and Norway, and then the Netherlands and Belgium in May, creating a path to France. France was forced to surrender in late June. The British managed to salvage much of the army from France after evacuating from the port Dunkirk. The collapse of France shocked Americans as they now realized that if England fell, Hitler would control all of western Europe, and might even take control of the strong British Navy. This scared Americans immensely, and pushed the Americans to better prepare for the war that they would inevitably become involved in. Roosevelt, with newly found, more urgent support, asked for the creation of huge air fleets and a two-ocean navy that could check Japan as well as Europe. This cost Congress $37 billion in one year, which was more than the entire cost of WW1 and five times larger than the New Deal annual budget. This was on top of the debt that the nation had already acquired. Congress also passed a conscription law on September 6, 1940, that created the nation's first peacetime draft for training 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves per year. Additionally, at the Havana Conference of 1940, the United States agreed to uphold the Monroe Doctrine with 20 other nations of the Americas, some of which had been abandoned by the defeat of France, Denmark, and the Netherlands. This meant that the United States would protect these nations and they could also help the United States fight against Germany, Italy, and Japan.

What tactics did Roosevelt use to attack the economic downturn in 1937?

In Roosevelt's first term, he made many improvements, but by 1936, unemployment was still at 15%. This was lower than the 1933 rate of 25% but still very high. In 1937, the economy declined again in what was known as the Roosevelt recession as new Social Security taxes took money from payrolls and the administration cut back on spending to continue reverence for a balanced budget. In April 1937, Roosevelt finally embraced the recommendations of British economist John Maynard Keynes and announced a program to stimulate the economy by planned deficit spending. Keynesianism was established, which was the use of government spending and fiscal policy to encourage consumer spending, and even though the deficits were smaller than that could conquer the depression, they made a difference. Roosevelt also urged Congress to authorize a reorganization of the national administration to create more efficiency, but they refused as they questioned Roosevelt, assuming he had autocratic ambitions.

How did mechanized advancements in farming accidentally help bring about the Dust Bowl?

In late 1933, there was a drought drying up the soil in the trans-Mississippi Great Plains. Tons of powdery topsoil was blown across the land ruining farms and even suffocating some people in what is known as the Dust Bowl. The Dust Bowl was not only due to the drought and wind though; overfarming the land played a huge role in creating the powdery topsoil that would wreak havoc. Mechanized farming advancements like the steam tractor and disk plow made it much easier for farmers to farm more land at quicker rates, and this left more topsoil than ever could have previously been left. This overworking of the land is what made more soil free to fly in the Dust Bowl. As a result, about 350,000 people from Oklahoma and Arkansas left their land to Southern California where there was similar land, mostly in the San Joaquin Valley. There, they struggled to find shelter, food, and work, especially in the hard months of winter.

What plan did Herbert Hoover promote during the 1932 election?

In the 1932 election, Hoover could see that he was close to being beat. His supporters tried to gain support from others by saying that it could have been worse and things will only get better looking forward. Hoover tried to blame the depression at the time of the election on Roosevelt by stating that it was the uncertainty of his impending victory that was worsening the depression. Hoover took a stronger stance promoting free enterprise and individual initiative and attempted to get the Hawley-Smoot tariff repealed. He believed his newfound initiative would gain him support.

What challenges did the Allies need overcome in the Battle of the Atlantic?

In the Atlantic, Hitler had been commanding a fleet of submarines that performed mass destruction throughout the war, especially in the North Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico. In 10 months of 1942, they sank more than 500 merchant ships, and the United States could not build more ships quickly enough to make up for the loss. Many men died as well. To overcome the destruction caused by these U boats, the Allies needed to find a way to destroy them. Originally, they did this by dropping depth bombs from destroyers that escorted the merchant ships as the air patrol helped them by using radar to bomb submarine bases. Eventually, the Allies' ability to destroy the submarines bettered because British code breakers cracked the German "Enigma" codes, allowing them to find the exact locations of U-boats in the Atlantic. In the final defeat of the submarines, the Allies won the Battle of the Atlantic, and that allowed them to maintain Britain as an area to launch offensives from. This victory was just in time as Hitler was about to launch a new U-boat that had more power and capabilities than ever before.

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor?

Japan was a formal military ally of Nazi Germany, but after the costly incident that occurred in China, Japan relied on steel, iron, oil, and aviation gasoline shipment from the United States. Many Americans were against supporting Japan, but Roosevelt initially would not impose an embargo because if he did, Tokyo would surely attack the defenseless Dutch-East Indies for their oil. However, in late 1940, FDR finally imposed an embargo on supplies being shipped to Japan. Shortly after, in mid-1941, Japanese assets were frozen in the United States and there was a cessation of all shipments of gasoline and other war-related products. As a result, the levels of oil in Japan depleted immensely, and Japan was left to either submit to the United States or attack the oil supplies in other countries of Southeast Asia. Then, in December 1941, the United States negotiated with Japan and demanded that the Japanese clear out of China, where Japanese imperialists had been fighting a war for more than 4 years. Japan refused to give up its fight in China, and, therefore, the United States waited for the inevitable attack that was about to occur. This was the attack on Pearl Harbor, which occurred on December 7, 1941. Japanese bombers attacked on "Black Sunday" while Tokyo prolonged negotiations in Washington as a means of distraction. 3,000 Americans died and many aircrafts were destroyed. All 8 battleships either sunk or were immobilized and many small vessels were damaged or destroyed as well. All 3 aircraft carriers were not in the harbor and survived, though. The reason that so much damage occurred was because the United States expected an attack on British Malaya or the Philippines based on Japanese ship movements, and did not prepare for one in Hawaii. Then, Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, officially declared war on the United States on December 11, 1941, and this was unanimously accepted in the House and the Senate.

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin was the leader of the USSR that led a totalitarianism movement where the individual meant nothing. He purged the communist USSR of suspected dissidents starting in 1936 by either executing or banishing millions of people to Siberian forced-labor camps. He signed the Hitler-Stalin pact on August 23, 1939, ending any idea of a treaty with the Soviet Union that England and France had been negotiating for. This meant that Hitler could invade Poland and western nations without the fear of being attacked by the Soviet Union. However, Hitler and Stalin did not get along. Stalin, like Hitler, was known for double-crossing people, so, in order to not have any risk of being double-crossed, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.

The Neutrality Acts (1935-37)

Laws passed individually in 1935, 1936, and 1937 that prevented American participation in European wars by creating restrictions such as one that said Americans could not sell munitions to any foreign nations involved in wars.

How did WWII affect FDR's domestic agenda? What also affected this change?

Many of the programs that FDR had created with the New Deal such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, Works Progress Administration, and National Youth Administration were completely wiped out. All funds that had previously been allocated to better America and allow Americans to profit, moving out of the Great Depression, were used instead in war efforts. The United States had to provide food and munitions to its own citizens as well as those of the Allied nations. It also needed transportation across the world for its troops to battle. The economy that still struggled slightly was set to high productivity levels as there was a $100 billion order in 1942 alone. The factories produced billions of bullets as well as thousands of warships and other weapons. The government also invested more into farming to produce more food for the US and its allies. So, overall, the domestic agenda created by FDR to promote recovery via the New Deal was almost completely scrapped as employment rates skyrocketed by the demand for materials in war. Therefore, previous recovery methods were unnecessary and a waste of time that could have been better used in war efforts. Furthermore, the government had to take control of some industries due to strikes in accordance with the newly passed Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act. The government ended up controlling several coal mines and the railroads for a brief period of time.

How was the New Deal connected to the Progressive Era?

Many of the reforms in the New Deal were a legacy to the Progressive Era that had been pushed aside by World War 1. In the development of the New Deal, many researched old pamphlets on German social insurance, English housing and garden cities, Danish agricultural recovery, and American World War 1 collectivization during the times of unemployment and old-age insurance, minimum wage, the conservation and development of natural resources, and child labor restrictions. These were all progressive ideals that FDR wanted to strive for again and beyond. He furthered these ideas by inventing the Tennessee Valley Authority, creating a better nation.

Describe some of the major criticisms of the New Deal.

Many people thought that the New Deal was a form of waste, incompetence, confusion, contradictions, and cross purposes. Conservatives accused Roosevelt of being Jewish and trying to gain support from many young Jewish leftists, calling the New Deal the "Jew Deal." Some businesspeople thought that Roosevelt acted before considering the consequences of his actions, and he only received support because people thought that any move was better than doing nothing. However, conservatives believed that he should not simply improvise because it could lead to the worst. Additionally, the New Deal was criticized as a form of bureaucratic meddling and regimentation as that bureaucracy blossomed, making the federal government one of the largest single businesses in the country. The New Deal was criticized as financially wasteful, as in 1932 the national debt was at over $19 billion, but in 1939 it was over $40 billion. They said Roosevelt spent way too much money too easily, and this made self-reliant Americans think that they could be way lazier and still get paid. Businesses said the New Deal pampered laborers and farmers while harming businessmen, who thought they could get themselves out of depression if the government stopped intervening. Furthermore, Roosevelt was considered a one-man supergovernment based on his attempts to interfere with the Supreme Court and even Congress later on by trying to purge Democratic members of Congress who would not support his ideas. In all, though, the New Deal was criticized because it did not cure the Great Depression. Some people thought better results would be achieved by greater deficit spending, even though $20 billion was already spent.

How did public unrest lead congress to create the WPA?

Men like Huey Long, Charles Coughlin, and Gerald L. K. Smith caused much uprising as they used their voices to do things like promoting anti-Semitism, fascism, and even, in the case of Long, a type of dictatorship. They made the link clear between fascism and economic crisis and made some Americans question if Roosevelt would become a dictator like some around the world that were arising like Hitler. This questioning created some unrest within the states that could explode, so Congress had to put this down quickly. It did this by authorizing the Works Progress Administration in 1935. Hopkins supervised this administration as it spent about $11 billion on public buildings, bridges, and roads or other things like controlling crickets. It also created the Federal Art Project, which hired artists to create posters and murals. This created almost 9 million jobs, decreasing unemployment and increasing morale.

Battle of the Bulge

On December 16, 1944, Hitler made one last attempt to avoid defeat in this battle. He secretly consecrated the most powerful of his troops to strike against thin American lines at the Ardennes Forest to take the Belgian port Antwerp, which was an important port the Allies used for importing resources. The Americans were shocked and driven back, creating a bulge in their front. After 10 days, the 101st Airborne Division blocked German advancements at the bastion of Bastogne. Hitler called for reinforcements, but the Nazis still lost.

D-Day

On June 6, 1944, 4600 vessels invaded Normandy, France while the Soviets attacked Europe from the East. The Germans thought the Allies were going to attack further north and therefore they were surprised. The Allies also fought by air, bombing railroads and gasoline-producing plants. After difficult fighting on land, the Allies finally enclosed the Normandy landing zone, and more Allies came in August to move north, liberating Paris later that month. This led to the liberation of France and end of WWII in Europe.

Kristallnacht

On November 9, 1938, this "night of broken glass" was when Jewish businesses and synagogues were destroyed and thousands of Jews were sent to concentration camps. 91 Jews were killed as well. Following this event, many Jews tried to find shelter in the United States but were turned away due to restrictive immigration policies. This night was instigated by a speech by Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels.

How did US air and naval dominance affect the war in the Pacific?

Once taking advantage of its power, the United States became a dominating force in the Pacific with both its navy and air force. The United States wanted to conquer the Marianas, including Guam, because, from bases there, they could carry out attacks with their new B-29 superbombers. These were aircrafts that could carry out round-trip bombing raids on Japan itself from these far away bases. To conquer these islands, beginning on June 19, 1944, the use of the American "Hellcat" fighter plane and other technology allowed the United States to destroy almost 250 Japanese aircrafts while only losing 29 American planes. The Battle of the Philippines Sea followed the day after where the US navy sunk several Japanese carriers. The massive damage inflicted by the United States was unrecoverable. The United States gained control of the Marianas and they then could bomb Japan all of the time beginning in November 1944.

What steps did the Roosevelt administration take to regulate the stock market?

Reformist New Dealers wanted to curb the "money changers" who had tricked gullible investors before Wall Street crashed in 1929. The Hundred Days Congress passed the "Truth in Securities Act," requiring promoters to transmit to investors sworn information regarding the security of their stocks and bonds. Then, in 1934, Congress authorized the Securities and Exchange Commission to protect the public against fraud, deception, and manipulation. This commission monitored stock markets, ensuring that they operated as a means of trading rather than extreme gambling. Furthermore, the Public Utility Holding Company Act was passed in 1935 preventing supercorporations from gaining so much economic power that their crash would be detrimental for many unless absolutely necessary. This all helped create financial stability for Americans partaking in the stock market.

Robert Oppenheimer

Robert Oppenheimer was the scientific director of the Manhatten Project. He witnessed the first detonation of the atomic bomb in New Mexico in July 1945. He was amazed by its power but also notably scared for the future due to the immense damage that it could cause.

Why did Roosevelt believe that he needed to alter the Supreme Court?

Roosevelt felt that the men on the supreme court were not best fit to make decisions on his more modern ideas because they had been on the Supreme Court for so long. The nine major cases involving the New Deal had been thwarted seven times by the Supreme Court because it was extremely conservative and six out of the nine men were over 70, none having been appointed by FDR. None of the men on the Supreme Court would even think about leaving as they felt it was their patriotic duty to curb the socialistic tendencies that Roosevelt and his administration had to put forward. They continued to fight the New Deal despite its immense support in both the 1932 and 1936 presidential elections as well as the 1934 midterm congressional elections. He felt that these men were fighting democracy because the American citizens clearly supported his ideas. In 1937, Roosevelt asked Congress to allow him to add a new justice of the Supreme Court for every member over 70 who would not retire with a maximum membership being at 15 by stating it was necessary to have new ideas in the court. Roosevelt criticized that the court was far behind in its work and thought younger members would help them get back on track, but the Supreme Court was not behind, and this brought accusations of dishonesty upon Roosevelt.

Why did FDR pull the United States out of the London Economic Conference? What were some of the future consequences connected to that decision?

Roosevelt originally sent representatives of the United States to the London Economic Conference to try to make a plan to help the other countries, but their agenda seemed to get in the way of the United States' rise from the Great Depression, so he pulled out of the Conference. One thing that the Conference wanted to do was stabilize currencies across the world so that economic depression would not ensue for all countries. However, Roosevelt, at the time, was exchanging gold for the American dollar as a means to inflate the value of the American dollar, which helped in recovery from the Great Depression. If he agreed with the London Economic Conference's new policy, he would have to stop his actions in the United States. However, he valued the United States' current recovery more than preventing a possible depression in other countries, so he withdrew from the Conference. The consequence of Roosevelt pulling the United States from the Conference was that delegates left with nothing, and this set up the thought that every country would have to prevent depression and recover itself. This meant that further depression ensued around the world. The collapse of the London Economic Conference also strengthened nationalism as the attempted collaboration failed. This also isolated the United States and made it easier for dictators to create uprisings in their countries and around the world.

Defend or refute this statement, socialism helped build the war machine of the United States during WWII.

Socialism definitely played a major factor in building the war machine of the US during WW2. The United States government had developed the idea of helping those who had been attacked by the Axis powers long before entering the war, but when they officially did, they began thoroughly supplying the countries that they were allied with. They sent everything from munitions to food, and the need for this production created many jobs in America and caused the farmers there to work in overdrive. This equal spread of supplies is definitely a form of socialism. This gave the United States citizens a growing economy with lots of inflation and wealth overall. They also sent their troops to many places around the world that needed to be defended from the Nazis, helping all nations in need. This created a higher demand for soldiers as well. Due to the massive leave of men, many women were employed in jobs that had previously employed males. The economy grew and much of that wealth was used to produce even more resources for the war.

Manhatten Project

The American commission established in 1942 to develop the atomic bomb. The first experimental bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945 in New Mexico. The bombs were then dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 in hopes of ending WWII, although they were originally developed for usage against Germany.

Describe the Allied campaigns in North Africa and Italy.

The Americans wanted to attack Europe directly through France, but the British thought that was too rash, and they did not want to lose again. As a result, they convinced the Americans to attack through the German-controlled Mediterranean and save a head-on attack on Europe for a later date. Beginning in November 1942, the Allies secretly began attacking French land in North Africa, headed by Dwight Eisenhower. He led 400,000 men (Canadians, French, British, and American) and 850 ships in a savage waterborne attack, trapping the German-Italian army in Tunisia, where they surrendered in May 1943. Meanwhile, in January 1943, FDR met with Winston Churchill in Casablanca, and they agreed to invade Sicily, and increase pressure until Italy agreed to an "unconditional surrender." This Sicily invasion brought its downfall in August 1943. Before this, Mussolini was deposed, and soon after, in September 1943, Italy surrendered. The following month, the Italians declared war on Germany, and this brought large spurs of violence against them and the invading Allies by the German troops who remained in Italy. Rome was not taken until June 4, 1944, but the battle continued until thousands of axis soldiers put down their weapons and became prisoners of war on May 2, 1945, 5 days before Germany's official surrender. This fight slowed down the idea of an Allied invasion of France, but that gave the Soviets time to invade Eastern Europe.

Why do many historians consider the Battle of Midway to be an important turning point during WWII?

The Battle of Midway occurred when the Japanese wanted to seize Midway Island 1000 miles northwest of Honolulu. This would be an important spot as the Japanese would be able to launch further attacks on Pearl Harbor and force the weakened American Pacific fleet into combat and then convince the United States to negotiate a cease-fire in the Pacific. The Battle of Midway ensued from June3-6, 1942. Admiral Nimitz led a carrier force to fight the Japanese via aircraft, and the Japanese retreated after losing 4 carriers. This, along with the Battle of Coral Sea, proved to be the end of Japan's reign of victory. Many Americans had been scared due to Japan's easy conquest of islands Kiska and Attu off of Alaska and thought that Japan would invade the United States. This proved to be the end of that, and following the Battle of Midway, Japan did not make gains as it had before.

How did the Battle of the Bulge expose the desperation of Adolf Hitler and the Germans?

The Battle of the Bulge began on December 16, 1944 as Hitler made one last attempt to avoid defeat. He secretly consecrated the most powerful of his troops to strike against thin American lines at the Ardennes Forest to take the Belgian port Antwerp, which was an important port the Allies used for importing resources. The Americans were shocked and driven back, creating a bulge in their front, which is what the battle was named for. After 10 days, the 101st Airborne Division blocked German advancements at the bastion of Bastogne. German reinforcements came, but they still did not succeed. It was clear that this battle was a desperate final effort by Hitler. He planned this attack secretly and went for an area that had few American soldiers protecting it, proving that Hitler, at this point, knew that even his strongest troops only had the possibility to succeed against weak American forces. Then, when he put everything he had into backup, it became clear that he was sacrificing everything for this battle as it was his only opportunity left.

FHA

The Federal Housing Administration was set up in 1934 by Roosevelt gave small loans to house-holders to improve their houses or build new ones. This was very popular and lived on after Roosevelt's presidency.

FDIC

The Federal deposit insurance Corporation insured individual deposits up to $5000, which ended the loss of funds due to bank failures. This made banking more stable and prevented something like the Great Depression from occurring again.

How did Lend-Lease bring the United States into actual fighting before Pearl Harbor?

The Lend-Lease Bill said that the United States would send a limitless supply of arms to victims of war, and that meant that the United States ended up being involved in the war much before the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States initially sent England goods as it was struggling in its fight against the Nazis. However, the United States soon began sending goods to other countries as well. Notably, in 1941, Hitler attacked the Soviet Union, making it a victim of war. Therefore, the United States had to supply the country with munitions and other goods. The US ultimately sent $11 million worth of munitions to the Soviet Union. One major flaw with English transports, though, was that when goods were being transported on English ships to the United Kingdom, German submarines continuously sank the ships, sending goods down with them. As a result, in order to ensure that the goods safely reached England, the United States had to use their own warships to transport goods. In July 1941, Roosevelt ordered the navy to escort lend-lease shipments as far as Iceland, so that they would have less time unprotected in the waters. This would seemingly be effective because German U-boats had orders from Hitler to only attack US ships in defense. However, in September 1941, the U.S. destroyer Greer was attacked by a German submarine. Even though it was not damaged, Roosevelt proclaimed a shoot-on-sight policy. Then, in October, the U.S. destroyer Kenny lost 11 men after being attacked by a German U boat. Two weeks later, Reuben James was torpedoed and sunk off the coast of Iceland, where over 11 officers and soldiers died. Although the United States was still technically neutral at this point, it was clear which side the United States was on, and FDR wanted to have all ships properly defended. The Neutrality Act of 1939 was revoked, allowing merchant ships to be armed and enter combat zones with munitions for Britain.

How did the Lend-Lease Bill represent a true departure from neutrality?

The Lend-Lease Bill was created after President Roosevelt was elected to his third term and approved in March 1941 as a means of helping Britain while staying out of the war. It sent a limitless supply of arms to victims of the war in exchange for them not involving the United States in the war and completing it in Europe. When the war was over, the used weapons or their equivalents would be returned to the United States. Many people thought this was a means of helping stop Hitler while seemingly remaining neutral and keeping American soldiers out of the war. However, anti-Roosevelt republicans and isolationists opposed this as they thought it was not a smart idea and would involve them in the war more than they previously were. By 1945, America had sent $50 billion in arms and equipment in support of the war. This was much more than was expected and much more than what was spent on World War 1. This huge expense sprung the United States into factory production very similar to that of war times. Therefore, in a sense, America was involving itself in the war. $50 billion in equipment to England was a huge expense that could not go unrecognized by Germany, especially when the Nazis likely would have defeated England without that supply from the United States. Therefore, the Lend-Lease Bill was seen as an economic declaration of war, and Hitler saw that as an official declaration. This was proven by the torpedo of the US ship Robin Moor in May, 1941by a German submarine outside of a war zone.

What was revolutionary about the NRA? Also, why was it deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court?

The National Recovery Administration, the NRA, was authorized by the Emergency Congress. It attempted to combine immediate relief with long term recovery and reform by assisting industry, labor, and the unemployed. Industries were supposed to work out "fair competition" so hours of labor could be spread over more people by placing a maximum on the hours of labor an individual could work while also establishing a minimum wage. It also allowed workers to bargain through representatives chosen by them and prevented antiunion contracts as well as set restrictions on child labor. This was revolutionary as it would allow more workers to be employed with better benefits. However, it was a painful form of self-denial for management and labor calling for the self-sacrifice of labor, industry, and the public. Therefore, the initial celebration for the NRA soon ceased. The Supreme Court deemed the NRA unconstitutional with the Schechter ``sick chicken" decision. They declared that Congress could not give the president legislative powers and also stated that the congressional control of interstate commerce could not apply to local business, and, therefore, the NRA was unconstitutional.

Why did the Allies wait two years to attempt a cross channel invasion of France? Explain your answer.

The Soviets had been calling for a second front for a very long time as they fought through Eastern Europe, and when FDR finally wanted to attack France, the British said that would not be the best idea. Because they were short on supplies and confidence, the Allies attacked French territories in North Africa before invading Italy. This, however, pushed back the cross channel invasion that would liberate France. Furthermore, when the Allies arrived in Italy, the battle was brutal and slow moving. The United States invested many of its troops into fighting against the Axis soldiers who refused to leave. The resources used in North Africa and Italy left the Allies shorthanded, and they had to wait for the further production of supplies before they would be ready to invade France. Even then, FDR, Churchill, and Stalin had to meet and devise a plan for the invasion before carrying one out. After supplies and men were readied and an adequate plan was devised, the Allies finally invaded France, but the previous battles and preparations held them back from their attack for 2 years.

What factors led the United States to offer only limited help to the Jews of Europe?

The United States only offered limited help to the Jews of Europe in a number of ways. For example, in May 1939, when 937 passengers traveled on the St. Lewis to Florida after being denied from entering Cuba, the United States did not allow them to enter. FDR wanted to briefly, but with opposition from southern Democrats and Secretary Cordell Hull, he left them to helplessly return to Europe. Many later perished under Hitler's fist. After verified reports of Nazi genocide in 1942, Roosevelt created the War Refugee Board to save thousands of Hungarian Jews from Auschwitz, but only 150,000 Jews found refuge in the United States while 6 million Jews were murdered by the end of the Holocaust. This was definitely an example of limited help to the Jews as, while this did save many people, it was not even 3% of those that Hitler killed. Clearly, the reason for the lack of assistance for the Jews was opposition within the United States. A reason for this was likely the self-isolation policy that the United States had in trying to remain neutral and out of foreign affairs for as long as possible. By helping the Jews, the United States would clearly be siding against Hitler. Although the United States was eventually brought into World War 2, it likely would have been much sooner if FDR had allowed all the Jews on the St. Louis to enter.

How did the United States respond to the Spanish Civil War? Explain.

The United States responded to the Spanish Civil War in different ways. Some were confused by the Soviet Union's support of the rebels as they had always been sympathetic with the Soviet Union, but others wanted to support the existing government of Spain. The Abraham Lincoln Brigade traveled to Spain with 3000 men and women. However, Congress officially amended the neutrality legislation to apply an arms embargo to both loyalists and rebels. Franco and his rebels, supported by Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union as well as arms from the United States, easily defeated the republican democratic government of Spain. This proved to the dictators that the United States and other similar nations would not intervene in world relations by choosing a side. With the United States seemingly remaining with neutrality even when another democratic government would die, the dictators believed that they could easily start a war with little to stop them. Additionally, the United States did not build up its army to be able to adequately defend its country, and its navy even declined in strength. This saved taxpayers from paying more taxes during the depression, but it also meant that a strong nation could attack the United States and have a good chance of defeating them. Eventually, Congress approved Roosevelt's idea to prepare for war with a billion-dollar naval act, but it was too late.

What US policies ultimately led the United States into war? Explain your answer.

The United States was involved in World War 2 long before they actually declared it following the attack on Pearl Harbor, and I believe that began with the Neutrality Act of 1939. This law gave European nations the right to purchase munitions from the United States if they followed the "cash-and-carry" policy, meaning they paid in cash and transported the munitions themselves. This was a change from the previous Neutrality Acts of 1935-37, which created an embargo on goods and succeeded at proving the United States to be neutral. With the transport of goods to European nations, the United States was providing munitions and means of continuing the war to other nations. This meant that nations like England, which was running out of supplies, had access to purchase them now. Had the United States kept the Embargo, it is likely that Germany would have been able to win the war, so by helping nations, the United States was prolonging the war, preventing Germany from reaching victory. The Lend-Lease Bill, I believe, was the law that truly declared the United States to be no longer neutral in the war. By providing an endless supply of goods to nations that were victimized in the war, the United States was helping England continue to stand between Germany and world domination. Although Japan did end up benefiting from the Lend-Lease Bill as well, the law was created at a time when Britain was in dire need of help. Additionally, the United States sent $11 million worth of munitions to the Soviet Union after Germany attacked them despite the Hitler-Stalin pact that meant the Soviet Union would not do anything in support of England or the countries fighting Nazi Germany. This meant that the United States was helping another nation that Germany was attacking as they did with England when Hitler almost had them beat. Although the United States saw this as a way to remain neutral because they wanted the equivalent of their goods from the nations they helped in return, Hitler saw it as economic warfare. Shortly after helping the Soviet Union with the Lend-Lease Bill's policy, Hitler began allowing Nazis to attack U.S. ships, which had been completely restricted before. So, with the institution of the Lend-Lease Bill, the United States had provided the means to extend a war that could have ended much sooner with Hitler as the victor, so even though Roosevelt thought that he was succeeding in remaining neutral, he was doing the opposite in Hitler's eyes.

WPA

The Works Progress Administration was an administration under Hopkins that spent roughly $11 billion on the development of public roads, bridges, and buildings as well as the painting of murals and posters to create almost 9 million jobs in America. This boosted morale and stopped Americans from the feelings of unsettlement created by men like Long and Coughlin.

How did the Supreme Court "soften" after the court packing plan?

The court packing plan is the plan created by Roosevelt to add an additional member to the supreme court for each member over the age of 70 who refused to retire with a limit being at 15 members. Roosevelt was accused of trying to break down the delicate system of checks and balances. He was also accused of trying to be a dictator to beat the judiciary and basic liberties seemed to be in jeopardy. However, the Supreme Court softened as Justice Owen J. Roberts changed his conservative beliefs and began voting with his three liberal colleagues. A 5 to 4 decision in March 1937 upheld state minimum wage for women, and later decisions proved the Court to be more sympathetic to the New Deal as it upheld the Wagner Act and Social Security Act. Later, Congress voted for full pay for justices over 70 who retired, which further undermined Roosevelt's court packing plan, but it allowed him to nominate New Dealer Hugo Black into the Supreme Court. Later, deaths and resignations occurred in the Supreme Court and Roosevelt was able to appoint nine justices. However, Roosevelt had angered many Republicans and Democrats with his meddling in the Supreme Court, and, as a result, few New Deal reforms were passed after 1937.

New Deal

The political and economic policies created by FDR's administration in the 1930s. The goal was to create relief from the Great Depression by stimulating economic recovery and helping those who were unemployed. It built on pre-war progressive ideas and expanded them to better the country.

Hundred Days

The time period from March 9th to June 16th of 1933 when FDR and his administration first took office. Many bills were passed by the Democratic Congress to launch the New Deal.

How did WWII lead to an increase in big government interventionism? Give examples

The war allowed many places to become even more industrial than they previously were, and Roosevelt even seized control of the south, funding it with $6 billion to create facilities. However, that was a major benefit that was not in direct relations with the war. The government had to take control of the lives of individuals. The government instituted a rationing system that affected nearly every American, and thus they felt the effects of the war every day. Additionally, many men and women were in the armed forces or worked in the defense industries and monitored by the FEPC and NWLB, which were government-related. These people had their personal needs cared for by government-sponsored housing projects, day care facilities, and health plans. The government also took part in education as the government-run Office of Scientific Research and Observation gave millions of dollars to university-based scientific research.

Compare and contrast Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt

Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt were distant cousins of the same family that both ended up being presidents. Theodore Roosevelt was president from 1901 to 1909 while FDR was president from 1933-1945. Both men were born to wealthy parents in New York and both attended Harvard before becoming politically involved. Both men were also elected into the New York legislature, the governor of New York, and both served as assistant secretary of the navy. However, the manner in which each man acted is where they differed. Teddy Roosevelt was a very confrontational man while FDR was conciliatory, appealing to the American citizens that had just endured the Great Depression.

Compare and contrast the US and Soviet experiences in WWII.

There were nearly 1 million American casualties in WW2 with ⅓ being deaths. Many wounded Americans were saved, though, due to blood plasma and drugs like penicillin. However, in the Soviet Union, 25 million people were killed. More civilians were killed than armed combatants. Additionally, the land of America itself was essentially unscathed as the only attack on it was a weak one on California and Oregon by Japanese submarines with shells and bombers. A Japanese fire-bomb balloon drifted across the Pacific and killed 6 citizens in Oregon as well. However, Russia and the rest of the world was heavily damaged. Resource-wise, the United States originally seemed unprepared, but it began fighting German submarines in the Atlantic months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, and its citizens went to work to quickly produce all the materials needed for war with amazing assembly lines. The Americans win the war largely by mass. Additionally, many war generals like MacArthur and brains like Nimitz emerged, helping the United States become a successful war machine. The great relationship between FDR and Churchill also helped. Stalin, however, was untrusted by the other leaders of the world, and the Soviets could not nearly match the production rates of the US. This is what led to a much harsher experience by the Soviets in comparison to the US.

Explain this quote from Franklin Roosevelt, "never before have we had so little time in which to do so much."

This quote is referring to the lack of time that the United States had to prepare for World War 2. The war had already been going on for a number of years, but many Americans did not want to go to war. As a result, there had been little war preparations as many people thought producing goods to support the nations against Hitler would be the extent of the United States' involvement in World War 2. That abruptly changed with Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor that was unexpected and left many Americans shocked that they fell so vulnerable to an attack like that. They entered the war quickly thereafter, but it was only after the attack on Pearl Harbor that they began producing goods in the amount necessary to fight a war. That means that they had a very small amount of time to not only produce goods for the beginning of the war but also to train many of the men in the country to fight. Many people had to quickly take on new roles as factory workers left to fight and women took their spots. The men would have to quickly learn to fight while the new factory workers would have to learn how to work the machinery in double time to produce the amount of goods needed to supply the United States and the other Allies. This was unexpected in some sense, so the preparations came very quickly.

Cash and Carry

This was the only way that European nations could purchase weapons from the United States under the Neutrality Act of 1939. It meant that when purchasing munitions, they would have to carry them in their own ships and pay in cash. This would help the United States avoid loans, war debts, and other nations torpedoing their arms-carriers.

What factors allowed FDR to easily win a fourth presidential term?

Thomas Dewey ran with John Bricker for president and vice president against FDR, but their entire republican campaign would have called for a prosecution of the war and creation of a new international organization to maintain peace. FDR, however, was known as the "indispensable man" by the Democrats, as he had already won 3 terms. He was nominated in Chicago on the first ballot by acclamation, but was then forgotten due to his age as people focused on the vice presidency. Henry A. Wallace, secretary of agriculture, was VP for 4 years and wanted to be re-elected, but conservative Democrats thought he was liberal and unpredictable. Wallace received many votes, but the choice for VP was given to Harry S. Truman of Missouri, as blessed by Roosevelt. Dewey gave many speeches denouncing Roosevelt and claiming that it was time for a change while Roosevelt did not have time to give speeches due to his focus on war efforts. Many Republicans feared the idea of a Democrat in office for 5 or 6 terms, but they were not as concerned by a 4th considering Roosevelt had already broken 2 terms. He finally got out of his office to campaign in the closing weeks so he could counter the rumors of his failing health and other misdemeanors. Roosevelt won the election by a landslide, receiving 432 out of 531 Electoral votes, despite the majority of the media being against him. The reason for his victory was that he was very successfully leading the country in the war, and many people did not want to take a chance on Dewey with his doubtful, isolationist running mate.

Thomas Dewey

Thomas Dewey was FDR's opponent in the 1944 presidential election. This election was occurring at the height of WW2, but it continued on as normal without suspension, and the Republicans really wanted to get one of their men in office as FDR would be going on his 4th term. The man they elected was Dewey. He was the governor of New York at the time and had done much work prosecuting grafters and racketeers. Dewey supported internationalism and was only 42, which caused some to criticize him. As a result, the republicans in Chicago voted Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio, an isolationist, as the vice president. While FDR was distracted from campaigning by dealing with the war, he gave many speeches to denounce FDR claiming there were " 12 long years" of New Dealism and it was time for change. He also claimed that he would not change the general war tactics but would fight it better.

Describe three New Deal programs that provided jobs to the jobless.

When FDR took office, ¼ of workers were unemployed, and he needed to do something about that. He was not afraid to spend some money to help the unemployed, and, thus, three New Deal programs were created to provide jobs to those who were lacking them. The first program was the Civilian Conservation Corps, or the CCC. The CCC was very popular as it employed about 3 million young men in fresh-air government camps; these men likely would have become criminals if this job had not saved them from that life. They worked in jobs like reforestation, fire-fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage. They were required to send most of their pay to help their parents. There was some criticism of this as the men seemed to be like soldiers, but the CCC conserved human and natural resources, and the men even got pensions after exposure to poison ivy. Another program providing jobs was the Federal Emergency Relief Administration as named after the Federal Emergency Relief Act. It was focused on immediate rather than long-term relief and was led by Roosevelt's friend and advisor and a New York social worker Harry L. Hopkins. FERA granted about $3 million to the states for payments or the funding of wages on work projects. Several other acts and corporations also contributed to recovery like the Agricultural Adjustment Act, which used millions of dollars to help farmers pay their mortgages, the Home Owners' Loan Corporation, which refinanced mortgages on non-farm homes by bailing out mortgage-holding banks and bolting political loyalties of middle-class homeowners to the Democratic Party, and the Civil Works Administration, which provided temporary jobs during the winter with jobs like leaf raking.

How did FDR change the relationship between the United States and the rest of North and South America?

When Roosevelt withdrew involvement in Asia by passing a law to eventually grant the Philippines independence and did not agree to the policies of the London Economic Conference, therefore becoming uninvolved in European affairs, it seemed as though the United States wanted simply to be a western power rather than a world power. Americans had less money to invest in Latin America due to the Great Depression, but Roosevelt wanted to strengthen ties with those nations to defend all of the Americas against territorially greedy European powers. Additionally, if the United States was not in good relations with its neighboring countries, European aggressors could collaborate with them to overpower the United States. At the 7th Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay, United States delegates, under Roosevelt's instructions, formally endorsed nonintervention, stating the United States would stop with armed intervention in the United States. The United States removed its marines from Haiti and no longer intervened in Cuba with the ending of the Platt amendment. The United States also stopped intervening as much in Panama but kept its naval base in Guantanamo. The Good Neighbor Policy was instituted as well, which was tested when Mexico seized United States oil properties. Investors asked Roosevelt to use military intervention, but he did not and eventually reached a compromise with some stake loss 3 years later in 1941. Roosevelt's enforcement of the Good Neighbor Policy did create some losses for some United States citizens, but it showed the other American countries that the United States could nonviolently cooperate, and this gained their trust. Roosevelt himself even went to the InterAmerican Conference in Buenos Aires in 1936 to show his support for all of the American countries.

Why did the United States choose to "island hop" over many of the Japanese positions in the Pacific?

While General MacArthur fought for New Guinea, the United States navy went to every Japanese-held island in the Pacific. This was an old-fashioned military strategy that said that as the Americans got closer to Tokyo, they needed to defeat any fortified Japanese territories behind them. This would help them become completely focused on combating Tokyo without the fear of being attacked from behind them. However, many of the Japanese territories were very heavily fortified, and the men there would rather die than surrender to the United States. As a result, the United States navy adopted an "island hopping" strategy. They would skip over the heavily fortified Japanese-controlled islands and instead set up airfields on nearby islands that they would capture. They would neutralize the enemy on the islands they did not visit by heavy bombing, and the people on the islands would have to surrender or die at the hands of inevitable lack of supplies from the Japanese mainland. This meant that the United States did not have to waste time and supplies in heavy combat with the Japanese territories before actually reaching Tokyo.

Explain this statement, "in a sense, his opponent was Adolf Hitler, not Wilkie."

Wilkie was the man running against FDR in the election leading up to his third term; however, it seems as though Hitler was his true opponent. There had been a precedent set by George Washington that a president would run for 2 terms at most in order to make sure that the president did not become a dictator. That is likely one of the reasons that FDR did not actually want to run for a 3rd term. Breaking tradition would be abnormal, and FDR wanted to retire anyway. However, the massive destruction being caused by Hitler and the inevitable join of the United States into World War 2 meant that the country would need a strong leader. After already serving for 2 terms and helping better the economy following the Great Depression, FDR was a great president. He felt that though he would be abandoning the country if he did not stay and lead during World War 2. Therefore, by staying to fight against Hitler, he was going against his desire to retire and not break tradition. Therefore, the chance of Wilkie being elected was not where the true issue lied but rather that he had to run again to help the country stop Hitler.

How did the United States government fund the war?

World War 2 was extremely expensive, amounting to about $330 billion, which was more than the United States had spent since 1776. Roosevelt wanted to follow a pay-as-you-go policy to pay for this, but the costs were too extensive. The income-tax net was expanded to collect taxes from 4 times as many people, and maximum tax rates rose up to 90%. However, this only paid for about ⅖ of the war costs. The rest of the money was borrowed, and the national debt rose from $49 billion in 1941 to $259 billion in 1945. The war cost about $10 million per hour once production took off.