APUSH Unit 8 (1945-1980)

Foreign Policies (Nixon, 1970s)

- 1970s were filled with U.S. space program successes (landing on the moon), but also a stagnant economy, the fall of South Vietnam to Communism, increased foreign economic competitions, oil shortages, unemployment/inflation in the U.S. - Nixon isolated himself and created an "imperial presidency"; Nixon focused on internaitonal relations over domestic policy; Nixon, along with adviser Henry Kissinger, made a pragmatic foreign policy that reduced Cold War tensions VIETNAM: - Nixon's main objective was to reduce U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War while avoiding the appearance of allowing defeat - Nixon began the process of "Vietnamization", in which he gradually withdrew U.S. troops and gave South Vietnam money/weapons/training needed for them to take over the war; over 500k troops were removed in three years - Nixon proclaimed the Nixon Doctrine, which declared that in the future Asian allies would get U.S. support but not troops - Antiwar protests decreased, but in 1970, Nixon expanded the war by using U.S. forces to invade Cambodia (to destroy Vietnamese Communist bases) - A nationwide protest at colleges against the invasion led to four deaths by National Guard troops in Ohio and two more in Mississippi; the Senate also voted to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - In 1970, the American public found out about a 1968 massacre of the Vietnamese My Lai village by U.S. troops; a publication by the New York Times of the Pentagon Papers (secret documents about the mistakes/deception of government officials in the Vietnam War) was leaked by Daniel Ellsberg; both increased antiwar sentiment - Nixon got Kissinger to conduct secret meetings with North Vietnam's foreign minister, Le Duc Tho - When the U.S./Vietnam could not make a deal, Nixon ordered a massive bombing of North Vietnam to force a settlement; after weeks of B-52 bombings, North Vietnam agreed to an armistice, in which the U.S would withdraw all troops and get back over 500 POWs - The Paris Accords of 1973 also promised a cease-fire/free elections; however, the armistice didn't end the war, and left tens of thousands of enemy troops in South Vietnam; the death toll numbered over one million - The armistice let the U.S. fully leave the war, but the $118 billion spent on the war led to huge inflation CHINA/SOVIET UNION: - Nixon took advantage of the rivalry between China and the Soviet Union; his diplomacy was celebrated for bringing "detente" (deliberate reduction of Cold War tensions) - After secret negotiations, Nixon went to Bejing in 1972 to meet Mao (Communist leader who led "Red" Communist China); the visit initiated diplomatic exchanges that led to the U.S. recognizing the Communist government in 1979 - Nixon used this new relationship with China to pressure the Soviet Union to agree to a treaty limiting antiballistic missiles (ABMs) (new tech that would have expanded the arms race) - After the first round of Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I), U.S. diplomats got Soviet consent to freeze the number of ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads - Though the agreement didn't end the arms race, it reduced tensions MIDDLE EAST: - In 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, the Syrians/Egyptians launched a surprise attack on Israel to retake lands lost in the Six-Day War of 1967 - NIxon ordered U.S. nuclear forces to be on alert and airlifted $2 billion in arms to Israel - Due to U.S. help, the war ended quickly - In reponse, the Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) placed an oil embargo on Israel's supporters - The embargo caused a worldwide oil shortage/rise in oil prices; in the U.S. there was high inflations/loss of manufacturing jobs/lower standard of living for blue-collar workers; many consumers began purchasing more fuel-efficient Japanese cars over American ones, leading to unemployment in the car industry - Congress reponded by enacting a 55-mph speed limit to save gas/approved construction of a controversial oil pipeline in Alaska

March to Montgomery (1965)

- A voting rights march from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery was faced with beatings/tear gas, and became known as "Bloody Sunday" - The event was televised, and caused national outrage that led Johnson to send federal troops to protect King and others in an attempt to petition the state government - Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, but blacks were becoming impatient

War Powers Act (1973)

- News that Nixon authorized 3,500 secret bombings in Cambodia (neutral country) further discredited him; Congress used this backlash to limit the president's military powers - In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act over Nixon's veto - The act required the president to report to Congress within 48 hours of taking military action, and that Congress would have to approve an military action that would last more than 60 days

Assassination of Kennedy (1963)

- On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Texas; many Americans watched news about the assassination - The Warren Commission under Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald was a lone assassin - Many conspiracy theories about the assassination circulated after (Castro/CIA/FBI involvement) - The assassination led to a decrease in trust in the government - Kennedy's presidency inspired many Americans to "ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country" - Lyndon B. Johnson took the oath of office

Vietnam War (1963-75)

- Over 2.7 million Americans served and 58k died in an attempt to prevent the takeover of South Vietnam by Communist North Vietnam - U.S. involvement in Vietnam was minimal until the presidency of Johnson CONTEXT: - Vietnam was split in the Geneva Accords (1954) - President Kennedy adopted the Eisenhower domino theory and continued to give U.S. military aid to South Vietnam and send "military advisers" to train the South Vietnamese army/guard weapons - By 1963, over 16k U.S. troops were in Vietnam in support roles; they provided training/supplies, and created "strategic hamlets" (fortified villages) - The South Vietnamese U.S. ally, Ngo Dinh Diem, wasn't popular; Diem lost the support of countryside peasants/urban Buddhist monks, making Kennedy doubt him - The Viet Cong (1957, people's army, Vietnamese citizens) and the National Liberation Front (1960, South Vietnamese organization) was formed in opposition to Diem - Two weeks before Kennedy's assassination, Diem was overthrown and killed by his generals - When Johnson became president in 1964, there were seven governments in Vietnam; Republicans criticized Johnson for giving weak support to South Vietnam against the Vietcong (Communist guerillas) - Gulf of Tonkin Incident (1964): Johnson used a naval incident in the Gulf of Tonkin off of Vietnam's coast to get congressional authorization for U.S. forces to go into combat; North Vietnamese gunboats "had fired" on U.S. warships in the Gulf, which Johnson claimed was "sufficient" reason for military response - Congress passed its approval of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which let Johnson do anything to protect U.S. interests in Vietnam; critics call this use of U.S. forces an illegal war, since it was not declared by Congress (required by the Constitution) - Until 1968, most Americans supported the effort against Communism; Johnson faced the dilemma of spending money/resources to fight the war, or succumbing to Communism and appearing weak WAR: - In 1965, U.S. military/advisors recommended expanding in Vietnam to save the Saigon government; a Vietcong attack on the U.S. Pleiku base in 1965 led Johnson to authorize Operation Rolling Thunder - Operation Rolling Thunder: air attacks using B-52 bombers on North Vietnam - In April 1965, Johnson sent U.S. combat troops; by 1965, over 184k U.S. troops were in Vietnam - Johnson/the U.S. slowly escalated the war suing search-and-destroy tactics, which alienated Vietnamese peasants - Guerilla warfare was used; the enemy was the Viet Cong (civillians, could hide in plain sight) - Americans were seen by the Vietnamese as the enemy - Stategic hamlets (Communist villages) were targeted; the U.S. burned these villages - Agent Orange: herbicide used to destroy jungles where the North Vietnamese would hide; the chemical caused birth defects and cancer - Napalm: jelly-gasoline used to create mass fires - The war was uncensored and televised, which scared the American public and raised opposition to the war - By 1967, there were 485k U.S. troops in Vietnam, and 16k had died - U.S. General William Westmoreland continuously assured Americans that the war would end soon - Misinformation from military/civilian leaders/Johnson's hesitation to reveal the war costs/scope led to a credibility gap; additionally, the inner circles of the government failed to understand their enemy/nature of war -Tet Offense (1968): on Lunar New Year (Tet) in 1968, the Vietcong launched a surprise attack on nearly every provincial capital/American base; the U.S. military successfully counterattacked and recovered the territory - Though the U.S. "won", the destruction of the Tet Offensive was televised, and made Johnson lose support; the Tet Offensive was a huge political victory for North Vietnam as it demoralized the American people (Johnson nearly lose the primary) - The Joint of Chiefs of Staff requested 200k more troops to win the war, but Johnson's advisors turned against the war; in 1968, Johnson went on TV and announced that he would limit the bombing of Vietnam and negotiate peace, and also not run against for president - Nixon expanded the war by using U.S. forces to invade Cambodia (to destroy Vietnamese Communist bases) - Nixon got Kissinger to conduct secret meetings with North Vietnam's foreign minister, Le Duc Tho - When the U.S./Vietnam could not make a deal, Nixon ordered a massive bombing of North Vietnam to force a settlement; after weeks of B-52 bombings, North Vietnam agreed to an armistice, in which the U.S would withdraw all troops and get back over 500 POWs - In May 1968, peace talks began in Paris, but were quickly deadlocked; the war continued and thousands more died - The U.S. finally left Vietnam in 1973 with no provisions for POWs/MIA, allowing North Vietnam to continue the war - In 1975, North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam; Saigon was changed to Ho Chi Minh City - Over 58K Americans died, more than 175K were injured/permanently disabled, and over 1.6K were still unaccounted for VIEWS: - The "hawks" (supporters of the war) believed the war was an act of Soviet Communist aggression/part of a Soviet plan to conquer Southeast Asia; the "doves" (opponents of the war) saw the war as a civil war between Vietnamese nationalists and Communists trying to overthrow the corrupt Saigon government - Some Americans opposed the war due to its costs in lives/money; they believed the money could be spent on city problems/helping the poor; the greatest opposition came from college students, who would soon be eligible to be drafted into the military - In 1967, Senator Eugene F. McCarthy became the first antiwar political leader to challenge Johnson for the Democratic presidential nomination PEACE: - The Paris Accords of 1973 also promised a cease-fire/free elections; however, the armistice didn't end the war, and left tens of thousands of enemy troops in South Vietnam; the death toll numbered over one million - The armistice let the U.S. fully leave the war, but the $118 billion spent on the war led to huge inflation

Woodstock Festival (1969)

- Over 500K Americans gathered at a 3-day concert event in New York - This festival was the peak of the hippie movement, and included lots of drug use and hippie themes

The Marshall Plan

- Post-WWII winter/famine/destruction led to the growth of Communist parties in France and Italy - In 1947, George Marshall made a U.S. program that would give U.S. economic aid to European nations to revive their economies/protect democracies - Truman proposed a $17 billion European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan) to Congress - $12 billion was approved; the Plan was offered to the Soviet Union but was refused in fear of reliance on the U.S. - The Plan helped Western Europe achieve self-sustaining economic growth and ended Communist threats - The Plan also helped U.S. prosperity by increasing U.S. exports, but also greatened the tension between the non-Communist West and Communist East

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

- Pro-business act that was made to decrease the power of unions 1. Outlawed the closed shop (contract making workers join a union before being hired) 2. Permitted states to pass "right to work" laws outlawing the union shop (contract making workers join a union after being hired 3. Outlawed secondary boycotts (when several unions joined a boycott to support a union on strike) 4. Gave the president power to invoke a 80-day cooling-off period before a strike endangering national safety could be called - Unions attempted to repeal the act multiple times, which divided the Republicans and Democrats

The Election of 1956

- Rematch of Republican Eisenhower versus Democrat Adlai Stevenson, Eisenhower won - Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in 1955 (some questioned his health), but he was so popular he was reelected - Democrats controlled both houses of Congress

The Election of 1952

- Republican Dwight "Ike" Eisenhower versus Democrat Adlai Stevenson; Eisenhower won ("I Like Ike") - Middle-class Americans wanted relief from the Korean War and also an end to political scandals referred to as "the mess in Washington" - Americans liked and trusted Eisenhower; the Eisenhower-Nixon ticket (Eisenhower vowed to go to Korea and end the war; Nixon gave a televised "Checkers" speech) boosted popular vote

The Election of 1960

- Republican Nixon versus Democrat Kennedy, Kennedy won - Kennedy chose Texan Lyndon B. Johnson as his VP, which helped gain Southern votes - Kennedy-Nixon Debate: TV was used to televise debates; Kennedy was seen as vigorous/comfortable, and he attacked the Eisenhower administration for economic recession/"missile" gap between the U.S. and the Soviets; Nixon was stiff, looked sickly - Kennedy's religion (Catholicism) was an issue to some voters, but it helped him in the larger cities - The election was on of the closest in history; Republicans claimed that Democratic political machines in certain states had used votes of the deceased - The election marked a change in society; the 1960's experienced a postwar economic peak, controversial war in Vietnam, and student radicalism

Republican Congress (80th)

- Voters unhappy with inflation and strikes elected Republican majorities in Congress - Truman vetoed two attempts for tax-cuts for the rich - Republicans attempted to amend the Constitution and repeal the New Deal programs for labor - 22nd Amendment made in 1951 - Passed the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947 over Trumans veto

The Election of 1972

CONTEXT: - Nixon gained many votes from southern voters - Nixon's reelection was assured by his foreign policy successes, the removal of George Wallace (he was shot/paralyzed), and the Democratic nomination of an extreme liberal, George McGovern ELECTION: - Republican Nixon versus Democrat George McGovern, Nixon won - The election marked a shift in the Southern states to being more Republican; but, Congress was still Democratic - Nixon's success made the Watergate scandals more surprising

The Election of 1976

CONTEXT: - The Watergate Scandal affected the Republicans; Ford was challenged by Ronald Reagan, but Ford still won the Republican nomination ELECTION: - Republican Ford versus Democrat James Earl (Jimmy) Carter - The Watergate Scandal aided Carter, and his votes came from the South and 97% of African American voters; Congress also was Democratic

Civil Rights Movement

ORIGINS: - In 1947, Jackie Robinson was the first African American to play on a major league baseball team since the 1880s (Brooklyn Dodgers) - In 1948, Truman integrated the armed forces and introduced civil rights legislation in Congress - Despite change, the South was still segregated in schools/public institutions, and blacks were kept from voting by poll taxes/literacy tests/grandfather clauses/intimidation - Jim Crow Laws/Social segregation left most African Americans poorly educated, and economic discrimination kept them in poverty - The Great Migration (migrations of blacks from rural South to urban North) led African Americans to join the Democrats during the New Deal, which influenced politics in the 1950s - The Civil Rights movement gained speed under Kennedy and Johnson - Kennedy refrained from supporting civil rights to not alienate white voters, but Kennedy showed support in the form of sending troops to protect James Meredith (black air force veteran) while he went to the University of Mississippi (opposition from those who opposed integration) - The Cold War indirectly changed government policies/social attitudes; since the U.S. represented freedom/democracy against the evil of Communism, racial discrimination stood out, and led Truman to begin desegregation in the military - Redlining: forced blacks to live in certain areas by refusing sales/artificially inflating prices/refusing loans (sections were divided by red lines) - The building of highways resulted in the destruction of numerous poor, black neighborhoods - Victor Hugo Green made "Green books", which had a list of black-friendly businesses and places to stay during traveling SCHOOLS: - Since Plessy v. Ferguson (allowed segregation), the NAACP repeatedly attempted to overturn the Court's decision - Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954): NAACP lawyers led by Thurgood Marshall argued that segregation in schools violated the 14th Amendment; the Court agreed unanimously, and ruled that school segregation should end - Opposition to the Brown decision led 101 members of Congress to sign a "Southern Manifesto" which condemned the Supreme Court for the decision; states responded by temporarily closing schools/setting up private schools (ex: The Lost Year caused by Governor Faubus; blamed on blacks) - Murder of Emmit Til (1955): black teenager killed by two white men; the men were deemed not guilty - The KKK increased in popularity, and violence against blacks increased - Little Rock Nine (1957): Governor Orval Faubus used the state's National guard to prevent blacks from entering a high school, but was opposed by Eisenhower who sent the 101st Airborne to protect the nine students - Eisenhower didn't actively support desegregation, but upheld the ruling of the court - Despite the ruling, in 196, less than 2% of blacks went to integrated schools BOYCOTTS: - Montgomery bus boycott (1955): in Montgomery, Alabama, a bus driver made Rosa Parks give up her seat for white passengers; Parks refused and her arrest for violating segregation laws led to a black boycott of buses; bus revenue plummeted - Martin Luther King Jr. rose as the leader of a nonviolent movement to end segregation - The protest led to a Court ruling that segregation laws were unconstitutional, and also sparked other civil rights protests LAWS: - Two civil rights laws where signed by Eisenhower in 1957 and 1960 (first since Reconstruction) - These laws made a permanent Civil Rights Commission and gave the Justice Department new power to protect the voting rights of blacks; some southern officials still used others tactics to discourage blacks from voting - Loving v. Virginia (1967): in 1958, Richard and Mildred Loving were arrested for interracial marriage; in 1967, their case got rid of laws banning interracial marriage (VA Racial Integrity Act of 1924) NONVIOLENT PROTESTS: - In 1957, Martin Luther King Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), which organized ministers and churches in the South for the civil rights movement - In 1960, college students in North Carolina started a sit-in movement after being refused service as a restaurant - Students would intentionally invite arrest to raise awareness about segregation - The Student Nonviolent Coordination Committee (SNCC) was made in 1960 to organize student movements - Sit-ins were additionally used in restaurants, hotels, buildings, libraries, pools, and transportation in the South - Freedom Riders (1961): interstate highways were integrated (federal control); a group of mixed races went on a long road trip; faced violence when entering the South - Nonviolent boycotts, sit-ins, court rulings, and government policies led to slow change, but growing impatience led to violence IMMIGRATION: - Congress dropped bans on Chinese/Asian immigrants and "race" barriers to naturalization, but the quota system remained until 1965 - Puerto Ricans, as American citizens, could enter the U.S. freely, but Mexicans had either to work under contract in the braceros program/enter as a regulated legal immigrant/cross the border illegally - In the 1950s, U.S. officials launched Operation Wetback (forced almost 4 million people to return to Mexico) in response to complaints from native workers/Mexico - Mexican migrants faced discrimination/exploitation

Twenty-second Amendment (1951)

- Limited the president to serving only two terms

Espionage Cases

- Actual cases of Communist espionage in Britain/Canada/U.S. supported fears of Communism; however, methods used to identify Communist spies were not fully supported (violated basic rights) - Hiss Case: confessed Communist witness Wittaker Chambers and Richard Nixon led investigative work leading to a trial of Alger Hiss (State Department official); Hiss denied that he was a Communist/that he had given documents to Chambers; in 1950, Hiss was convicted of perjury and prosecuted - Rosenberg Case: many Americans believed that the spies gave information to the Soviets on how to make an atomic bomb; British scientist Klaus Fuchs, who worked on the Manhattan Project; admitted giving A-bomb secrets to the Soviets; the FBI traced spy activity to Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were found guilty of treason and executed in 1953 - Cases led to heightened fear of Communist spies, and also more opposition from civil rights groups

Space Race (1960s)

- After Sputnik, the U.S. dedicated more effort into space exploration - First Flight/Soviet Votsok Program (1961): Soviet Yuri Gagarin is the first man in space - First American in Space: U.S. Alan B. Shepard was in space for 15 minutes, a second and then third flight followed - All American astronauts were celebrities - U.S. Saturn V rocket was designed by former Nazi scientist Braun; the rocket was used in the Apollo missions to orbit the moon - In 1969, the U.S. Apollo II reached the moon; the most viewed live televised event - The Apollo II mission changed peoples views to seeing the planet as a whole, and not divided countries - The moon was not to be owned or divided, so no nuclear weapons were allowed on the moon

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)

- After Stalin's death in 1953, he was replaced by Nikita Khrushchev - Khrushchev began De-Stalinization (In his "Secret Speech", Khrushchev condemned the actions of Stalin) - Khrushchev gave the "We Will Bury You" speech at the UN, which cause misunderstandings - Khrushchev was invited to the US, which bettered relations during the Cold War - Though Khrushchev was friendly, he brutally crushed uprisings in Poland (1956) and Hungary

Berlin Wall (1961)

- After the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy agreed to meet Soviet premier Khrushchev in Vienna; Khrushchev threatened Kennedy by again demanding that the U.S. pull out troops in Berlin, but Kennedy refused - Many people fled East Germany by going West through West Berlin - In August 1961, the East Germans (supported by Soviets) built a wall around West Berlin to prevent East Germans from fleeing to West Germany - During the wall construction, Soviet and U.S. tanks met in Berlin; Kennedy didn't try to stop the construction, but traveled to West Berlin to reassure the people of continuing U.S. support - The Berlin Wall was a symbol of the Cold War until East Germans tore it down in 1989

Atomic Weapons

- After the Berlin crisis, an arms race developed between the U.S. and the Soviet Union to develop superior weapons systems - The U.S. was the only nation with an atomic bomb from 1945-9 - In 1949, the Soviets tested this first atomic bomb; Truman approved the development of the hydrogen bomb (H-bomb), which is a thousand times more powerful than the atomic bomb - In 1950, the National Security Council had recommended in report NSC-68 that in order to fight the Cold War the U.S. should raise defense spending to 20% of GNP, form alliances with non-Communist countries worldwide, and convince the American public that an expensive arms buildup was essential to safety

U.S. Post-WWII

- America changed from an isolationist country into a military superpower and leader in world affairs - Most Americans wanted to return to normal life/better economy, but the Cold War prevented total peace - 15 million American soldiers/sailors/marines had difficulty finding jobs and housing - WWII caused a boom in the economy, and demand for autos/housing and government road-building projects increased economic prosperity - By the 1950s, America had achieved the highest standards of living in history - GI Bill of Rights aided returning veterans - Women had to focus on raising children, but the population of working women continued to increase - High demand for housing led to a construction boom; William J. Levitt built Levittown (17,000 mass-produced, cheap housing in New York) - Low interest rates (government-insured/tax deductible) made the suburbs more affordable, causing a migration to suburbs from cities; migration was disastrous for older cities (LA, Boston, etc.) and made them poorer/more racially divided - Warm weather/low taxes/economic opportunities caused GI's to migrate to the Sunbelt states (FL to CA); military spending during the Cold War helped aid the shift - Paranoia of surprise attacks increased; the U.S. made the Office of Civil Defense to prepare people against nuclear attack (ex: fallout shelters) - In Japan, nuclear blasts caused a blinding flash, boiling heat, a shock wave, suction, and radiation; radiation caused birth defects and disease for generations

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944/GI Bill of Rights

- Americans wanted normalcy after the Depression and WWII; the GI Bill was made - Government bill that provided government funded education and loans (for homes/farms/businesses) to GI's (veterans) - Increased educated workforce (over 2 millions GI's attended college) - Pre-Fab housing made (cheap suburbs/Levittowns) - Stimulated economic expansion

Domestic Policies (1970's)

- As Congress was Democratic, Nixon had to make many compromises in obtain concessions - Nixon changed public opinion towards conservatism and got Republican gains that led to a Republican Congress in the 1980s-90s NEW FEDERALISM: - Nixon tried to slow Johnson's Great Society programs by proposing the Family Assistance Plan, which would replace welfare by providing a guaranteed annual income for working Americans - The Democratic Congress defeated this proposal; but, Nixon was able to shift some responsibility for social programs from federal to state/local levels - Congress approves revenue sharing/New Federalism, in which $30 billion was given to local governments over five years to address local needs (instead of Washington directing funds) - Republicans hoped revenue sharing would give power back to states - Nixon tried to bypass Congress by not spending funds for social programs; Democrats claimed it was an abuse of executive power, and the courts agreed ECONOMIC POLICIES: - The 1970's began with a recession, then later an economic slowdown/high inflation (stagflation, stagnation and inflation) - Nixon tried to cut federal spending to slow inflation, but it led to a recession/unemployment; Nixon turned to Keynesian economics and began deficit spending to help middle-class/blue-collar Americans - In 1971, Nixon imposed a 90-day wage/price freeze and took the dollar off the gold standard (devalued dollar compared to foreign currency); this and a 10% surtax on imports balanced U.S. trade with foreign countries - By 1972, the recession was over, and Congress approved automatic increases for Social Security benefits based on the increase in cost of living; this protected seniors/poor/disabled from inflation but led to budget problems - In 1972, Congress also passed Title IX, a statue to end sex discrimination in schools funded federal; this law is known for requiring schools to provide girls with equal athletic opportunities; these opportunities helped promote women equality THE SOUTH: - As Nixon was a minority president, he made a strategy to obtain a Republican majority by appealing to voters who were harmed by antiwar protests/black militants/school busing to aid racial balance/counterculture; Nixon referred to these conservative Americans as the "silent majority" (most were Democrats, southern whites, northern Catholic blue-collar workers, and recent suburbanites) - To win the South, Nixon asked the federal courts in the south to delay integration plans/busing orders and nominated two southern conservatives to the Supreme Court - Though the courts rejected his requests/Senate refused to confirm the nominees, Nixon gained southern support - Nixon also authorized the CP to make verbal assaults on war protesters/attack the press as liberal THE BURGER COURT: - Nixon replaced retired liberal justices of the Supreme Court with conservative ones; but, the justices didn't always rule what Nixon wanted - In 1969, Nixon appointed Warren E. Burger to replace Earl Warren; the Burger Court was more conservative, but many of it's decisions angered conservatives (ex: in 1971, the Court ordered busing to aid racial balance, and in 1972, it issued guidelines that made carrying our death penalties harder) - In Roe v. Wade (1973), the court struck down many state laws prohibiting abortions as violating women's privacy rights - In the Watergate scandal, the Court denied Nixon's claims to executive privilege and ordered him to turn over the Watergate tapes (United States v. Nixon in 1974)

Baby Boom (1946-64)

- Baby boom of 50 million babies being born between 1945-60 resulted from returning veterans and younger marriages and larger families; the baby boom generation affected social/economic life - Led to a culture of assimilation (fitting in prioritized)

Malcolm X

- Black Muslim leader Elijah Muhammad wanted a new cultural identity based on Africa and Islam; Muhammad preached black nationalism, separatism, and self-improvement; the movement gained thousands of followers - One man became a covert in prison, and called himself Malcolm X - After leaving prison, Malcolm X became the movement's most controversial voice - Malcolm criticized King as an "Uncle Tom" (subservient to whites) and advocated for self-defense in the form of violence - Malcolm X eventually left the Black Muslims and stopped defending violence, but he was assassinated by black opponents in 1965 - Malcolm also wrote "The Autobiography of Malcolm X"

American Society in the 1970s

- By the end of the 1970's, half of all Americans lived in the fastest-growing sections: the South and West - The senior population dominated rather than the youth - By 1990, minority groups made up a quarter of the population, and the Census Bureau predicted that by 2050, it would be 50% - Cultural pluralism increased as minorities sought to end discrimination and celebrate their own cultures IMMIGRATION: - Before the 1960s, most immigrants came from Europe/Canada, but by the 1980s, most came from Latin America/Asia - This shift was due to the influx of refugees leaving Cuba/Vietnam after Communist takeovers - The Immigration Act of 1965, which ended the ethnic quota acts of the 1920s opened U.S. to more immigrants - By the 1970s, more than 12 million U.S. immigrants came illegally - Immigration and Control Act (1986): The increase in Latin American/Asian immigrants led to the Immigration and Control Act of 1986, which penalized employers for hiring illegal immigrants/gave amnesty to undocumented immigrants arriving by 1982; however, illegal immigrants continued to arrive MINORITY RIGHTS: - Many minority groups sought to end discrimination and gain recognition for their contributions to U.S. society - Before WWII, most Hispanic Americans lived in the Southwest, but postwar immigrants from Puerto Rico/Cuba/South and Central America settled in the East/Midwest - Mexican workers who had ben deported in the Great Depression returned to the U.S. in the 50s-60s to low-paying agricultural jobs - Mexicn workers were exploited before a long series of boycotts led by Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers Organization gained collective bargaining rights for farm workers in 1975; Mexican American activists also won a federal mandate for bilingual education requiring schools to teach Hispanic children both English and Spanish - In the 1980s, more Hispanic Americans were elected to public offices (mayor); the Census Bureau reported that in 2000, Hispanics had become the U.S.'s largest minority group - In the 1950s, the Eisenhower administration made an unsuccessful attempt to encourage American Indians to leave reservations and assimilate into urban America; American Indian leaders resisted losing their cultural identity - The American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in 1968 to achieve self-determination and revival of tribal traditions; militant actions follower, including AIM's takeover an abandoned prison on Alcatraz Island in San Fransisco Bay in 1969, and occupation Wounded Knee in 1973 - Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975, which gave reservations and tribal lands greater control over internal programs/education/law enforcement - American Indians also used the federal courts to regain property/compensation for treaty violations; they improved education through the Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act of 1978 and built industries/casinos on reservations (aided unemployment/poverty) - Interest in American Indian culture also helped overcome old prejudices; by 2010, almost 3 million people identified as American Indian/Alaskan Native, and 2 million more were of mixed descent - By the 1980s, Asian Americans were the fastest growing minority; most were Chinese, followed by Filipinos, Japanese, Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese; dedication to education led to high Asian American representation in top colleges - Asian Americans suffered from discrimination, envy, and Japan-bashing; less educated immigrants were often poor - In 1969, a police raid on Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in NYC, led to a riot/gay rights movement; gay activists urged others to be open about sexual identity and to work to end violence/discrimination - By the mid-1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness and the federal Civil Service ended its ban on employment of homosexuals - In 1993, President Clinton attempted to end discrimination against gays/lesbians in the military, but was had to compromise to a "don't ask, don't tell" policy (people wouldn't be asked, but still could be expelled for being gay) ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT: - Though the Progressive conservation movement was small/led by politicians, the modern environmental movement had widespread public support; 20 million citizens participated in the first Earth Day in 1970, reflecting growing concerns over air/water pollution and environmental destruction - Media coverage of industrial disasters increased public questioning of the benefits of industry/technology ("post-modern" culture) - Massive oil spills from Santa Barbara California in 1969 to the Exxon Valdez oil tanker accident in Alaska in 1989 reinforced support - Public opinion turned against building more nuclear power plants after the Three Mile Island power plant accident at PA in 1979 and the explosion of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in the Soviet Union in 1986 - In 1970, Congress passed the Clean Air Act and made the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); in 1972 the Clean Water Act was passed and in 1973 the Endangered Species Act was passed, and in 1980, the Superfund was made to clean toxic dumps (ex: Love Canal in Niagara Falls, NY) - These laws regulated toxic substances, public drinking water systems, dumping of waste, and protested natural environments/wildlife (ex: American bald eagle) - In the 1980s, business/industry tried to reverse these legislations EFFECTS: - These protest movements led to more social stress and fragmentation; this with a slow economy/declined standard of living left many Americans angry/bitter - A conservative reaction to the liberal policies of the New Deal/Great Society increased in strength in the late 1970s and continued

My Lai Massacre (1968)

- Massacre of Vietnamese civillians in My Lai Village - Over 500 Vietnamese were killed, other were raped and tortured - The massacre was stopped by a U.S. pilot - It was initially covered up but got into the press; the American public was outrages

The Warren Court (1953-69)

- Chief Justice Earl Warren had a large impact on the U.S. (like John Marshall) - Warren made the decision in the desegregation case of Brown v. board of Education of Topeka (1954) - In the 1960's, Warren made a series of decisions affecting the criminal justice system, state political systems, and individual rights (before Warren the court focused on property rights over individual rights) CRIMINAL JUSTICE: - Mapp v. Ohio (1961): ruled that illegally seized evidence can't be used in court against the accused - Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): required that state courts provide counsel for poor defendants - Escobedo v. Illinois (1964): required police to inform an arrested person of their right to remain silent - Miranda v. Arizona (1966): extended the ruling in Escobedo to include the right to a lawyer being present during police questioning REAPPORTIONMENT: - Before 1962, many states had one house (normally the senate) have districts that strongly favored rural areas to the disadvantages of cities - Baker v. Carr (1962) deemed this practice unconstitutional - The Court established the principle of "one man, one vote," which meant that election districts would be redrawn to give equal representation to all citizens FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION/PRIVACY: - Warren rulings extended 1st Amendment rights to protect protesters, extend freedom of the press, ban religious activities sponsored by public schools, and protect rights to contraceptives - Yates v. United States (1957): ruled that the 1st Amendment protected radical/revolutionary speech, even by Communists, unless it was a danger to the safety of the country - Engel v. Vitale (1962): ruled that state laws requiring prayers/Bible readings in public schools violated the 1st Amendment's freedom of religion - Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): ruled that a state couldn't prohibit use of contraceptives by adults in protection of privacy EFFECTS: - As the Warren Court protected many unpopular individuals (ex: those accused of crimes), the rulings were controversial - Critics wanted Warren's impeachment - Nonetheless, the Warren court changed the interpretation of constitutional rights

The Cold War and the Middle East

- Decolonization after WWII led to the development of the postwar era; between 1947-62, colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence from Britain, France, and the Netherlands (India/Pakistan in 1947, Indonesia in 1949, Ghana in 1957, etc) - These third world countries lacked stable political and economic institutions; their need for foreign aid led to siding with the U.S. or the Soviet Union during the Cold War - Covert Action: Eisenhower conducted U.S. foreign policy by intervening in the politics of other nations undercover (less expensive/threatening); in 1953, the CIA helped overthrow a government in Iran, which in turn gave the U.S. good oil prices/buyers for U.S. arms in Iran; In 1954, the CIA overthrew a government in Guatemala that threatened U.S. interests - The U.S. often supported corrupt dictators in opposition to Communism, and various CIA operations/planned assassinations led to anti-American feelings in Latin America and instability in Iran SUEZ CRISIS: - Arab nationalist General Gamal Nasser from Egypt asked the U.S. for funds to build the Aswan Dam project on the Nile River; the U.S. refused as Egypt threatened Israel's security - Nasser then got financial aid from the Soviet Union to build the Dam - Seeking more aid, in 1956 Nasser seized/nationalized the British/French-owned Suez Canal that passed through Egypt; loss of the canal threatened Western Europe's oil supply from the Middle East; Britain/France/Israel carried out a surprise attack and retook the canal - Eisenhower was angry at the sudden attack, and sponsored a UN resolution condemning the invasion of Egypt, making Britain/France/Israel retreat EISENHOWER DOCTRINE: - The U.S. replaced Britain/France as the leading Western influence in the Middle East, but faced a growing Soviet influence in Egypt and Syria - In 1957, the U.S. pronounced the Eisenhower Doctrine, in which it pledged economic/military aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism (in 1958, Eisenhower send 14k marines to Lebanon to prevent civil war between Christians/Muslims) OPEC/OIL: - In 1960, the Arab nations of Saudi Arabia/Kuwait/Iraq/Iran joined Venezuela and formed the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) - Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil, Arab nationalism, and conflict between Israelis/Palestinian refugees became major issues in U.S. foreign policy

Decolonization of Southeast Asia

- Decolonization after WWII led to the development of the postwar era; between 1947-62, colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence from Britain, France, and the Netherlands (India/Pakistan in 1947, Indonesia in 1949, Ghana in 1957, etc) - These third world countries lacked stable political and economic institutions; their need for foreign aid led to siding with the U.S. or the Soviet Union during the Cold War KOREA: - Eisenhower visited Korea to help end the war; the threat of nuclear war/diplomacy/death of Stalin in 1953 moved China and North Korea to sign an armistice in exchange for prisoners - U.S. troops were withdrawn, and Korea remained divided with no peace treaty INDOCHINA: - The French attempted to retake Indochina from Japan, but native Vietnamese and Cambodians resisted as they wanted independence - French imperialism led to increasing support for nationalist/Communist Ho Chi Minh - By 1950, the Indochina conflict became a part of the Cold War - Truman gave aid to the French, while China and the Soviet Union gave aid to Minh; in 1954, the French army was defeated, and Eisenhower refused to send more U.S. troops - France gave up Indochina at the Geneva Conference in 1954, which was then divided into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam VIETNAM: - After the Conference, Vietnam was divided until a general election could by held; Ho Chi Minh made a Communist dictatorship in North Vietnam while Ngo Dinh Diem made a government in South Vietnam (support from anticommunists/Catholics/urban Vietnamese) - The election was never held as the South feared defeat; from 1955-61 the U.S. gave over $1 billion in economic/military aid to South Vietnam to build a stable government - Eisenhower made a "domino theory", which stated that is South Vietnam fell under Communist control, more would convert to Communism, putting Australia and New Zealand in danger - Eisenhower sent U.S. "advisors" to South Vietnam SEATO: - In 1954, Dulles put together a regional defense pact called the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to prevent Communism from spreading in Asia - The U.S., Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan signed the pact, agreeing they would defend on another if Southeast Asia was attacked

The Election of 1964

- Democrat Johnson versus Republican Barry Goldwater; Johnson won - A Democratic president and Congress allowed the passage of many economic and social reforms - Lincoln and the Republicans supported big-government/business, FDR made the Democrats big-government/public welfare - In 1968, Barry Goldwater marked a shift in the Republicans to modernism (conservative, small-government)

John F. Kennedy (1961-3)

- Domestic policies called the "New Frontier"; tax cuts for economic growth, Bay of Pigs, Berlin Wall, Peace Corps (1961), Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), Vietname War, Apollo Program (1961) - Tried to get aid for education/healthcare/civil rights, but failed to get major legislation - In 1962, Kennedy gave a moon speech; after his assassination American wanted to honor his wishes of getting to the moon

Domestic Policies (1950s)

- Eisenhower led with "Modern Republicanism" - Eisenhower led by delegation of authority; his cabinet was made of successful corporate executives - Some criticized Eisenhower for entrusting important decisions to others (for vacation), but in reality he was in charge - Eisenhower was a fiscal conservative, and focused on balancing the budget (after deficit spending in WWII) - Eisenhower accepted most New Deal Programs and extended some (Social Security, minimum wage, public housing), but opposed ideas of federal health care insurance/aid to education - In 1953, Eisenhower consolidated welfare programs by making the Department of Healthy, Education, and Welfare (HEW) under Oveta Culp Hobby (first woman in Republican cabinet) - A soil-bank program was made to decrease farm production to increase farm income INTERSTATE HIGHWAY SYSTEM: - In 1956 the Highway Act was passed, which allowed the construction of 42k miles of interstate highways to connect all the major U.S. cities - The improvement of national defense was used as justification for new taxes on fuel/tires/vehicles - Highway construction created jobs, promoted the trucking industry, increased growth of suburbs, and led to a more homogenous national culture - Highways led to a decrease in railroads and negatively affected the environment; public transportation was overlooked, which negatively affected the old/poor EFFECTS: - Eisenhower's economic policies are some of the most successful of any modern president's - Eisenhower's policies led to steady economic growth, low inflation, and an increase in the average income for American families (highest standard of living in the world)

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1952-60)

- Eisenhower was extremely popular due to his service in WWII - Eisenhower personified the 1950s, a time of prosperity, rock-and-roll music, television shows/Elvis, but also black rights movements (Rosa Packs and Martin Luther King Jr.) - Eisenhower coined the "domino theory", which stated that if South Vietnam fell to Communism, other Southeastern countries could also fall to Communism - Balanced budget, ended military buildup, Operation Wetback (removed Mexican immigrants), Interstate Highway Act (1956) - After leaving office, Eisenhower claimed credit for checking Communist aggression and keeping peace without American deaths; in 1958, he initiated the first arms limitations by voluntarily suspending above-ground testing of nuclear weapons - In his farewell address, Eisenhower warned against the negative impact of the Cold War on the U.S. and promoted using a "military-industrial complex" to defend against the Soviets; many Americans feared that the U.S. was turning into a military/imperial state (like Rome)

Harry S. Truman (1945-53)

- FDR's VP, became president after FDR's death - Decided to use the atomic bomb - Decisive and honest/unpretentious leader, attempted to continue the New Deal - The second Red Scare, the Korean stalemate, the loss of China, and scandals of Truman's advisors made reelection unlikely - Truman returned to private life, which many joked was his "promotion" - As time passed, Truman's critics also came to respect him for the tough decisions he had to make and his frank character

U.S. Society in the 1950s

- Fears of Communism led to a unification of American political/social beliefs; this led to a consumer-driven mass economy - Television, advertising, and migration of the middle-class to suburbs led to a homogeneity of American culture - Television became the center of family life; by 1961, there were 55 million TV sets; three national networks dominated (comedies/westerns/quiz shows/sports) - Many worried about the impact of TV on children - The culture/language portrayed on TV provided common content in common language - Advertising (via TV/radio/newspapers/magazines) generated material wants, and the creation of shopping malls/plastic credit card increased consumer spending - Success of fast food chains and standardized products led to more franchises - Paperback books invented in the 1950s, and long-playing (LP) record albums (rock and roll of Elvis) increased in popularity - Conglomerates (companies with many sub-companies in different industries) dominated the industries of food-processing/hotels/transportation/insurance/banking - More Americans held white-collar jobs than blue-collar jobs - Large corporations (ex: Fortune magazine's top 500 companies) promoted teamwork/conformity/dress codes (suits) - Some, like social scientist William Whyte, feared loss of individuality due to corporations (wrote the "Organization Man" in 1956) - Big unions gained power after the merger of the AF of L and the CIO in 1955, and became more conservative as blue-collar workers gained higher incomes - Many American families enjoyed a home in the suburbs, a new car every few years, good schools, and an occasional vacation (ex: Disneyland in California, opened in 1955) - Organized religions expanded after WWII as thousands of new churches/synagogues were built; in "Protestant, Catholic, Jew" (1955), written by Will Herberg, Herberg criticized the lack of interest in doctrine (church was a place for socialization) - The baby boom/migration to suburbs made homemaking a full-time job for many women; the traditional view that women should care for the home/children was advertised by mass media and in "Baby and Child Care" (1946) by Dr. Benjamin Spock - More married/well-educated women entered the workforce, but received lower wages as men employers saw them as wives/mothers CRITICS: - In "The Lonely Crowd" (1958) by David Riesman, Riesman criticized the replacement of self-driven individuals with employed conformists - In "The Affluent Society" (1958) by John Kenneth Galbraith, Galbraith criticized the failure of the wealthy to spend more for the common good (influenced Kennedy and Johnson) - In "White Collar" (1951) C. Wright Mills described dehumanizing corporate worlds, and in "The Power Elite" (1956) Mills described threats to freedom - Many novelists of the 1950's wrote about the struggle between individuality and conformity (ex: "The Cather in the Rye" (1951) by J. D. Salinger, and "Catch-22" (1961) by Joseph Heller) - A group of rebellious writers/intellectuals made the Beat Generation; led by Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, they advocated for spontaneity/drugs/rebellion against social standards; these "beatniks" were models for the youth rebellion of the 1960's

The Cold War in Asia

- Imperialist systems in India and Southeast Asia dissolved as colonies became new nations; due to cultural/political traditions and opposition to Western colonialism, these countries resisted U.S. influence - Japan, America's former enemy, was the Asian nation that became the closest the the U.S. JAPAN: - The U.S. took control over Japan after WWII; General Douglas MacArthur was in charge of Japan's reconstruction as seven of Japan's generals were tried and executed - MacArthur helped write a new constitution in 1947, which gave Japan a parliamentary democracy, kept Emperor Hirohito as emperor (not as a divine being), renounced war, and limited Japan's military capacity - Due to limited military, Japan relied on U.S. protection - Japan gave up its claims to Korea and pacific islands in two treaties in 1951; America removed its troops except in military bases for Japan's protection from Communism PHILIPPINES: - In 1946, the Philippines became an independent republic, but the U.S. kept naval/air bases there during the Cold War - U.S. also gained control of UN trustee islands taken from Japan CHINA: - In the 1920s, Chiang Kai-shek/Jiang Jie-shi ruled over China in the Nationalist/Kuomintang party - During WWII, the U.S. gave military aid to China to protect against Japan; after WWII a civil war between Chiang's Nationalists and the Chinese Communists under Mao Zedong broke out - Chinese Nationalists were losing popularity due to inflation and government corruption, while the Communists appealed to poor landless peasants - Truman sent George Marshall in 1946 to negotiate an end to the civil war, but the compromise failed - By 1947, Chiang was retreating; in 1948, Congress voted to give the Nationalist government $400 million in aid, but 80% of the supplies went to the Communists due to corruption/collapse of Nationalist armies - By 1949, mainland China was controlled by the Communists, while the Nationalists retreated to Formosa (Taiwan); Chiang still claimed to rule China, and the U.S. refused to recognize Mao Zedong's rule (the People's Republic of China) until 1979 - In 1950, Stalin and Mao signed a Sino-Soviet pact

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

- In 1949, Truman created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which was a military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and ten European nations - Truman selected General Eisenhower to be NATO's Supreme Commander, and also stationed troops in Western Europe to discourage Soviet invasion - The Soviet Union countered in 1955 and created the Warsaw Pact (military alliance with the Communist states of Eastern Europe) - Some criticize Truman in that his actions may have invoked the arms race/created more tension, but NATO became on of the most successful alliances in history as it maintained relative peace in Europe

Sputnik (1957)

- In 1957, the Soviet Union surprisingly launched the first satellites (Sputnik I/Sputnik II) into orbit, which led to questioning of U.S. technological superiority - U.S. rockets failed following Sputnik failed, adding to American embarrassment - American schools were criticized for failing to educate students to become scientists/engineers; in 1958, Congress passed the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA), which authorized giving hundreds of millions of federal money to schools for math/science/foreign language education - In 1958, Congress made the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to develop U.S. missiles/explore outer space; billions were spent to compete with the Russians - Sputnik intensified fears of nuclear war, since the missiles that launched the satellites could carry nuclear weapons and there was no defense against them

Foreign Policies (1960's)

- In 1961, Kennedy set up the Peace Corps, which recruited young American volunteers to give technical aid to developing countries - In 1961, Kennedy also made the Alliance for progress, which promoted land reform/economic development in Latin America - In 1961, Kennedy persuaded Congress to pass the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, which allowed tariff reductions with the European Economic Community (Common Market) of Western European nations - Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, Berlin Wall, and Cuban Missile Crisis

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

- In 1962, U.S. reconnaissance planes discovered Russian construction of underground sites in Cuba to launch missiles at the U.S. - Kennedy announced internationally that he was setting up a naval blockade of Cuba until the weapons were removed - If the Soviets refused, a nuclear war could break out; Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for the U.S. to pledge to not invade Cuba and to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey - Kennedy was seen as a hero, while Khrushchev was seen as weak - After the incident, a telecommunications hotline was made between Washington and Moscow so the leaders could talk directly during a crisis - In 1963, the Soviet Union, U.S. and 100 other nations signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty to end the testing of nuclear weapons - Though nuclear arms were beginning to be controlled, the arms race for missile superiority continued

Kent State (1970)

- In 1970, 4 students were killed by the National Guard during a student protest

Cold War Terms

- Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): if nuclear weapons are fired, the other side will fire back, leading to complete destruction (deters use of nuclear weapons) - Deterrence: if nuclear weapons are used by one side, the other will use them as well, so don't use nuclear weapons - Atomic Bomb: fission; split of uranium atom (1945) - nuclear Bomb: fusion; fuses hydrogen bombs (1949); called hydrogen bomb or H-bomb - ICBM: Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (transports bomb to desired target) - Nuclear weapons cause an electromagnetic pulse, which fries any electronic device - A nuclear winter follows a blast, in which dust/debris blocks the sun and causes an ice age - Full-scale Nuclear War: world-ending war - Limited Nuclear War: nuclear bombs used as other weapons (will lead to full war)

Nixon's Resignation (1974)

- In 1974, Nixon made sucessful visits to Moscow/Cairo, but his reputation continued to plummet - In 1973, Nixon fired Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor assigned to the Watergate case; in protest, the U.S. attorney general resigned - The House of Representatives began impeachment hearings, which led Nixon to reveal transcripts of some Watergate tapes; a Supreme Court decision in July forced him to turn over all the tapes to the courts/Congress - One tape had 18 minutes erased - The House Judiciary Committee voted for impeachment due to obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress - Due to exposure in the tapes, impeachment in the House, and a trial in the Senate, Nixon resigned - VP Gerald Ford became the first unelected president in U.S. history - The outcome of the Watergate Scandal (Nixon's resignation) proved the U.S. constitutional system of checks and balances worked; others thought it proved that the presidency had gained too much power after FDR; overall it led to a loss in faith in government AFTERMATH: - In his first month, Ford gave Nixon a full/unconditional pardon before any formal charges, which made him lose popularity; Ford was accused of making a bargain with Nixon, but Ford claimed it was to end the scandal's effects quickly - During Ford's presidency (1974-77), the Democratic Congress continued to investigate the executive branch, especially the CIA; the CIA was accused of engineering the assassination of foreign leaders (ex: Marxist Salvador Allende of Chile) - Ford appointed George H. W. Bush to reform the CIA

Assassination of MLK (1968)

- In April 1968, King was assassinated in Memphis, TN, by white James Earl Ray - After the assassination, riots broke out in 168 cities across the U.S., killing 46 people; the violence showed blacks' distress, but also led to white backlash, especially among white blue-collar voters

March on Washington (1963)

- In August 1963, King led 200k blacks and whites in a peaceful March on Washington in support of the civil rights bill - King gave the famous "I Have a Dream" speech

Lyndon Johnson (1963-69)

- Johnson became president after Kennedy's assassination - Johnson was a skilled politician, and a devoted Roosevelt Democrat during the Great Depression - Unlike Kennedy, Johnson wasn't as good in international affairs, but better at domestic affairs - Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965), Immigration Act of 1965 (ended quote system of National Origins Act of 1924) - Domestic policies were known as the "Great Society", incluing the War on Poverty (job/training programs), Medicare (health aid for 65+), Medicaid (health aid for poor), Head Start/pre-school programs, HUD/Housing and Urban Development Ac of 1965, Consumer Protection Safety Committee - Most of his domestic policies were overshadowed by Vietnam

Civil Rights Acts of 1964

- Johnson persuaded Congress to pass the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which made segregation illegal in all public facilities and gave the federal government additional power to enforce school desegregation - The 1964 Act also set up the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to end discrimination in employment based on race/religion/sex/national origin - In 1964, the 24th Amendment was ratified, which abolished poll taxes that discouraged the poor from voting - After killings/brutality in Selma, Alabama, in response to the voting rights marches led by Martin Luther King Jr., Johnson persuaded Congress to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Domestic Policies (1960s)

- Johnson wanted to expand the social reforms of the New Deal - After taking office, Johnson persuaded Congress to pass an expanded version of Kennedy's civil rights bill and Kennedy's proposal for an income tax cut - The income tax cut led to an increase in jobs, consumer spending, and a period of economic expansion - Michael Harrington's book "The Other America" (1962) focused attention on the 40 million Americans living in poverty; Johnson declared an "unconditional war on poverty" - The Democratic Congress created the anti-poverty Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) and gave the agency a billion-dollar budget - The OEO sponsored self-help programs for the poor, such as the Head Start for preschoolers, the Job corps for vocational education, literacy programs, and legal services - The controversial Community Action Program allowed the poor to run antipoverty programs in their own neighborhoods - Some of the programs worked while others didn't, but before pay cuts during the Vietnam War, the War on Poverty helped aid those living in poverty - Johnson also passed the Food Stamp Act (1964, helped poor buy food), the National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities (1965, federal funding for arts), Medicare (1965, health insurance for 65+), medicaid (1965, medical care fo disabled), Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965, federal funds to poor school districts/special education/Head Start), Higher Education Act (1965, federal funds for college education), Immigration Act (1965, abolished discriminatory quotas), Child Nutrition Act (1966, schools provided breakfast), etc. - Congress also increased funding for mass transit, public housing, rent subsidies for the poor, and crime prevention - Johnson made two new cabinet departments: the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) - In response to Ralph Nader's book "Unsafe at Any Speed" (1965), Congress passed regulations for the automobile industry that saved thousands of lives - In response to Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" (1962), which exposed pesticides, Congress made clean air and water laws - Federal parks/wilderness areas were expanded, and Johnson's wife, Lady Bird Johnson, improved on the environment through her Beautify America campaign, which later led to the Highway Beautification Act (removed billboards from federal roads) - Critics attack Johnson's Great Society for making unrealistic promises to eliminate poverty, creating a centralized welfare state, and for being inefficient/costly - Defenders of Johnson state that the programs gave needed assistance to millions of America's poor/disabled/elderly - Johnson's escalation of the Vietnam war negatively affected his programs and caused high taxes/inflation

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

- Kennedy approved a CIA-conducted invasion of Cuba using Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro - CIA-trained Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs but failed to start an uprising; they surrendered after Kennedy refused to send U.S. forces to save them - Due to not calculating the time zones, U.S. air support never arrived - Castro used the failed invasion to get more aid from the Soviet Union - Kennedy swore to never send CIA overseas for operations

Domestic Policies (1960's)

- Kennedy was the youngest candidate to ever be elected, and had lots of energy; he promised to lead the nation into a "new frontier" - Kennedy surrounded himself with business executives/academics; he and his wife Jacqueline ("Jackie") brought style/appreciation of arts, which was popularized by the press - Kennedy's "New Frontier" included aid to education, federal support of health care, urban renewal, and civil rights; most of his proposals were passed under later President Johnson - Kennedy achieved a price rollback, which, in addition to increased spending on defense/space exploration, led to stimulation of the economy

Martin Luther King Jr.

- King was a Baptist minister and the leader of the nonviolent civil rights movement against segregation - The black movement met a lost of resistance int he forms of beatings, bombings, and murder - Led numerous marches in Birmingham, AL; black churches were bombed in response - Birmingham Campaign (1963): year of organized sit-ins, City Hall marches, and boycotts - In 1963, King and some others were jailed in Birmingham, Alabama, for an "illegal" march; his jailing helped him gain support as many believed he was jailed unjustly; King wrote "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" during this time, which moved Kennedy to support a stronger civil rights bill - Strong opposition to black civil rights was led by Governor George Wallace (1963-87)

Joseph McCarthy

- Republican senator Joseph McCarthy used anti-Communist hysteria in his reelection campaign; McCarthy gave a widely publicized speech in 1950 saying that 205 Communists were working for the State Department - McCarthy gained tremendous power as people feared being accused by him - McCarthy used a constant stream of false accusations about Communists to keep the focus of the media; working-class Americans supported him as his attacks were often aimed at the wealthy - Republicans supported McCarthy as he mainly attacked Democrats - McCarthy was so popular that Eisenhower didn't defend his friend George Marshall against McCarthy's accusations - The hunt for Communists was referred to as McCarthyism - In 1954, a Senate committee held televised hearings on Communist infiltration of the army, and turned public opinion against McCarthy; in December, Republicans and Democrats joined together in a Senate censure of McCarthy

Voting Rights Act of 1965

- The Act ended literacy tests/grandfather clauses and provided federal registrars in areas where blacks were discouraged from voting; this impacted the Deep South significantly - The 5th clause provided that certain more hostile states would go through a federal process; this was deemed unconstitutional in Shelby Country v. Holder (2013), causing more voting inequality today

Cold War (1940s-1991)

- The Cold War dominated international relations from the 1940s to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 - Was between Communist Soviet Union and Democratic United States; almost led to nuclear war - Paranoia from the Cold War was expressed in art and music - The Cold War included Proxy Wars (wars between U.S.-supporters and USSR-supporters) - The world was divided into Capitalists (first world), Communists (second world), and other countries (third world) TRUMAN: - Truman had a strict containment policy, which led him to interfering in the Korean War and creating NATO EISENHOWER: - SoS John Foster Dulles aided Eisenhower in shaping U.S. foreign policy - Dulles saw Truman's policies as too passive; he wanted to challenge the Soviet Union and Communist China, "liberate" Communist Eastern European nations, and encourage the Nationalist government in Taiwan to rebel against Communist China - Dulles believed the U.S. should push Communist power to the brink of war as they would surrender to American nuclear superiority; called "brinkmanship" - Dulles wanted to spend more on nuclear weapons/air force and less on the army/navy to save money while increasing power, balance the federal budget, and increase pressure on potential enemies - In 1953, the development of the hydrogen bomb in the U.S. led the Soviets to also create one; massive retaliation of nuclear weapons caused fear but also discouraged full nuclear war - Nuclear weapons didn't stop small wars from breaking out in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East - U.S. diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were important to secure U.S. security - After Stalin's death in 1953, Eisenhower called for a slowdown of the arms race and presented an "atoms for peace" plan to the UN; simultaneously, the Soviets withdrew troops from Austria and established peaceful relations with Greece/Turkey - In 1955, a mutual desire for improved relations led to a summit meeting in Geneva, Switzerland between Eisenhower and Soviet premier Nikolai Bulganin; Eisenhower proposed an "open skies" policy over each other's territory (allowed aerial photography of the U.S./Soviet Union) to reduce the chance of a surprise nuclear attack; the Soviets rejected the proposal - Though the "open skies" policy failed, the "spirit of Geneva" helped to improve relations - In 1956, new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev made a speech in which he denounced the crimes of Stalin and supported "peaceful coexistence" with the West - The crushing of uprisings in Poland and Hungary, as well as the U.S. U-2 spy place shot down over the USSR made relations worse - In 1959, revolutionary Fidel Castro overthrew the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista and established a Communist government (nationalized American-owned businesses/properties in Cuba) - Eisenhower cut off U.S. trade with Cuba, making Castro turn to the Soviets and create a Communist totalitarian state to prove he was a Marxist - Eisenhower authorized the CIA to train anticommunist Cuban exiles to retake Cuba (Cuba was the closest Communist state), but the decision was left to President Kennedy KENNEDY: - Bay of Pigs invasion, Berlin Wall, and Cuban Missile Crisis - After the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy placed missiles in Turkey through NATO as it was close to the USSR; USSR responded by putting missiles in Cuba - The Soviet Union gave aid to many rebel groups in "brushfire wars" in Southeast Asia and Africa; conflicts in Congo (Zaire) in Africa and Laos/Vietnam in Southeast Asia convinced the Kennedy administration to adopt a policy of flexible response (different from Dulles) - Kennedy focused on increasing spending on conventional/nonnuclear arms and mobile military forces; this reduced the risk of using nuclear weapons, but also increased temptation to send forces (ex: Green Berets) all over the globe

The Berlin Airlift (1948)

- The Soviets cut off all access to Berlin by land (starved the residents of British/French/American Berlin) - Truman ordered U.S. planes to fly in supplies to Berlin, and also sent bombers capable of holding atomic bombs to British bases - Stalin yielded and re-opened the highways to Berlin - Led to the creation of two Germanies: the Federal Republic of Germany (West, U.S. ally) and the German Democratic Republic (East, Soviet satellite) - Truman's actions during the Airlift aided him in the Election of 1948

Second Red Scare (1950s)

- The U.S. government's beliefs that civil wars in Europe/Asia were caused by Communism also led Americans to believe that Communist spies had infiltrated American society - In 1947, due to Republican pressure, the Truman administration made a Loyalty Review Board to investigate the backgrounds of over 3 million federal employees; between 1947-51, thousands of officials resigned/lost their jobs - The leaders of the American Communist party were prosecuted; in Dennis et al. v. United States (1951), the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Smith Act of 1940, which made it illegal to advocate for the overthrow of the government by force - McCarran Internal Security Act (1950): passed over Truman's veto; made it unlawful to advocate/support the rise of a totalitarian government, restricted the employment/travel of those joining Communist organizations, and authorized the creation of detention camps for subversives - The Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which was made in 1939 to seek out Nazis, was reactivated to find Communists; HUAC investigated the government/Boy Scouts/Hollywood; those who refused to testified were tried or blacklisted - HUAC found USSR spy Alger Hiss - The Red Scare affected freedom of expression in the U.S.; playwrights such as Arthur Miller (made "Death of a Salesman") and the play "Souther Pacific" (1949) were accused of being anti-American/Communist; teachers/writers were often required to take a loyalty oath - The American Civil Liberties Union and other opposers of anti-Communist security measures argued that the 1st Amendment protected free expression of political views

Domestic Policies (Carter, 1970s)

- The main issue in the U.S. was growing inflation; Carter tried to control inflation be conserving oil energy/reviving the coal industry, but the compromises made by Congress failed - Inflation slowed economic growth due to high interest rates/high prices - The chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Paul Volcker, tried to stop inflation by pushing interest rates even higher; this hurt the automobile/building industries, which led to high unemployment - Inflation also pushed middle-class taxpayers into higher tax brackets, which led to a "taxpayers' revolt" - Government social programs pushed the federal deficit to almost $60 billion in 1980 - The high inflation led to a decrease in standards of living - The Iranian hostage crisis/inflation hurt Carter's reputation; Carter gave a "national malaise" speech in which he blamed the issues on the morals/spirit of the American people; Americans blamed Carter for weak leadership

Counterculture

- The political New Left developed alongside a new culture in the younger generation that included rebellious clothing styles, music, drugs, and communal living - Baby boomers were rebellious (Beats, Greasers, etc.) - Styles of "hippies" and "flower children" included long hair, beards, beads, and jeans - Folk music of Joan Baez and Bob Dylan and rock music of the Beatles/Rolling Stones/Jim Morrison/Janis Joplin gave beat/lyrics of counterculture; Elvis Presley (1935-77) made rock and roll more famous - In 1969, thousands of youth gathered at the Woodstock Music Festival in NYC - However, some youth ruined their lives by experimenting with hallucinogenic drugs (ex: LSD) or becoming drug addicts; this and economic uncertainties led to the decline of the movement - These "baby boomers" believed strongly in the ideals of a democratic society, and hoped to eradicate unresponsive authority/poverty/racism/war - The impatience of some activists/use of violence/spread of self-destructive behavior discredited the younger generation in the eyes of older Americans RELIGIOUS REVIVAL: - A religious revival broke out in response to counterculture - In 1954, the phrase "One nation under God" was added to the Pledge of Allegiance - TV preacher Reverend Bill Graham gained popularity, as well as religious movies

Race Riots (1960s)

- The radicalism of Malcolm X inspired young blacks in civil rights organizations such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to repute nonviolence and advocate for "black power"/economic power/racial separatism - In 1966, the Black Panthers were organized by Huey Newton, Bobby Seale, and other militants as a revolutionary socialist movement advocating for black self-rule - After the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the arrest of a young black motorist by white police in LA sparked a six-day race riot that killed 34 people and destroyed over 700 buildings - Race riots increased during the summers in black neighborhoods of major cities through 1968, with increasing casualties/destruction - Rioters shouted "burn baby, burn" and "get whitey", which made whites think that blacks were behind the violence; but, there was little evidence the Black Power movement was responsible - A federal investigation of the riots by the Kerner Commission concluded in 1968 that racism/segregation were responsible and that the U.S. was becoming divided - By the mid-1960's, the issue of civil rights spread beyond "de jure" segregation under Southern law and included the "de facto" segregation/discrimination in the North/West - Martin Luther King Jr. received the Nobel peace Prize in 1964, but his nonviolent approach was losing support; King's peaceful marches in the North (ex: Chicago) had little success - King also disagreed with Johnson over the Vietnam War as the was took money from social programs

Watergate Scandal (1972)

- The scandal resulted in the humiliation of Nixon, and conviction/jailing of 26 White House officials - The scandal made people lose faith in their government during an unstable time - In Jun 1972, men hired by Nixon's reelection committee were caught breaking into the offices of the Democratic national headquarters in the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C - This break-in/attempted bugging was one of many illegal activities conducted by the Nixon administration/Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) - Nixon had previously ordered wiretaps on government employees/reporters to stop news leaks (ex: the one about the Cambodia invasion); his aids made a group called the "plumbers" to stop eaks/discredit oppoents - The "plumbers" had burglarized psychiatrist Daniel Ellsberg's office (leak of the Pentagon Papers) - The White House also had an "enemies list" of prominent Americans against Nixon/Vietnam War; these people were investigated by the IRS/agencies - The scandal showed Nixon's determination to protect national security/protect his own reputation - Though there is no proof Nixon ordered these activities, Nixon engaged in an illegal cover-up to avoid scandal - Federal judge John Sircia found out about money bribes/promise of pardons by the White House from the Watergate burglars (to keep them quiet); a Senate investigation committee under Democrat Sam Ervin televised hearings, which informed the American public; John Dean linked Nixon to the event - Nixon's aides, H. R. Halderman and John Ehrlichman resigned to protect Nixon, but the discovery of a taping system in the Oval Office led to conflict between Nixon (claimed the tapes were an executive priviledge) and investigators (wanted tapes to prove the cover-up charges) - In 1973, VP Agnew resigned as he had taken bribes when he was a governor, which further discredited the Nixon administration - The outcome of the Watergate Scandal (Nixon's resignation) proved the U.S. constitutional system of checks and balances worked; others thought it proved that the presidency had gained too much power after FDR; overall it led to a loss in faith in government

The Truman Doctrine (1947)

- Truman made the containment policy in response to a Communist-led uprising in Greece, and Soviet demands for control of a water route in Turkey (Dardanelles) - Truman asked Congress for $400 million in economic/military aid to help the "free" people of Greece and Turkey, Truman received lots of support in Congress

Truman's Programs

- Truman proposed full employment and civil rights for African Americans; faced opposition from conservatives in Congress - Employment Act of 1946: a revised version of the full-employment bill; created the Council of Economic Advisers (economic advisers for the president/Congress); political divisions/Cold War hindered most of Truman's program - Truman wanted to continue wartime price control to prevent inflation, but southern Democrats/Republicans relaxed the control of the Office of Price Administration, causing inflation - In 1946, 4.5 million railroad/mine workers went on strike (wanted wages to rise after wage controls during WWII); Truman used troops to get the United Mine Workers to call off their strike - Truman used his executive powers to make the Committee on Civil Rights in 1946 to challenge racial discrimination - Truman strengthened the civil rights division of the Justice Department, which helped black leaders end segregation in schools - In 1948, Truman ordered the end of racial discrimination throughout the federal government, which ended segregation in the military as well - Southern Democrats blocked Truman's proposal of a Fair Employment Practices Commission (would prevent racist hiring)

Truman's Fair Deal

- Truman wanted to continue the New Deal - Congress blocked Truman's proposals of national health care insurance, federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, funds for public housing, and a new farm program - Congress passed Truman's proposals of an increase in the minimum wage and an extension of Social Security - Most Fair Deal bills were blocked due to Truman's political conflicts with Congress, and the foreign policy concerns from the Cold War - National Security Act (1947): consolidated the Department of Defense and made the Joint Chiefs of Staff - National Security Council: made to advise the President - CIA made for international defense - Voice of America: American broadcasts to Soviet-backed countries - Marshall Plan (1948): gave U.S. money to rebuild European countries (to prevent another Hitler); Stalin refused the U.S. offer - Truman Doctrine: policy of containment of communism (enabled any action to contain communism)

The Election of 1948

- Truman's aggressive foreign policy/support for civil rights caused Liberal Democrats to form a new Progressive Party and Southern Democrats to form the States' Rights Party/Dixiecrats - Republican Thomas E. Dewey, Progressive Henry Wallace, and Dixiecrat J. Strom Thurmond versus Democrat Harry S Truman; Truman won

Prelude to the Cold War

- Truman's policies are viewed as too weak, too strong/overreactions, and reasonable by different historians - Ever since the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Americans viewed the Soviets as a threat; the Red Scare of 1919 was a response to the revolution - The U.S. refused to recognize the Soviet Union until 1933; FDR and his advisors didn't trust Soviets - The alliance between Britain/U.S./Soviets was out of convenience rather than trust; the Cold War tensions began in the Yalta/Potsdam Conferences - The UN General Assembly gave representation to all nations, and a 15-member Security Council was made to maintain international security; the U.S./Britain/France/China/Soviet Union were the permanent members; people hoped the UN would resolve conflicts - The Soviets cooperated with a U.S. proposal to make an Atomic Energy Commission in the UN, but rejected the Baruch Plan that proposed to regulate nuclear energy/atomic weapons; American interpreted this rejection as aggressive intentions - Soviets also rejected the U.S. offer for participation in the World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) made to rebuild the world; Soviets saw it as an instrument of capitalism - Soviets participated in the Nuremberg trials of the Nazi leaders - Continued Soviet occupation of Central/Eastern European countries, and elections that favored communist/Soviet-loyal candidates led to hostility (Communist dictators came to power in Poland/Romania/Bulgaria/Albania/Hungary/Czechoslovakia) - Some argued that the Soviet Union needed satellite/buffer states to protect against a Hitler-like invasion, but Britain/U.S. saw it as a violation of self-determination (Britain wanted free elections in Poland) - Germany was divided into the communist/Soviet/East German Democratic Republic, and the capitalist/Allie/West Germany - The Soviets attempted to take the American/British/French sectors of Berlin; the Soviets wanted a weak Germany, while the others wanted Germany to recover to maintain European stability - The satellite countries separating the Soviets from Europe/Soviet secrecy was referred to as the "iron curtain"; the Western democracies united to stop communism - Western democracies had learned from appeasement with Hitler that appeasement would not work - Truman adopted a containment policy made by SoS George Marshall, Dan Acheson, and George F. Kennan; many, like Walter Lippmann, debated if Truman attempted too much

National Security Act (1947)

- U.S. act that provided for (1) a centralized Department of Defense (replaced the War Department), (2) the creation of the National Security Council (NSC) to organize foreign policy in the Cold War, (3) and the creation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to use spies to gather information about foreign governments - In 1948, the Selective Service System and a peacetime draft was made

U.S. Nuclear Policy

- U.S. has a policy of "no first strike", so it leaves the enemy to attack first - DEFCON (Defense Condition): indicates how close we are to nuclear war (1 is war, 5 is peace); closest was a 2 in the Cuban Missile Crisis - If war begins, NORAD will inform the President, who will then receive the launch info, and after a discussion with the Pentagon the president can launch an attack

Social Cultural Movements (1960s)

- Various liberal groups began to identify with blacks' struggle against oppressive controls/laws; the first groups were college students STUDENT MOVEMENT/NEW LEFT: - In 1962, a radical student organization called Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) held a meeting in Michigan; under Tom Hayden, the group issued a declaration called the Port Huron Statement - The Port Huron Statement called for university decisions to be made through participatory democracy, so students could have a voice in decisions that affected them; those who supported Hayden became known as the New Left - In 1964, the first major student protest took place at the University of California; the Berkeley students called their cause the Free Speech Movement, and demanded an end to university restrictions on student political activities - By the mid-1960's, students nationwide were protesting various university rules (ex: drinking, dorm visits by opposite gender, greater voice in university government); U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War led to an increase in protests - Many college campuses were closed down by antiwar protests - The Weathermen, a radical group of the SDS, used violence/vandalism on American institutions; their actions discredited the New Left SEXUAL REVOLUTION: - Traditional beliefs about sexual conduct were challenged in the 1940s-50s by surveys of sexual practice by Alfred Kinsey - Kinsey's research indicated that premarital sex, marital infidelity, and homosexuality were more common than believed - Medicine (antibiotics for venereal disease) and science (birth control pill in 1960) aided in changing attitudes about engaging in casual sex with multiple partners - Sexual themes in ads/magazines/movies made sex more appealing - Premarital sex/contraception/abortion/homosexuality became practiced more openly, but not did not necessarily increase - In the 1980s, there was a reaction against loosened moral codes as it was blamed on an increase in illegitimate births (especially among teenagers), rape/sexual abuse, and the spread of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) WOMEN'S MOVEMENT: - The increased education/employment of women in the 1950s, the civil rights movement, and the sexual revolution led to a renewal of the women's movement in the 1960s - Betty Friedan's book "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) gave the movement a new direction by encouraging middle-class women to seek professional careers in addition to being a wife/mother/homemaker - In 1966, Friedan founded the National Organization for Women (NOW), which used the activist tactics of other civil rights movements to get equal treatment of women, especially in job employment - Congress had enacted two anti-discriminatory laws (the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964), which prohibited discrimination in employment/compensation based on gender, but they were poorly enforced - In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA); though NOW and other groups fought hard for the amendment, it failed acceptance of the states due to a growing reaction against feminism by conservatives who believed in the traditional role of women - The women's movement helped change attitudes/hiring practices, and helped women enter the professions of business/law/medicine/politics - Women still experienced a "glass ceiling" in the corporate world

The Korean War (1950-53)

- Was a UN war (fought by UN troops) - After Japan was defeated, Korea was divided between the Soviet army (North) and the U.S. army (South); after the armies were withdrawn, North Korea was left to Communist Kim Il Sung and South Korea was left to nationalist Syngman Rhee - China became communist, which encouraged communism in North Korea - On June 25, 1950, North Korea suddenly invaded South Korea; Truman immediately called for a special session of the UN Security Council; the UN authorized a force of primarily American troops, led by MacArthur, to help the South Korean army (Soviets temporarily boycotted the UN) - Congress didn't declare war as they used Truman's explanation for the intervention as "police action" - The North Korean army conquered nearly the whole peninsula, but a counterattack by MacArthur at Inchon allowed South Korean forces to push back to almost the Chinese border - MacArthur disregarded China's warnings regarding the U.S. troops, and in November 1950, Chinese troops entered Korea, destroyed the UN army (one of the worst defeats in U.S. history), and drove them out of North Korea - MacArthur called for expanding the war (including bombing/invading China), but Truman warned him of making public statements that possibly criticized U.S. policy; MacArthur disregarded the warning, and was later fired for insubordination - MacArthur returned as a war hero, as Americans wanted Truman to completely destroy Communism in Asia - In Korea, the war was stalemated at the 38th parallel; peace talks in Panmunjon began in 1951, and an armistice/ceasefire was finally signed in 1953 - More than 2.5 million died, including 54k Americans - The Korean War proved the effectiveness of Truman's containment policy (stopped Communist aggression and prevented a world war), and was used as justification for expanding the military (new jet bomber, the B-52, and stationing more troops overseas) - Republicans were unsatisfied, and claimed that Truman/Democrats were too soft on Communism

The Election of 1968

CONTEXT: - 1968 was filled with the Tet offensive/Vietnamese war, withdrawal of Johnson, the murder of Martin Luther King Jr., and race riots; many feared the nation was falling apart - In 1964, Kennedy's younger brother, Robert Kennedy, won California's primary, but was immediately shot/killed by an Arab nationalist (opposed Kennedy's support for Israel) - After Kennedy's death, the election was between conservatives George Wallace and Richard Nixon, and liberal Hubert Humphrey - Humphrey was popular among the Democrats (was VP), but antiwar demonstrators led a "police riot", which was televised and reflected badly on Humphrey; the Democrat party was greatly divided as well, putting Humphrey at a disadvantage - George Wallace ran as a self-nominated candidate of the American Independent party, and strongly opposed integration - Nixon was popular among the Republicans, and was a "hawk" in the Vietnam War; he chose Spiro Agnew as his running mate, and valued "peace with honor" and "law and order" - Nixon appealed to the "silent majority", who were moderates ELECTION: - Democrat Humphrey and Independent Wallace versus Republican Nixon; Nixon won - The significance of the election was that the public was turning against the New Deal liberalism and was also not focused on politics due to the many events of the 1960s (Wallace and Nixon's popular vote combined was 57%) - Supporters of Nixon/Wallace were against protests/violence/permissiveness/counterculture/drugs/federal intervention in social institutions

Foreign and Domestic Policies (Ford, 1970's)

FOREIGN POLICY: - Ford failed to get additional funds from Congress to aid SOuth Vietnam - In 1975, the Saigon government fell, and Vietnam was fully ruled by the Communist government in Hanoi; the loss decreased American overseas prestige/demoralized the home front - Prior to the collapse, the U.S. evacuated 150k Vietnamese who supported the U.S. and now faced persecution - In 1975, the U.S.-supported government in Cambodia fell tot he Khmer Rouge, a radial Communist faction that killed over a million of its own people in a relocation program to rid the country of Western influences - The wars in Southeast Asia created 10 million refugees, most of whom fled to the U.S. - Though Vietnam/Cambodia fell to Communism, the "little tigers" Singapore/Thailand/Malaysia emerged and dominated the growing Asian Pacific Rim economy - Some argued that U.S support of South Vietnam bought time for the little tiger nations to develop and resis communism DOMESTIC POLICY: - Ford was more conservative thatn Nixon in domestic policy; Ford was focused on controlling inflation - Ford encouraged voluntary measures by businesses/consumers (ex: wearing the WIN/Whip Inflation Now buttons); however, inflation continued and a recession began, with high unemployment - Ford agreed to a Democratic package to stimulate the economy, but vetoed 39 other Democratic bills - In 1976, the 200th birthday of America was celebrated, which renewed morale and patriotism

Foriegn Policies (Carter, 1970's)

HUMAN RIGHTS: - Carter's foriegn policy emphasized human rights - Carters appointed Andrew Young, an African American, to be U.S. ambassador to the UN; they both advocated for human rights around the world (ex: opposing the oppression of the black majority in South African and Rhodesia/Zimbabwe by white governments) - In Latin America, human rights violations by the military governments in Argentina and Chile led Carter to cut off their U.S. aid - Carter negotiated a new treaty to replace the Panama Canal Treaty of 1903 to make up for U.S. wrongs; In 1978, the Senate ratified a treaty that gradually gave the Panama Canal back to the Panamanians from the U.S., which was finally completed in 2000; many disagreed with this decision MIDDLE EAST: - Camp David Accords (1978): Carter arranged a peace settlement between Egypt and Israel; in 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visited Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin in Jerusalem; Carter invited Sadat and Begin to meet at the presidential retreat in Camp David, MD -Due to a peace treaty in 1979, Egypt became the first Arab nation to recognize the naiton of Israel; in return , Israel withdrew its troops from the SInai territory taken from Egypt in the Six-Day War of 1967 - The treaty was opposed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and most Arabs, but it led to peace in the Middle East - Anti-American sentiment was strong in Iran since the U.S. helped overthrow Iran's democratically elected leader in 1953 and make a dictorial government - In 1979, Islamic fundamentalists in Iran, led by Ayatollah Khomeini, overthrew the shah leading the Iranian government; the shah had provided oil to the West, but his autocratic rule/westernization policy alienated most Iranians - After the overthrow, Iranian oil production halted, leading to a second worldwide oil shortage and more price increases; in 1979, Iranian militants seized the U.S> embassy in Teheran and took over 50 Americans hostage; Carter approved a rescue mission in 1980, but it failed - The mission failure caused many to lose faith in Carter COLD WAR: - Carter attempted to continue the Nixon-Ford policy of detente with China/Soviets - In 1979, the U.S. ended its official recognition of the Nationalist Chinese government in Taiwan, and exchanged ambassadors with the People's Republic of China - Detente continued with the Soviets with the signing of a SALT II treaty in 1979, which limited the size of the U.S./Soviet's nuclear delivery system; the Senate never ratified the treaty due to renewal of Cold War tensions over Afghanistan - In December 1979, the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, which ended improving U.S.-Soviet relations as the U.S. feared the Soviets were trying to control the oil-rich Persian Gulf - Carter reacted by placing an embargo on grain exports/tech sales to the Soviet Union, and boycotting the 1980 Olympics in Moscow

The Cold War and Europe

HUNGARIAN REVOLT: - The relaxation in the Cold War led workers in East Germany/Poland to demand reforms from their Communist governments - In 1956, an uprising in Hungary succeeded in overthrowing a government backed by the Soviet Union; the new Hungarian leaders wanted to pull Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact (Communist organization) - Khrushchev sent Soviet tanks to crush the movement and regain control of Hungary; the U.S. took no action in fear that sending troops would instigate war in Europe - By doing nothing, the U.S. indirectly gave recognition of the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe - Soviet suppression of the Hungarian revolt re-instigated tense relations with the U.S. after the Geneva Conference SECOND BERLIN CRISIS: - Pride/confidence from Sputnik led Soviet leader Khrushchev to demand foreign troop removal from West Germany in six months in 1958; the U.S. refused, and Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to the U.S. in 1959; the two agreed to put off the crisis and scheduled another summit conference in Paris in 1960 at Camp David in Maryland U-2 INCIDENT: - Two weeks before the Paris Conference, the Russians shot down the U-2 (U.S. spy plane) over the Soviet Union; the incident exposed the U.S. - After the rejection of the "open skies" proposal, the U.S. conducted regular spy flights over Soviet territory to gain information about the Russian missile program - Eisenhower took full responsibility after exposure, which led Khrushchev to denounce the U.S. and leave the Paris Conference