Art History exam 2

Lady of Auxerre, limestone, Greek, ca. 650-625 B.C.

- 7th century B.C., that Greek sculptors began experimenting with creating relatively life-sized statuary in stone. Softer stones, such as limestone, were worked at first, and later harder stones such as marble. -It is generally agreed that the Greeks were inspired to create large-scale free-standing sculpture in harder stones after being exposed to Egyptian stone carving. Greeks were hired as mercenaries in the pharaoh's army. During their lengthy stay in Egypt, Greeks had the opportunity to observe not only how to quarry harder stones, but how to carve and build with them. -These early Greek stone sculptures are rendered in a style called Daedalic, named after the legendary inventor Daedalus, whom the Greeks credited with the invention of sculpture. The Daedalic style, like Daedalus himself, is believed to have come from the island of Crete and was applied to sculpted objects in many different media, not only stone. Daedalic style figures were made from ivory, terracotta, and bronze, to name a few. -Daedalic figures are characterized by a U or V shaped face, the wig-like hair that falls in massive wedges over the shoulders, a strictly frontal body, and often a cinched in waist that may or may not be belted with a wide belt. -The right hand raised to her breast is probably a gesture of adoration, but it may also derive from eastern fertility goddesses, like the Phoenician Astarte, who are shown with one hand raised to the breast and the other often covering the genitals.

Karnak:Temple of Amun-Ra- Hypostyle Hall, limestone, Egyptian, New Kingdom (19th Dynasty), ca. 1290-1224 B.C.

-After Tutenkhamen's reign were two further pharaohs who reigned before Sety I came to the throne, establishing the 19th Dynasty. He was then followed by his son, Ramses II, both of whom worked on the construction of the great hypostyle hall at the Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak, a site next to Thebes, the capital. Egypt had always been a polytheistic society. In addition to certain national gods, including Atum, Ra, and Osiris, each city had its own local gods, usually a trinity consisting of a father, mother, and son. When a city gained special importance, as Thebes did in the New Kingdom, its local gods, in this case Amen (also spelled Amun), his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu, were elevated to national prominence and worshipped accordingly. -The Great Temple of Amun-Ra was laid out on an axial plan, and access to the sanctuary, where the statue of Amun stood, was through a principal courtyard, a hypostyle hall (a vast hall filled with columns) and a number of smaller halls and courts. Massive gateways (pylons) set off each of these separate elements. Axial plans are a consistent feature of Egyptian temples, both mortuary and normal. -Many of the architectural features are derived from the plant-life that was used to make the earliest of sacred structures. The temple was seen as representing the Egyptian creation story in which life was created from the mound of mud that emerged from the receding primeval waters. The temple is a stone version of the hut built by the creation god to keep away intruders while he completed his work. The shrine of the temple was placed on the highest point within it, representing the primeval mound, and except when the doors of this shrine would be opened at certain times of day, the god lived there in the elemental darkness prevailing before the First Time. Only the king and priests would have entered the sanctuary itself- ordinary people would be rarely permitted beyond the forecourts of the hypostyle halls, where they found themselves surrounded by inscriptions and images of kings and the god on the columns and walls. -The hypostyle hall may have been used for royal coronation ceremonies. The hypostyle hall symbolized the primordial marsh, with its floor imitating water, and the supports of its roof usually rising in vegetal form as palm trees or bundles of papyrus or lotus stalks, with their capitals as feathery fronts or umbels or buds.

Grave stele of Hegeso from the Dipylon Cemetery, marble, Greek, ca. 400 B.C.

-After a hiatus of nearly 70 years, marble grave monuments begin to be built in Athens once more around 430 BC. At first they take the form of stele, slabs of stone carved in relief, often shaped like a temple or shrine with a pediment at the top. -Hegeso is the woman seated on an elegant chair similar to that on the Achilles Painter's lekythos. She examines a piece of jewelry (once rendered in paint and now no longer visible) selected from a box held by the servant girl who stands in front of her. One can clearly make out the contours of their bodies beneath their garments and their expressions are serene, both hallmarks of High Classical sculpture. -As is typically of Classical Greek grave stelai, Hegeso is shown participating the activities and environment she would have occupied during her life: the secluded women's quarters of her home, from which she rarely would have emerged. Both the slave girl and the jewelry attest to her family's wealth and prestige, and the jewelry box may even symbolize the dowry that Proxenos would have provided to his son-in-law had Hegeso married before her death. Thus, in the patriarchal society of ancient Greece, the dominant position of men over women is manifest even when only women are depicted. -Given the societal dominance of men over women in the Greek world at this time, it is surprising that the majority of surviving Classical grave markers commemorate women rather than men. The increased value placed upon Athenian women may have been due to the Periklean citizenship law of 451 BC, which decreed that in order to be an Athenian citizen, both parents, both father and mother had to be the offspring of Athenian citizen fathers. This regulation greatly restricted the eligible marriage pool for Athenian males and thus increased the value of women who had the appropriate family background. -Another cause behind the rise of Athenian marble grave stelai is that many sculptors were likely seeking work after the completion of the various Periklean building projects in and around the city. Labor would have been relatively reasonable in cost and local stone was available from the quarry at Mount Pentelikos. Another factor was probably the start of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC between Athens and Sparta. This war, which lasted until 404 BC, ended Athens' political dominance in the Greek world and was characterized by a large loss of life. Thus, death, particularly of younger men, became a reality faced by many families in Athens. Also devastating the population of Athens was a series of plague of outbreaks during these years due to the fact that too many people were living within the walls of Athens due to Spartan attacks. As a result, there was an increased interest in Athenian society to commemorate the lives of deceased private citizens beyond the state funerary honors given to those who died in battle.

Akrotiri: Xeste 3, Saffron Gatherers fresco, pigment on plaster, Minoan, ca. 1650 B.C.

-Akrotiri was a trading post on the island of Thera that was settled by Minoans around 1700 B.C. The site was hit by a major earthquake, which destroyed much of it. Rebuilding had begun when the site was buried by a massive volcanic eruption of the island around 1600 B.C. The inhabitants clearly had warning of the impending disaster because no remains of victims have been found and all precious portable items had been removed. -Here Minoan techniques and palatial imagery are manipulated to express the values of the local middle class population, clear evidence of a broader distribution of material wealth in Minoan society in comparison to the Mycenaean civilization of mainland Greece. -Xeste 3 does not seem to have been a domestic space, but rather a place of public and ritual activity. This fresco decorates one wall of a room on the first floor. -Both young women wear Minoan dress and jewelry. They gather saffron stamens in a colorful rocky landscape filled with crocus plants. The body of the woman on the left is shown frontally, her head turned in profile to face her companion on whom she gazes with a rather serious air. Her rich black hair is held by a blue band on her forehead. She picks with the fingertips of her right hand and holds a bucket or basket with her left. The second figure is much younger in appearance and has her head almost completely shorn (hence the blue coloring of her scalp). She tries to pick crocus blossoms with her two hands while gazing at her companion with a lively and impatient expression, as if anxious for reassurance that she is performing the task correctly. -The figures are rendered with a freedom of movement and a variety of hairstyles, raiment, and jewelry which bespeak of an artist of stature. Gathering crocus flowers has become a major ritual event as the fruit of the women's labors is offered to a seated goddess on the neighboring wall, who probably symbolizes the Great Mother Goddess, a deity found in different guises around the Mediterranean who controls the forces of nature as well as of life and regeneration. -Note the details of the women's finery, especially their garments, which they themselves would have made. These are garments that are meant to catch the eye with their embroidery and color. The artist's depiction of this finery is a recognition of feminine industry and creativity, as well as their major contribution within the household as the provider of textiles. -The frescoes at Akrotiri are very much a reflection of the community and the individuals who commissioned them. The fact that people were so willing to invest in their property and commission such beautiful frescoes shows the trust that these people had in their government and their society. Real estate is not wealth that one can easily liquidate and transport in times of peril.

Exekias: Amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing dice, terracotta, Greek, ca. 540-530 B.C.

-Around 730 BC, a new vase-painting technique called black-figure developed in the Greek city of Corinth. This technique consists of black painted silhouette with the additional step incised detail executed before the vase was fired. This additional step allowed vase-painters to depict interior detail of figures, such as facial features, clothing, musculature, etc. as well as for the overlapping of figures, as they could be divided from one another through incised lines. Black-figure is further enhanced with the use of added colors of clay, predominantly a creamy white and a dark red/purple. -By 620 BC Athenian vase-painters had adopted the black-figure technique for painting vases and began creating masterpieces like the François Vase, soon putting Corinthian vase-painters out of business. -The greatest of Athenian black-figure vase-painters was Exekias, who was also greatly influential for his potting abilities, inventing a number of new vase shapes, including the shape of this vase, the Type A amphora. He was active between 540 and 520 BC. An amphora is a storage vessel, typically containing liquids, but also dry goods. -Exekias skimped on nothing and planned every detail, even down to the scrolls under his handles that are unparalleled for their finesse. The hallmark of his style is the near statuesque dignity of his figures. His work brings vase-painting to the level of a major art. -One day at Troy, Achilles and Ajax, two of the prime Greek heroes, became so absorbed in their board-game that they did not hear the alarm, and by the time they looked up, the Trojans were in the Greek camp. Their names are inscribed beside them and Exekias' signature is seen between them. It is believed that Exekias invented this scene, which was enthusiastically borrowed by other vase-painters for half a century, appearing on over 150 other extant Greek vases. -They play a game similar to backgammon, combining skill with chance. Dice have been thrown, and each figure "speaks" the number he has thrown in the form of an inscription emerging from their mouths. Four for Achilles and three for Ajax. Both heroes are armed and ready for duty, holding their spears and their shields nearby. -It is clear who the winner of the game will be- Achilles is taller and his seat is higher. The double line for Ajax's eyebrow emphasizes his concentration on the game and his bare head suggests vulnerability. His raised right heel increases the tension of his posture. He grips his spears so tightly that the end of one does not touch the ground. -The composition is dominated by a number of intersecting diagonal lines that create dramatic tension. For example, the outward pointing spears are paralleled by the leaning shields on the far right and left of the scene. Then there are the diagonal lines formed by the inward leaning bodies of the two heroes observing their game on the central block between them.

Knossos: Snake Goddess Figurine, faience, Minoan, ca. 1600 B.C.

-Because women play such a central and prominent role in Minoan religious imagery, there is great debate whether Minoan society might have been matriarchal rather than patriarchal. -Like the bull, the snake was a sacred animal in Minoan religion at an early date. It appears to have been a prominent symbol of chthonic cults, possibly the chthonic form of the Great Mother Goddess. Snakes have associations both with the dead and eternal life (shedding of the skin = rebirth) as well as medicine in later Greek thought and cult practices. -As this "snake goddess" figure does not appear on seals or in other contexts beyond the domestic realm, she is usually considered to be a household divinity. -There are no male equivalent to these figurines, also suggestive of a prominent female role in Minoan religious practices. -Her staring expression may indicate that she is to be understood in a drugged or intoxicated state, perhaps a manifestation of shamanistic activity. -She is dressed in typical Minoan female garments of a long, multi-tiered skirt, an apron-like piece, and a skin-tight jacket that is cut to expose the breasts. Female Minoan garments were not only heavy, being made of wool, they also prohibited a great deal of free movement. They also are very elaborate in their ornamentation. Men, on the other hand, are often shown in much less restrictive clothing and in outdoor settings. There appears to be a relationship between the genders like that of a queen bee and her drones- men are valued for the work they do while women are valued for being the source of life and for tending the hearth.

Philoxenos of Eretria: Battle of Issus, Greek, ca. 310 B.C., Roman mosaic copy from the House of the Faun at Pompeii, late 2nd-early 1st century B.C.

-Between 336 and 323 BC, Alexander the Great conquered the largest-known empire in the western world up to that point, which stretched from Greece to the Indus Valley. His success laid in his charisma that inspired the loyalty of his troops. He also appointed conquered peoples to governmental positions and forced his troops to intermarry with the local population of the lands they conquered. During his march through the Persian Empire he founded numerous cities (including the famous Alexandria of Egypt), which were to become the backbone of the eastern Hellenistic world. -Alexander's greatest military achievement was the conquest of Persia, which he saw as revenge for the Persian invasions of Greece nearly 150 years earlier. He fought a series of battles against the Persian king Darius III, and these conflicts are most vividly captured in a Roman mosaic floor found in the House of the Faun at Pompeii of the late 2nd or early 1st century BC that is believed to be a copy of a famous panel painting of Philoxenos of Eretria, executed around 310 BC for King Cassander, one of Alexander's successors. Other scholars, however, believe that it may copy a work by one of the few Greek female artists whose name is known: Helen of Egypt. -This is believed to represent the Battle of Issus, which took place in southeastern Turkey, and it is made with tiny cut pieces of stone and glass (tesserae) assembled together to form an image, much like pixels on a television or computer screen. -This picture is notable for the artist's technical mastery of problems that had long fascinated Greek painters, such as the three-quarter rear view of the horse below Darius, the subtle shading through varying colors, etc. Most impressive is the detail of the Persian to the right of the rearing horse who has fallen to the ground and raises a dropped Macedonian shield backwards shield to protect himself. Philoxenos records the reflection of the terrified man's face on the polished surface of the shield. -Everywhere through out the scene, men, animals, and weapons cast shadows on the ground. The interest of Greek painters in lighting effects such as shadows and reflections is far removed from the simple presentation of figures against a blank background as in red-figure vase-painting. The Greek painter here has truly opened a window into a world filled with figures, trees, sky, and light. This Classical Greek notion of what a painting should contain characterizes most of the history of art in the western world from the Renaissance onwards. -Particularly impressive is the psychological intensity of the unfolding the drama that the artist successfully conveys. Alexander is on horseback recklessly leading his army into battle without even a helmet to protect him, demonstrating his fearlessness. He drives a spear through one of Darius' trusted "Immortals" who were to guard the king's life, as he tirelessly tries to reach the Persian ruler. Alexander gazes only at the nearby Darius, not at the man whom he has just killed. Before he escapes, Darius looks back at Alexander and in a pathetic gesture reached out towards his brash foe. -Alexander died suddenly and very young in 323 BC at the age of 32. The only heirs he left behind was a half-witted half-brother and an infant son. With this vacuum in power, Alexander's generals quickly took control of his territory and divided it among themselves, carving out three main kingdoms: Macedonia, Egypt, and Syria. None of these generals were related to Alexander by blood, but they copied his portrait features in their own to give their reigns legitimacy. The death of Alexander marks the end of the Classical period in ancient Greece and the start of the Hellenistic age. During the course of the Hellenistic period, which lasted until 31 BC, the Greek world extended far beyond its traditional borders. Gradually the three original Hellenistic kingdoms were increasingly divided up and slowly succumbed to the growing power of Rome. While the art and architecture of each of these Hellenistic kingdoms developed in its own unique ways, the cosmopolitan nature of the Hellenistic world resulted in there being a linguistic and artistic koine (common language) that was rooted in the Greek tradition.

Gaul Committing Suicide with Dead Wife, Greek. Roman marble copy of original ca. 230-220 B.C.

-By the middle of the of the 3rd c. BC, the Gauls had become a grave menace to the newly-founded kingdom of Pergamon. They raided and plundered her territory, and they assisted her enemies at every opportunity. They were formidable, even savage, warriors, and it was often expedient to buy them off rather than do battle with them. When Attalos I became the ruler of Pergamon in 241 BC, he immediately abandoned the earlier policy of appeasement of the Gauls and began to meet them on the battlefield with astonishing success. -Attalos I commemorated these victories with a series of monuments. He saw himself as savior of the Hellenes and put the largest of these victory monuments in the middle of the Sanctuary of Athena on the citadel of Pergamon, which consisted of figures of defeated Gauls on a circular base. The original bronze statues are now lost, but Roman copies of several figures remain. -One of the features of Hellenistic sculpture is the depictions of new foreign peoples in the repertory of Greek art, which became a necessity as the borders of the Greek world expanded and Greeks came into closer contact with new peoples. Gauls are distinguished in Greek art by their longer, bushy hair (often appearing as if matted with clay), mustaches, and torques (neck bands) that they frequently wore. -The Gauls of the monument are all depicted as noble foes that fought fearlessly to the end. This might seem contrary to logic to depict an enemy in such a way, but by doing so, the Pergamenes in turn showed that they were even greater than these formidable opponents as they had defeated them in battle. -This piece is believed to have stood at the center of the Victory Monument of Attalos I at Pergamon, surrounded by other statues of Gauls lying on the ground. The matted, greased hair and the moustache identify the robust male figure as a Gaul. His status as a chieftain might indicated by his older age and cloak. Rather than yield to the enemy, whom he seems to sight over his right shoulder, he first kills his wife and then plunges the dagger into his own chest. Though blood gushes from his wound, he is passionately active. The wife sinks slowly to the ground away from the supporting hand of her husband- the only significant point of contact between them, which death will soon nullify. Mouth, head, arms, and drapery- everything about her droops. As in the best Lysippian tradition, the group can be fully appreciated only by walking around it. From one side, the observer sees the Gaul's intensely expressive face, from another his powerful torso, and from a third the woman's limp and almost lifeless body. -The man's twisting posture, the almost theatrical gestures, the emotional intensity of the suicidal act are hallmarks of the Pergamene baroque style and have close parallels on the later frieze of Zeus' altar.

Corfu: Temple of Artemis, marble, Greek, ca. 600-580 B.C.

-During the Archaic period, the Greeks also began building monumental structures of stone, again inspired by contact with the Egyptians. From the time of the 7th and 6th centuries BC onward, the aim in Greek architecture was always to "perfect" a type of building. The earliest of these types to be developed was the temple. The Greeks decorated their stone buildings with stone sculptures, executed in both relief (as seen here) and as three-dimensional figures. -This is the one of the earliest surviving examples of architectural sculpture placed in the pediment of a stone temple. The central group shows the Gorgon, Medusa, facing frontally with her body in the typical Archaic "running" pose. She is flanked by her offspring, which were born from the stump of her decapitated head after Perseus cut her head off- Pegasos and Chrysaor. To either side of this trio is a leopard, which is appropriate as both Medusa and Artemis are Mistresses of Animals, mythological figures with powers over the natural world. -This is example of compressed narrative, a common practice of Archaic artists. Technically, Pegasos and Chrysaor cannot be present if Medusa's head is still attached to her neck. The frontal head of Medusa (called the Gorgoneion) was considered to have an apotropaic property and thus would have kept evil away from the temple. It was a popular motif on early temples. Medusa may also have been intended to inspire fear and awe in the onlooker.

Niobid Painter: Artemis and Apollo slaying the Children of Niobe (Athenian red-figure calyx-krater), terracotta, Greek, ca. 460-450 B.C.

-During the mid 5th century, the start of the High Classical period, major innovations began in another artistic medium, that of large scale wall-painting by artists of Athens, who worked principally at Athens and Delphi. We have descriptions of their work, but no original piece survives. Their paintings were quite novel in composition, being major friezes with figures at least half life size and disposed up and down the frieze, which was itself one-and-a-half or two figures high. There was no question of perspective in these pictures and the upper figures were not smaller or deemed to be further away, or even less important. But this introduction of varied ground lines within the composition offered the possibility of cutting off some figures (as if behind rocks or a hill crest), and of introducing new relationships between figures and within groups, no longer bound to a single ground line. Their innovations opened a road which led on to shading, highlighting, and perspective, the qualities of European painting. - Influence is seen in contemporary vase-painting. From this point on, Greek vase-painting is no longer particularly experimental in and of itself, but rather seems to imitate other media, such as wall-painting and sculptural relief, which eventually led to an ultimate decline in quality. -The Niobid Painter was the first Greek vase-painter to attempt to depict his figures in a three-dimensional space by staggering his figures up and down across the field (rather than a singular ground line) and cutting some figures off to indicate that they are standing behind landscape elements. His name is unknown, but his modern name is derived from this particular vase which depicts Artemis and Apollo killing the children of Niobe (the Niobids) with their arrows. Niobe boasted of her fecundity and insulted Leto, the mother of the gods Apollo and Artemis, so Leto asked her children to slaughter the Niobids as punishment. The Niobids flee and fall in a rocky landscape, which the painter has constructed on a number of different levels. The various ground lines were originally indicated in added white which has drastically faded and thus is barely visible in photographs. -Below Apollo is a fallen Niobid, who is partly hidden by a rise in the ground on which his body rests. In front of him is another arrow, cut by the fold of the hill. This is most unusual. Since Apollo's arrows never miss their mark, this arrow must be understood as emerging from the body of an unseen Niobid behind the mound. The implied presence of a body that is not actually represented is a remarkable development that places the work of the Niobid Painter in a new era.

Athens, Acropolis: Kore in Ionian Dress, marble, Greek, ca. 520 B.C.

-Female counterparts to the kouroi are called korai (kore, singular). A "kore" is a young, unmarried woman, usually just on the cusp of womanhood. -These statues serve the same purposes as the kouroi, but fewer are demonstrably funerary. Most are dedications made to sanctuaries of female deities, and a great deal of the surviving examples stood on the Athenian Acropolis in honor of Athena. -The earliest are the Daedalic pieces, such as the Lady of Auxerre, but in the 6th century there is a greater interest in the patterning of the folds of drapery as well as the interaction of the female physique and the garments that covered it. Although the korai are always dressed, the interest in revealing the feminine curves beneath increases greatly with time, and soon the statues are posed in a manner that manipulates the drapery, grasping the skirt at the side of the body, causing it to be pulled tightly across the legs and buttocks, revealing the curves underneath the thin fabric (as seen on this statue). Until the late Classical period, "proper" women and goddesses were shown fully clothed. -Many of the korai from the second half of the sixth century BC, have one arm that extended forward, as seen on these two examples, which often has broken off and is now missing. From preserved examples, know that there was often a piece of fruit or bird held in the palm of the hand as a perpetual offering. -The korai with their elaborate hairstyles and elegant garments indicate that life for certain women was no longer centered around hard physical labor. They had time and energy to put towards caring for their physical appearance and creating beautiful clothing. It also demonstrates that youthful femininity is considered beautiful and praiseworthy, and ordinary women are now represented in the same manner as goddesses. Like the kouroi, they are a glorification of youth, which time and hardship has not matured and reflect a society where physical beauty is considered more important than physical strength or strength of character in women. This will change with the historical events of the coming decades.

Athens, Acropolis: Parthenon, designed by Kallikrates and Iktinos, marble, Greek, ca. 447-432 B.C.

-Just after 490 BC, work had begun on a new temple to the south of the Old Temple of Athena, which was to be constructed of Pentelic marble unlike the earlier temples of limestone. This temple was still under construction when the Persians sacked the Acropolis and much of what appears to have been standing at this time was destroyed. It is often referred to as the "Old Parthenon." It appears to have been intended to be a thank offering for the extraordinary Athenian victory against the Persians in 490 BC. After the Persian destruction of the Athenian Acropolis, pieces of the Old Temple of Athena and the Old Parthenon were eventually built into the north wall of the Acropolis. -When the Athenians returned home to ruins, there was a religious upsurgence and the Athenians were praised as being the saviors of Greece as they had risked and lost the most. The Athenians wished to continue persecuting the Persians for the war, and in 477 BC, they established the Delian League, based on the island of Delos, to carry on the war with Persia and to protect the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Each member state of the league either paid money (highly encouraged by the Athenians) or ships to the cause, and Athenians used it to create an empire. Perikles, the leading Athenian statesman of the mid 5th century BC, envisioned a massive reconstruction of the Athenian Acropolis as well as the rebuilding of other sanctuaries in and around Athens, which had been essentially left in ruins for decades. His plan was essentially to act as a stimulus plan to create jobs and economic growth in Athens, and he persuaded the Athenian populous to vote for using a portion of the funds of the Delian League, a highly controversial move at the time, for this purpose. -The first major Periklean building project on the Athenian Acropolis was not to build a structure to house the ancient cult statue of Athena, but rather was the expansion and completion of the Parthenon, the thank-offering of 490 BC. Thanks to the substantial inscriptions recording the work on the building (public works were recorded on marble stelai for all of the citizens to read), we know exactly when the Parthenon was constructed: between 447 and 432 BC. The architects were Iktinos (who wrote a treatise on it, now lost) and Kallikrates. -The Parthenon is the result of seeking aesthetic perfection through the consistent application of mathematical formulae. For the Parthenon, the controlling ratio for the symmetria of the parts may be expressed algebraically as x = 2y+1. The temple's short ends have 8 columns and the long sides have 17 because 17 = (2 x 8) +1 . The stylobate's ratio of length to width is 9:4 because 9 = (2 x 4) +1. This ratio also characterizes the cella's proportion of length to width, the distance between the centers of two adjacent column drums (the interaxial) in proportion to the column's diameter, and so forth. -During the Middle Ages, the Parthenon was converted into a church, first a Byzantine Orthodox one and then a Catholic Church. When the Turks conquered Greece, it was turned into a mosque and then an ammunition depot. In 1687, the Venetians besieged the Acropolis and a cannonball flew into the Parthenon, igniting the gunpowder in it and blowing out much of the building's center. Between 1801 and 1803, Lord Elgin removed much of the building's sculpture and brought them to England, where they now reside in the British Museum, much to the chagrin of the Greeks. The building is now threatened by acid rain and other pollution. -The construction of the Parthenon utilizes a number of architectural refinements that seem to have been intended to correct possible optical illusions. Some, such as the inclination, exaggerate the perspective and make the building seem higher and grander than it is. There may be a desire on the part of the architect to set up an internal aesthetic tension in the viewer between what he or she expects to see and what is actually there. The total effect is a building which flows, freeing the Parthenon from the static quality inherent in Doric architecture. It also means that each block and column drum had to be especially carved based on its unique place within the structure, an obviously daunting task when drawing up building plans. -There are, in fact, no straight lines in the building. Some of the refinements are fairly clear, even to the naked eye. The stepped platform on which the columns rest is not horizontal. The steps bow up in the middle and are lower at the ends (curvature of the stylobate). The column shafts taper upward on a curved rather than a straight line, swelling slightly in the center, a practice called entasis. The columns are not vertical- they all incline inward, leading slightly towards the center of the building. If their lines continued, they would meet about 1.5 miles above the building. -There are many elements that make the Parthenon an extraordinary building in the Greek world, none more so than the fact that it contained more sculpture than any other temple structure in the Greek world: acroteria (floral), 92 carved metopes, three-dimensional figural sculpture in both pediments, an Ionic frieze that wrapped around the entire exterior of the cella, and a massive gold and ivory (chryselephantine) statue inside the cella.

Lysippos: Scraper, marble, Greek, Roman copy of a bronze original of ca. 330 B.C.

-Lysippos was another great Late Classical sculptor, active between the 360s and 310 BC, who won such renown that Alexander the Great selected him to create his official portrait. Lysippos introduced a new canon of proportions in which the bodies were more slender than those of Polykleitos, whose own canon continued to exert enormous influence, even over 100 years later. Under Lysippos, the heads are roughly 1/8 the height of the body rather than 1/7 as in the 5th century BC. -One of Lysippos' major innovations was to break down the dominance of the frontal view in Greek statuary, thereby encouraging the observer to look at his works from multiple angles to understand the full meaning of the work, which is illustrated in his Apoxymenos (an athlete scraping oil from his body after exercising). -The athlete extends his right arm forward while he uses his left hand to run a strigil (scraper) along it. At any moment the figure will switch arms and thus at the same time shift his weight, reversing the positions of his legs. This eminent motion gives the statue a sense of nervous energy. The extended arm slightly blocks the observer's view from the front and invades the viewer's space, thereby forcing him or her to view the statue at a three-quarter angle or in full-profile in order to see the strigil and thus understand what action the figure is engaged in.

Knossos: Bull Leaping Fresco, pigment on plaster, Minoan, ca. 1500-1450 B.C.

-Many of the walls of the Minoan palace at Knossos were decorated with brightly colored frescoes depicting scenes of daily life and the natural world. Such wall-paintings are found in other areas of the Mediterranean. It is clear that Minoan painters travelled over large distances and were commissioned to execute paintings in palaces as well as upper middle class homes. -Bulls seem to have been a particularly sacred animal to the Minoans, appearing frequently in their art. They were the ultimate luxury good to be dedicated to the gods and sacrificed in their honor. This is a tradition that would continue into later Greek cult practices. The prevalence of bulls in Minoan religious life and the practice of bull-leaping are perhaps the basis for the later Greek myth of the Minotaur, the half-human, half-bull monster that supposedly lived in the labryinth at Knossos, which was killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. -Bulls are often depicted alone or in bull-leaping scenes, seen here, both in wall-paintings and on gold signet rings. -The ritual, which may have taken place in the large central courtyards of the Minoan palaces on Crete, consists of an acrobatic leap over the bull. This is done by grabbing the bull's horns and somersaulting over the bull's back with the help of the momentum of the bull's jerking its head backwards. -It is thought that the differing skin tones may indicate gender. This is a convention borrowed from Egypt where men are given reddish skin to indicate their suntanned skin from working outdoors. Woman are given white flesh as they stay indoors and tend to household duties.

Polykleitos: Spear Bearer, Greek, Roman copy of Greek bronze original of ca. 450 B.C.

-Most of the Classical Greek statues that exist today are in fact marble copies that were produced, sometimes in mass numbers, during the Roman era. Wealthy Romans frequently used copies of famous Greek bronze works to decorate their homes and gardens, and replicas of Greek sculptures were also used to decorate public areas and buildings. We can easily identify marble copies of bronze originals by the use of supporting elements such as tree-trunks, etc. as well as struts to support appendages, both of which would have been unnecessary in the originals. -This figure is named for the spear that he once carried and rested against his shoulder. This sculpture is believed to have been the statue created by Polykleitos of Argos to illustrate his Canon, his treatise on the art of ideal sculpture. This treatise has been lost, but summaries of its ideas remain in later works, such as writings of Galen (2nd c. AD) and Pliny the Elder (1st c. AD). Polykleitos, likely influenced by the teachings of the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras of Samos, wrote his text on the premise that perfect sculpture could be created through the use of ideal proportions between the various parts of the body (symmetria), so they would harmoniously relate to each other. The belief that artistic perfection was achieved through numerical harmony dates back to the Geometric period and also influenced music and architecture. Polykleitos' proportional system was dynamic, but flexible enough to accommodate depictions other than nude males, including females and figures young and old. -He carries further the stance of Early Classical males (e.g. the Kritios Boy, but here the loose leg trails even more, with the foot turning and barely resting on the ground, the straight but limp arm on the side of the straight but taught leg. There is clear implication of movement forward although the figure is in balance. This is a radical difference from earlier works, which also adopt this relaxed stance, but were clearly standing still. Here the figure is walking- he has come to rest on his right foot and is on the point of lifting the left. This is a timeless crystallization of movement. -Here we have a visible harmony of counterbalancing forces achieved by arranging the parts of the body in a chiastic scheme-the term is derived from the Greek letter chi (χ). The straight, weight-bearing right leg is balanced by the bent, weight-bearing (the spear) left arm; the free but flexed left leg is balanced by the free but straight arm; the raised knee opposes the lowered left hip and vice versa; the head turns to the right while the torso and hips are twisted slightly to the left.

The New York Kouros, marble, Greek, ca. 600-590 B.C.

-Not only were statues of standing women created of stone starting in the 7th century BC, but also those of nude men. These statues of nude young men produced during the Orientalizing and Archaic periods were called kouroi (singular: kouros). They mark the beginnings of a main sculptural type that pervaded until the end of ancient Greek art: the nude male youth. -Note the schematic representation of musculature and bone, often incised into the stone rather than rendered three-dimensionally. Other physical features are transformed into regularized patterns of geometric derivation such as the hair and the volute ears. Individually these patterns of human anatomy transformed into pattern are unnaturalistic, but together they clearly depict a human figure. -The kouros stands upright with straight or lightly flexed arms at the sides. The fists are clenched and one foot is advanced in front of the other. There is frequently a faint smile on the lips, the so-called "Archaic smile." -Although the pose imitates walking, it is in fact quite static, providing little sense of movement with the weight predominantly on the back leg. However, the legs apart do give great stability to the piece. -They served either as dedications to sanctuaries (usually male deities), where they would be permanent and silent servants to the god, or served as grave markers. In the latter use, they were not to serve as portraits of the deceased, but rather to summon up the remembrance of the youth and vigor or the dead. -Such a statue would be a very prestigious object, taking a craftsman a year to produce a single one. Thus, they quickly became associated with the concept that one's external beauty was a reflection of one's inner character and nobility. -It is clear to see the Greeks' direct borrowings from Egyptian statues of standing males, but there are some very significant differences, and this true of all Greek art. The Greeks did not include the extra supporting plinths behind the statue and between its legs. -However, the largest difference Egyptian statues and early Greek marble male statues is that the Greek kouroi are nude. Greek athletes competed in the nude, and perhaps it was chosen to represent men in this manner as a representation of prime physical prowess. Thus heroes and gods are represented in nude form, and it is in a sense a type of costume intended to make particular men stand out, giving him an elevated status. However, with the exception of athletics, Greek males would have been dressed.

The Delphi Charioteer, bronze, Greek, ca. 475 B.C.

-One of the major innovations in Greek sculpture of the early Classical period was the bronze statues that were life-sized (and larger!) using a method of hollow casting known as the lost-wax method. This means of producing bronze sculptures required less metal as well as created an object that was lighter and easier to transport than a solid-cast piece. Pieces could also be cast separately and then soldered together. Bronze quickly became the preferred medium for sculpture in Classical Greece. Its appeal was multifold: 1) Bronze is more versatile than marble as it can hold its shape, no matter how complex, allowing sculptors to more easily experiment with less rigid poses. 2) Bronze is a stronger, lighter medium that alleviates the problem of statues toppling over or cracking from internal stress as leaden weights could be placed inside the hollow feet. 3) The luminosity of newly cast bronze is breathtaking. -Because bronze is material that is melted down so easily, most Classical bronze statues have been lost. Those that survive are only due to extraordinary circumstances, such as sinking in a shipwreck, etc. This particular statue was damaged in a rock fall in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and was intentionally buried in antiquity. It is made of seven parts, each cast separately, as was typical: skirt, upper torso, limbs (one can see where the lost left arm was attached), and the side curls were made separately from the head. The right hand held the reins, parts of which survive. He may have held a goad in his left hand. -He was part of a larger sculptural group consisting of a horse-drawn chariot, charioteer, and perhaps also a groom. Parts of the chariot, horses' legs and tails have also been found. The young man wears the approved dress for charioteers (a windy sport)- a long chiton with shoulder cords to stop the dress billowing. The fillet tied around the head is the indication of his victorious status. -Although this young man has won a major athletic event, he shows great self-restraint and modesty. This serious, aristocratic, taut self-control was considered to be ideal behavior by the Greeks, and this type of expression is a hallmark of Classical Greek art. -The translucency of the stone and glass used for the chestnut brown eyes endows the figure with a spiritual vitality and intensity that could never have been achieved by casting the eyes in bronze along with the rest of the head. Adding to the liveliness of the effect are lashes made of fringed copper no thicker than a sheet. Since they frame the eyes and have been set into the head with them, the lashes appear actually to grow from the lids. -However, although the charioteer stands perfectly erect, the axis of his body actually spirals. The head turns almost 30 degrees to the right from the front plane of the body while the left foot points leftward in a subtle countertwist to the direction of the head and its glance. Note how the sculptor observed the way the bulk of the figure's torso lifted the hem of the skirt very slightly both fore and aft, thereby giving an organic, springing quality to material that would otherwise have appeared heavy and inert. -This choice of moment, after not during the competition, is distinctive of the Severe style, which usually chooses to portray anticipation or aftermath, rather than the action itself.

Nike of Samothrace, marble, Greek, ca. 190 B.C.

-One of the masterpieces of Hellenistic baroque sculpture, Nike (Victory) has just alighted on the prow of a Greek warship. Her missing right arm was once raised to crown the naval victor. Full of dynamic energy, her wings still beat, and the wind sweeps her drapery. Her himation bunches in thick folds around her right leg, and her chiton is plastered across her abdomen and left leg. She is made of white Parian marble while for the ship a darker grey marble was chosen. -The statue's setting amplified its theatrical effect. The war galley on which she stands rested in the upper basin of a two-tiered fountain, in the lower tier of which were large boulders. The fountain's flowing water created the illusion of crashing waves against the prow of the ship. The sunlight sparkling off of the water accentuated the statue's sense of lightness and movement. The sounds of splashing water would have added an aural dimension to the visual drama. -The monument stood on the top of a high bluff that overlooks the Sanctuary of the Great Gods of Samothrace, and the goddess once originally faced out to sea. The wind-caught drapery not only enhances the figure's movement, but accurately reflects the direction of the winds at the point where the statue originally stood. -It is uncertain which naval victory this monument commemorates or who dedicated it to the sanctuary. However, is a far cry from the Polykleitan concept of a statue as a ideally proportioned, self-contained entity on a simple pedestal. It is a typical Hellenistic work that interacts with its environment and appears as a breathing, intensively emotive presence.

Pergamon, Altar of Zeus: Athena battling Alkyoneos (detail of frieze), marble, Greek, ca. 175 B.C.

-Pergamon, which emerged in the early 3rd century BC, was one of the wealthiest of the Hellenistic kingdoms, and its kings expended a great deal of money in embellishing its capital city, particularly the acropolis. The kingdom controlled most of western and southern Asia Minor and was bequeathed to Rome after the death of its last king, Attalos III. -One of the most prominent structures on Pergamon's acropolis was this massive altar, which contains the most famous Hellenistic sculptural ensemble- a 7.5 foot tall sculpted frieze that ran almost 400 feet around the altar platform. The frieze, which contains about 100 larger than life-sized figures as well as animals, depicts the battle between the Olympian gods (led by Zeus) and the giants for the control of the world. Likely the gigantomachy on the Altar of Zeus alluded to the Pergamene success in turning back an invasion of Gauls during the 230s BC during the reign of Attalos I. Images of the Gigantomachy were similarly used on the Parthenon as a mythological parallel to the Persian Wars. The selection of this motif by the Attalids was intentional as it would link their victories with that of Classical Athens. -The Giants were the sons of Ge (Earth) who had been accidentally fertilized by Ouranos when Kronos castrated him. They were an older generation of malformed, beast-like and philistine primordials, who sought to oust the ruling gods. These Olympians, on the other hand, were fully anthropromorphic, cultural beings- the gods of the Greeks. Told that victory would be theirs only with mortal help, the gods recruited Herakles. The struggle and victory of the Olympians was a basic aetiology for the Greek order of things and would be widely understood as an implicit allegory of any historical defense of that order. -The implication of an elaborately planned program is born out by the inscriptions. Every god and Giant in the frieze had a name. The gods' names were inscribed on the cornice above in large letters and the names of the Giants below. Families (parents and children) are grouped together in family units as detailed by Homer and Hesiod. In general, the opponents of the giants are: on the east, Olympian gods, on the west, land and sea divinities, on the south, gods of light, and on the north gods of rivers and springs. Also, gods of the Underworld are on the north side where the sun never falls while those of the Morning, Day, and Evening on the south, facing their own progress across the sky. -The frieze is an excellent example of High Hellenistic sculpture, which is often described as "baroque," because of its similarities to 17th century AD counterparts. It is characterized by perpetual and contrasting movement, rich effects of light and shade, and extensive expression of emotion. On the Altar of Zeus, the Gigantomachy is depicted with unprecedented intensity and fury. The figures' anatomy is knotted and exaggerated, they thrust ahead or retreat and die in diagonal patterns which collide or overlap. All of the figures are substantial and muscular and project in very high relief (sometimes even spilling out onto the stairs!). -In this excerpt of the frieze, Athena, now unfortunately faceless, wears a helmet and is recognizable from her aegis bearing the head of a Medusa on her chest. Her dress is a Doric peplos, and she carries a shield on her left arm. Assisted by the bites and wrenches of her faithful snake, she endeavors to drain all life from the double-winged giant Alkyoneos by lifting him off the ground by his hair, which is the source of his strength. His mother, Ge, deeply distraught at the fate of her son, raises arms and head in despair and entreaty. But she is helpless, still buried up to her waist in her earthly domain whose fruits- grapes, pinecones, apples, and pomegranates- appear above her left hand. Alkyoneos reaches out to her left arm in order to keep contact with her. Athena's moment of triumph soon approaches indicated by the arrival of a winged Nike flying towards her with a crown.

Abu Simbel: Temple of Ramses II, sandstone, Egyptian, New Kingdom (19th Dynasty), ca. 1290-1224 B.C.

-Ramses II was Egypt's last great warrior pharaoh, and he ruled for over 30 years, an extraordinary accomplishment given the life expectancies at that time. -This temple is cut into the rock near the Nubian border. With this temple, the king marked his claim to the land of Kush in Lower Nubia, which was the source for precious resources of gold, ivory, and animal pelts. -It had to be moved because the Aswan dam was going to flood its original location, so in 1968 the structure was shifted up 700 feet to higher ground. -The temple continues behind the dramatic facade with its four enormous statues of the seated pharaoh (each about 65 feet tall, about 12 times life-size). Next to the legs of the colossi are other statues no higher than the knees of the pharaoh. They represent his chief wife, Nefertari, and queen-mother Mut-Tuy, his first two sons and his first six daughters. The size of these sculptures is a typical example of the colossal scale and opulence that characterizes the construction projects of New Kingdom pharaohs. Above the doorway, a niche holds a statue of the sun-god, Ra-Horakhty, who is shown as a falcon-headed figure crowned by a sun-disc. -Flanking this three-dimensional figure are images in relief of Ramses, which extend images of Ma'at to the god. The image demonstrates the king's role as keeper of terrestrial order at the request of the gods. -At the top is a row of baboons, an animal sacred to the god Thoth, who raise their hands to worship the sun. The rock-cut interior is also of colossal size, extending back 206 feet. In the main gallery there are 32 foot tall figures of Osiris. On February 22nd and October 22nd each yet, the rays of the sun penetrate the sanctuary of the temple and illuminate the sculptures on the back wall with the exception of Ptah, the god connected with the underworld, who always remained in the dark. It is thought that the original temple was designed for this phenomenon to occur and may have marked major days in Ramses' life, such as his birthday or coronation day, and the temple may have been commissioned in connection to the jubilee celebrating the 30th year of the pharaoh's rule. The intent of this phenomenon was probably to enhance and revitalize the king with the energy of the sun on a semi-annual

Olympia: Temple of Zeus- Athena, Herakles, and Atlas with the Apples of the Hesperides Metope, marble, Greek, ca. 470-456 B.C.

-Sculptural decoration on Greek temples were the most expensive part of a building's construction and thus its subject matter was chosen with great care, often relating to the divinity worshipped within the temple or mythological stories with connections to the sanctuary itself. We saw this in the east pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and it is true for the 12 carved metopes that were placed over the entrance to the building on both porches (6 on each side). -Each metope represents a labor undertaken by Herakles and may have influenced the canonization of the "Twelve Labors" and the tasks included within them. Each metope celebrates the human ability to conquer seemingly impossible challenges, usually requiring great physical strength, which might allude to the Olympic Games, which Herakles was said to have founded. Herakles is also a son of Zeus, and most of these labors took place in the Peloponnese, one in fact at Olympia itself. Herakles undertook these labors while serving Eurystheus, king of Argos, for twelve years by the command of the Delphic oracle to serve as punishment for the murder of his wife and children. -Herakles was charged with getting golden apples of immortality from the tree of life which grew in the garden of the Hesperides, at the far West of the world. The garden was guarded by a golden dragon, and only Atlas, who stood in the west supporting the heavens knew where the garden was located. In the version depicted on this metope, Herakles has persuaded Atlas to get the apples for him, offering to carry the burden of the sky while he does so. Atlas agrees and does so, but when he returns and sees Herakles trapped, he has the inspiration to leave him there for good. Herakles, realizing that he was trapped, concedes to Atlas that he will carry the heavens for the eternities, but asks Atlas to hold the sky for just a moment, while Herakles adjusts a cushion on his neck to help support the weight. As soon as Atlas has took the burden, Herakles quickly made his get-away. -Athena, Herakles, and Atlas appear side by side as Atlas returns with the apples in his outstretched hands and Herakles prepares to hand the weight of the sky back to Atlas, who looks rather reluctant to do so. Herakles tenses his muscles and forces back his shoulders to maintain the balance. Note the cushion provided to Herakles to not only distribute the weight, but also to give Herakles the extra height he needs for the task- Atlas is a giant after all! Herakles is now clearly older and the years of toil have worn on him, but his courage is undimmed, and there seems to be a glimmer of a triumphant smile in the set teeth. Athena appears with her spear, but no other armor, and is rather distant in her support (which for her is effortless). She almost appears to be unseen by Herakles. -This is an excellent example of how the sculptor cleverly used the architectural framework around the metope to enhance the scene. It appears that Herakles (with the help of Athena) is shouldering the burden of the sky in the form of the entire roof above him. -In both attitude and dress (the simple Doric peplos for Athena, etc.), all the Olympia figures, both in the metopes and the pediments, display a seriousness and severity that contrasts sharply with the smiling and elaborately clad figures of the Late Archaic period. Thus, many art historians refer to early Classical sculpture as the Severe Style.

Hirschfeld Workshop: Geometric krater, terracotta, Greek, ca. 740 B.C.

-The Geometric period of Greek art covers the years between 900 and 700 BC and is called such because of the predominance of geometric motifs on pottery, its most prolific surviving cultural output. The basic evolution of Geometric pottery involves the spread of the decoration from a narrow band of decoration concentrated on either the shoulder or neck of the vase (with the rest of the vase covered in lustrous black glaze) to eventually covering the entire surface of the vase. Vase decoration is carefully done so as to enhance the inherent vitality of the potter's work- the shape of the vase is of equal or more importance than its decoration. -During the Geometric period, the Greeks were still relatively impoverished after the collapse of Mycenaean civilization between 1200-1100 BC. Since there was little money to invest in monumental architecture and work in precious metals, the potter and vase-painter found themselves as the aesthetic taste setters of the period. -It is during the Geometric period that we begin to see evidence of the foundation of the polis and the amassing of wealth and prestige of certain individuals in their grave goods as well as their graves being given monumental markers. However, the Greeks were much more conservative in their expenditure on grave goods after the trauma of the "dark ages." The elite of emerging cities, like Athens, began to seek out a new way to mark their burials in a manner that would look impressive, but would also be a financially reasonable expense, keeping goods like metal ware still accessible for the living. In the city of Athens, the elite began to commission the production of monumental vases, reaching up to five feet in height and decorated with geometric patterns, to stand on top of their graves. -The vases could receive libations from mourners with their hollow bases. The offerings would then directly entered the ground below which contained the remains of the deceased. -Such monumental grave marker vases were decorated with some of the first figural scenes in Greek art in over 300 years. The subjects of these figural scenes, in which the human figures are represented as silhouettes, reflects the function of these vases as funerary objects. The most standard type of imagery is the prothesis scene, the first stage of the ancient Greek funeral in which the body was prepared for burial, laid on a funerary bier, and mourned by family and friends, similar to a modern-day wake. A prothesis scene appears in the upper figural register on this vase. The deceased is flanked by mourners and at his feet sits his wife with a child in her lap. Two additional children stand on the funerary bier. -The figures are carefully painted such that the action of the figures is clearly recognizable, and the scene is composed such that none of the figures overlap, which is important when rendering objects only in silhouette, so as not to muddle the clarity of the figures. Even the deceased nobleman is completely visible; the checkered burial shroud, which in reality would have covered him, is apparently held above and it is cut back as not to muddle his outline. -There seems to be a correspondence between the shape of the vase, its imagery, and the sex of the deceased. Kraters, which normally were mixing bowls for wine and water used by men at drinking parties known as symposia, were made for male burials, while the amphora (storage jar) was the shape selected for female burials and likely references women's role as caretakers of the home as well as a metaphor of the female body as a container that produces life. The deceased on the amphorae are shown as dressed and there are no scenes of war. On the other hand, the figure on the funeral bier on a monumental funerary krater is nude and below the prothesis scene is a frieze with military imagery, usually a procession of warriors and chariots, as seen on this vase.

Athens, Parthenon: Detail of horsemen from the north frieze, marble, Greek, ca. 447-438 B.C.

-The Parthenon Frieze, which runs for a total of nearly 525 feet, is located on the upper part of the external wall of the cella. It is roughly three feet and six inches in height. This is the most unusual and best-preserved part of the structure's architectural sculpture. The comparatively sheltered position and rather low relief combined to keep much of it in good state. This is not the only Attic temple of this period where an Ionic frieze replaces the typical Doric frieze above the inner porches, but only where it is carried down the long sides and seems to have a unified theme throughout. The style is so consistent that it appears to have been designed by a single individual. -The inclusion of an Ionic style frieze in this Doric building may reflect the Athenians' belief that the Ionians of the Aegean Island and Asia Minor were descended from Athenian settlers and were therefore their kin. Or perhaps it was Perikles' way of suggesting that Athens was the leader of all Greeks. The frieze was originally brightly colored and richly provided with metal accessories, now lost. Paint may have also defined objects that were not carved in. -Scholars still debate the fine details of the frieze's subject, but most agree that it represents the Panathenaic Festival procession that took place every four years in Athens in mid July to commemorate Athena's birthday. If this interpretation is correct, the Athenians judged themselves worthy for inclusion in the temple's decoration, which is an extraordinary inclusion of mortal, non-mythological figures in architectural sculpture. This is a complete rejection of iconographic tradition. The procession began at the Dipylon Gate, passed through the Agora (marketplace and political center of Athens), and ended on the Acropolis, where the Athenians placed a new garment (peplos) on the ancient wooden cult statue of Athena, which likely generally resembled the Lady of Auxerre in style. -The procession runs in two streams along the building which converse at the east. Commencing at the southwest corner, above the southernmost column of the west porch, the procession moves in two directions: (1) the longer file moves northward along the west face and then eastward along the north cella wall before turning the northeast corner over the east porch, and (2) the shorter file moves eastward along the south side until turning the corner and progressing northward. The two never actually meet, but there is contact between them on the east. -Much of the frieze consists of men riding on horseback as well as on chariots. It begins with youths and marshals gathering and mounting their charges. On the north and south sides, the momentum picks up as the cavalcade moves from the lower town to the Acropolis. -These horsemen represent the newly expanded Athenian cavalry of the period, but also represents the Athenian citizen body as consisting of idealized young aristocrats (i.e. those who could afford to raise and stable horses), thereby demonstrating the city's military and financial might. -It is interesting how individual sculptors treat the manes of the horses differently and we also see subtle difference in the way each rider handles his horse such as in the arrangement of the fingers holding the reins and the horsemen are grouped together into units with distinctive forms of dress, perhaps symbolizing tribes or other units within the city's government. Note how the horsemen ride without saddle or stirrups. -John Boardman tallied the number of horsemen and chariot riders and came up with the number 192- the same number of Athenian men who died at the Battle of Marathon. Was this perhaps deliberate by the designers? These men would have participated in the Panathenaic Procession that took place only weeks before this pivotal battle, which was the impetus for the original construction of the Parthenon.

Delphi, Siphnian Treasury: Battle between the Gods and the Giants frieze (detail), marble, Greek, ca. 530-525 B.C.

-The Siphnian Treasury is one of the most important Ionic buildings in all of Greek art history. A treasury is a small, one-room, temple-like structure was dedicated by city-states to sanctuaries such as Delphi and Olympia as rich tokens of thanksgiving as well as displays of ostentatious piety. Treasuries were intended to hold precious offerings and as such were essentially extenuations of a temple. Because of their miniature scale, they gave more opportunity for elaborate decoration that could not be afforded in the case of a larger temple. The Siphnian Treasury, like the other treasuries at Delphi, was placed along the Sacred Way up to the Temple of Apollo. -This is the only example of an Ionic building on mainland Greece that is known in its virtual entirety. The island state of Siphnos struck it rich in her gold and silver mines and the treasury was a tithe for its new wealth. However, these mines were flooded and destroyed by people from the island of Samos in 525 BC, meaning that this building is one of the few works of Greek art that can be firmly historically attested- it was finished by around 525 BC, when the money ran out. It is also the first building built entirely of marble on mainland Greece. The figures on this structure are stylistically very similar to those that appear on the earliest red-figure vases painted by the Andokides Painter, and it is thanks to this building that we can date the beginning of this new vase-painting technique with relative accuracy. -Its Ionic frieze was carved on all four sides- a different story on each side. Originally the frieze was brightly colored with additional elements, such as the missing chariot wheel in the portion of the frieze depicted here, made of metal. It was common for both stone buildings and sculpture to be vividly painted in ancient Greece. It depicts the great battle between the gods of Greek pantheon against the Giants who wished to overthrow their control of the world. In this frieze, the two sides clash with one another, the gods moving from the left to the right, the traditional direction that a victorious side moves in Greek art, and the Giants moving from right to left. -The gods are shown dressed in their typical attributes while the Giants are armed as contemporary Greek soldiers with round shields, helmets, and spears. The figures tend to overlap and interlock in a composition that leads the eye from one end to the other without a break, ever enticed forward by the constant flow of information in the form of both inscriptions and intricate detailing. The artist has taken advantage of the uninterrupted field as well as the passer-by's own movement to involve the viewer in the dynamic activity that is shown (as the viewer walks up to the temple, they follow the same directions as the gods and goddesses pressing forward against the Giants). -Standing in the chariot is Themis, or "law of nature," who is the embodiment of divine order, law, and custom. When she is disregarded, Nemesis brings just and wrathful retribution. Behind her chariot is Dionysos, about to throw a spear long distance. The lions that draw her chariot attack a Giant who is given a very innovative head in three-quarter profile. In front of the chariot, Apollo and Artemis advance on a group of giants.

Athens, Parthenon: Folding of the peplos from the east frieze, marble, Greek, ca. 447-438 B.C.

-The climax of the frieze, placed over the entrance of the cella of the Parthenon, refers to the giving of a new peplos to the cult statue of Athena as the goddess' "birthday present." Here, the chief priest and priestess, assisted by younger girls who likely took part in the weaving of these sacred garments as well as other cult rituals on the Acropolis in honor of Athena, fold up the old peplos, signifying a successful completion of the festivities. -This scene is flanked on either side by the gods and goddesses of Mount Olympus, seated on stools, who observe the happenings in Athens. This blending of mortal and divine worlds in such close proximity elevates the people of Athens to semi-divine status themselves, and the frieze is a clear political statement of the Athenians' opinion of their status and importance in the larger Mediterranean world. Strangely, almost all of the gods face away from the main central scene. However, if we imagine the gods acknowledging the processions and witnessing the peplos ceremony as they surely must, then what is probably happening is that the gods are to be understood as seated in a semicircle in which the peplos ceremony takes place and the processions arriving in two streams at the two ends of the arc of seated gods.

Praxiteles:Aphrodite of Knidos, marble, Greek, Roman copy of and original of ca. 350-340 B.C.

-The fourth century BC was a time of political upheaval in Greece, and the chaos had a profound impact on the psyche of the Greeks and on the arts they produced. In the 5th century BC, the Greeks had generally believed that rational human beings could impose order on their environment, create "perfect" statues such as the Canon of Polykleitos, and discover the "correct" mathematical formulae for constructing temples such as the Parthenon. The Peloponnesian War and the unceasing strife of the 4th century BC brought to an end the serene idealism of the previous century. Disillusionment and alienation followed. Greek thought and art began to focus more on the individual and on the real world of appearances rather than on the community and the ideal world of perfect beings and buildings. -Praxiteles, active between ca. 375 and 335 BC, was one of the best known of all Classical sculptors. He was the first sculptor achieve fame for his marble statues, rather than the generally more acclaimed bronzes. His major contribution was the introduction of the female nude as a sculptural type, eschewing the essential masculinity of physique of most earlier attempts, imparting a true femininity in body and posture. The female nude, before Praxiteles' sculpture, was used only as a religious (fertility) motif, for pathetic appeal, or on vases to depict the life of a courtesan in Greek art. It certainly was not used as an "art form" or for exploiting the sensual characteristics of the female body in the way the vigorous characteristics of the male body were emphasized. -Praxiteles' figures are characterized by their S-curve posture. -Around 350 BC, the people of Knidos on the coast of Asia Minor decided to build a new shrine to Aphrodite. They hired Praxiteles to create the cult statue for the temple. Around the same time, the people of Kos also asked Praxiteles to create a statue of Aphrodite for them as well. Praxiteles made two statues of Aphrodite, one nude and one clothed, and Kos was allowed the first choice. They opted for the clothed figure that was promptly forgotten, while Knidos took the shocking nude. The shrine that the Knidian Aphrodite stood in (according to Pliny) was a round, open structure which allowed one to view the statue from all angles. -Her right hand moves to cover her belly, her left holds some item of dress over a water jar, which is furniture for the bath. The question is whether she is undressing or dressing. She clearly is aware of a viewer as she moves to conceal herself. This scenario of Aphrodite bathing and being surprised while in an undressed state provided a semi-narrative excuse for what was aesthetically a profound innovation. -The nudity of the statue is probably not what made this statue so controversial- earlier sculptors had shown drapery clinging so close to female modes as to leave little to the imagination. What sets the Aphrodite apart from earlier displays of erotic charm is the way in which it set the viewer up. The viewer can change their position of viewing and with it their place in the narrative. They can move to the right to meet the goddess' gaze and uncover her genitals, become the unexpected guest or the goddess' desired lover. They can move all around the statue and allow themselves to be tempted into other narratives, viewing others as seen by the goddess, or themselves embracing the goddess unseen from behind. Ancient stories of viewer's reactions to the Knidian Aphrodite reveal that this is precisely what they did. A number of ancient writes records stories about young men falling in love with the statue and even attempting to copulate it. -The statue may have even been more famous because of the rumor that Praxiteles modeled his depiction of Aphrodite after his mistress. -During the 4th century BC, the Greeks craved closeness with the divine, and in Praxiteles' sculpture the Olympian gods and goddesses retained their superhuman beauty, but they lost their solemn grandeur and took on a worldly sensuousness. They react clearly to their human viewers and engage with them. -The original statue, although marble, does not survive, but many copies were made and soon other variations on the theme were made, where the concealing motif is made more explicit by her attempt to cover both belly and breasts.

Mycenae: Funerary Mask from Grave Circle A (Mask of Agamemnon), gold, Mycenaean, ca. 1600-1500 B.C.

-The grave goods buried in the shaft graves within Grave Circles A and B at Mycenae are some of the earliest evidence we have of Mycenaean civilization, the main Bronze Age culture of mainland Greece. When discovering this mask, Schliemann recorded in his journal, "Today I have gazed at the face of Agamemnon." Agamemnon was a mythological king of Mycenae, who ruled during the Trojan War and was the leader of the Greek force against the Trojans, which is recorded in the Homeric epics. Unfortunately, Schliemann did not realize that his discoveries were centuries older than the Trojan War, if it indeed happened. The Trojan War is dated by ancient historians to ca. 1194-1184 B.C. -In these shaft graves, the deceased were buried with exceedingly rich grave goods, most of which are made of imported materials and are of foreign, particularly Minoan, craftsmanship. However, the gold grave masks, which were placed over the faces of male burials, appear to have been of local manufacture. -To afford these costly items, the Mycenenaean (at least some of them) must have had a vast amount of wealth. The Mycenaeans were not only wealthy enough to afford such objects, but they could also afford to bury them with their dead, in a sense throwing this material wealth away. It is unknown how the Mycenaeans came into wealth at this time, but it probably came from control of certain trade routes, such as gold or tin from the north, or from serving as mercenaries. Such mercenary practices are not surprising given the Mycenaean proclivity towards martial imagery in their visual culture and the descriptions of society practices recorded in the Homeric epics. -It is unknown who was buried within the grave circles, but clearly they were of importance to the Mycenaeans for centuries later when a massive fortification wall was built around the citadel at Mycenae, Grave Circle A was enclosed within the protection of the citadel. Allowing graves to be within the boundaries of cities and settlements is very unusual in antiquity and is always a gesture of honor towards the deceased. Presumably the later inhabitants and rulers of Mycenae saw them as important ancestors, probably of a royal line establishing their own legitimacy to rule.

Athens, Parthenon: Lapith versus Centaur metope, marble, Greek, ca. 447-438 B.C.

-The metopes on each side of the Parthenon were decorated with figures from a different mythological battle. The metopes on the south side of the building are the best preserved, and they depict the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, which broke out at the wedding of Peirithoos and Hippodameia when the Centaurs became intoxicated and lost control of themselves. Theseus, the great Athenian hero, was present at this event and was the best man of Peirithoos. -This mythological story, as well as those on the other metopes, such as the Trojan War, were used in post-Persian War art as metaphors for the Athenian (and Greek) victory over Persia, which the Greeks saw as the triumph of order over chaos and civilization over barbarism. -On this extraordinary metope, a triumphant centaur raises up on hind legs, exulting over the crumpled, broken body of the Lapith it has defeated. The relief is so high that parts of it are fully sculpted in the round. The sculptor has effectively distinguished between the vibrant form of the living centaur, who has a panther skin draped over his arm and was likely holding a dinos (mixing bowl for wine and water) as a weapon, and the lifeless corpse on the ground. -On other metopes, the Lapiths have the upper hand, but the full set suggests that the battle was a difficult one against a dangerous enemy and that losses as well as victories occurred. The same was true of the war against the Persians.

Olympia: Temple of Zeus, East Pediment- Seer, marble, Greek, ca. 470-456 B.C.

-The sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia was one of the most important Panhellenic sanctuaries of the ancient Greek world. It owes much of its fame to the Olympic Games which took place there every four years. Olympia was one of the few sanctuaries where citizens from all the Greek city-states could gather together and experience a sense of unity, a desire for which was at its strongest point just after the conclusion of the Persian Wars. The construction of the Temple of Zeus was the first on the site dedicated exclusively to the head of the Olympian gods and was one of the first major building projects in Greece after the Persian invasions. The subject of the east pediment, which faced the Olympic stadium and the altar where the athletes swore to participate fairly in the Games, was a story of deep local significance: the chariot race between Pelops (from whom the Peloponnese takes its name) and King Oinomaos, who was the local king of the neighboring town of Pisa, which ran the sanctuary. -Oinomaos had only one child and heir, a daughter named Hippodameia. He was told by an oracle that he would die at the hands of his son-in-law, so he devised a formidable safeguard by stating that any man who came to be Hippodameia's suitor had to first compete against him in a chariot race from Olympia to Corinth. The suitor would start first, taking Hippodameia in the chariot with him. Oinomaos would then set off in pursuit after making a sacrifice to Zeus. Oinomaos' horse were divine, given to him by the god of war, Ares, so he quickly caught up with the prospective suitors. When he did, he speared the suitor in the back, thereby killing him. In order to ensure his victory, Pelops bribed Myrtilos, the Oinomaos' charioteer, to substitute the metal lynch pins of the king's chariot with those made of wax. When Oinomaos started his team to follow Pelops, the wheels of his chariot came off, throwing Oinomaos to the ground and killing him. Pelops happily took Oinomaos' daughter and kingdom, but did not want to pay Myrtilos for his services, which according to one account was no less than the favors of the newly-wedding Hippodameia. Pelops decided to kill Myrtilos by drowning him, but Myrtilos, with his dying breath, cursed Pelops and his descendants. This curse led to the murder of Pelops' son Atreus and the events that figure prominently in some of the greatest tragedies of the Classical period, Aeschylus' three plays known collectively as the Oresteia, which were performed in Athens for the first time in 458 BC, contemporary to the construction of this building. In these plays, Iphigenia, the granddaughter of Atreus, is sacrificed by her own father, Agamemnon, Agamemnon is in turn killed by his wife, Clytemnestra, and her love Aegisthus, and Aegisthus and Clytemnestra are then murdered by Orestes, who avenges his father, Agamemnon's death. These stories would have been widely familiar to Greeks of the day through oral traditions, written literature, and dramatic performances. -In the pediment, the figures are posed as if they are actors on a stage: Zeus in the center, Oinomaos and his wife on one side, Pelops and Hippodameia on the other, with their respective chariots/teams of horses. It is the sacrifice before the start of the race, and although it is a quiet moment lacking dramatic movement, the air is thick with tension for the viewer, who knows the tragic events that will unfold. -The only figure within the scene itself who recognizes the horrible consequences of this race and Pelops' cheating is the seer, who can foretell the future with his prophetic abilities. He is a remarkable figure for both his clear emotional reaction, seen in the shrinking back of his body and the raised hand to the open mouth, as well as his clear depiction of old age with a balding, wrinkled head and sagging musculature. Both of these features are rare in Greek art before the Hellenistic age and appear only briefly in early Classical sculpture. His reaction is the essence of the feelings experienced by Greek audiences during the performance of tragedies, a relatively new performance form at the time of this temple's construction.

Mycenae: Lion Gate, stone masonry, Mycenaean, ca. 1250 B.C.

-This gate, the main entrance into the citadel at Mycenae, was built as part of the expansion of the walls of Mycenae, which also enclosed Grave Circle A within the citadel. -In the 14th and 13th centuries B.C., at least, Mycenaean civilization seems to have been based on a number of kingdoms that were probably independent, but may have recognized one of the larger centers as sovereign. Each kingdom had a central administrative capital which was usually fortified and served as the home of the king and the bureaucratic and religious center. These centers are contained within massive Cyclopean walls and well-planned defenses. This is in complete contrast to Minoan palaces, which makes one question what these Mycenaean rulers were so afraid of. Were they afraid of each other? Did they possibly fear an uprising of their own people? -This gate contains the earliest monumental sculpture in Europe and is the only example of monumental sculpture in Mycenaean art. It consists of a sculpted piece inserted into the relieving triangle. Depicted are two heraldic lions that flank a Minoan-style column standing on a raised pedestal. The heads, which originally faced outwards towards the viewer, were probably made of another, lighter, type of stone, perhaps steatite (soapstone) that was doweled into place. Some scholars even believe that the animals were sphinxes with heads that would have been in human form. -The motif of animals flanking a column is a Minoan one, but here they have been monumentalized, which is a solely Mycenaean aesthetic. Pillars and pillar shaped stones (called baetyls) appear to have been the focus of cult worship on Crete. On seals we see free-standing columns shown within small enclosures and surrounded by worshippers. This column may represent a deity, but in this instance is more likely a symbol of the palace of the king. In this sense, the flanking animals serve as "protectors," serving as a warning to all those that enter that the king is protected by both mortal and divine forces.

Death mask of Tutankhamen, gold with inlay of semiprecious stones, Egyptian, New Kingdom (18th Dynasty), ca. 1323 B.C.

-Tutankhamen was the biological son of Akhenaten and an unidentified woman who was Akhenaten's sister (not Nefertiti). Such incest was common within the Egyptian royal family, which often married siblings as an effort to keep the bloodline "pure." At age nine and already married to Ankhesenpaaten, the third daughter of Akhenamen and Nefertiti, he came to the throne. Within ten years he was dead, probably from complications of a fractured leg and malaria. He also suffered from a club foot and a degenerative bone disease, which would have affected his movement. It is also suspected that he may have had a cleft palate. After less than a decade of rule, Tutankhamen died without leaving heirs. In an unprecedented move, his widow Ankhesenamen (born Ankhsenpaaten) solicited a prince from the ruler of the Hittites to be her new husband and rule Egypt, but he never arrived. -As a result of suggestion or coercion, the young Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun early in his reign and authorized the abandonment of the city of Armana. By decree, he reinstated Amun, returned power to the god's extensive priesthood, and began the long process of restoring Amun's temples that were desecrated and neglected during Akhenaten's rule. -The tomb of Tutankhamen was discovered in 1922 and was remarkable because it was relatively undisturbed and contained much of the original grave goods buried within it. Although historically Tutankhamen was a minor pharaoh with a short rule, he is preeminent in the study of Egyptology because of the thousands of extraordinary objects discovered within the nearly intact tomb. -The mummy of the pharaoh was placed within three nesting coffins which in turn was laid in a stone sarcophagus. Around the sarcophagus were four gilded shrines. All of these provided space for displaying religious scenes and texts. The sepulcher of Tutankhamen is the only tomb where this kind of shrine was remained preserved. Inside the innermost coffin lay the mummy, its head covered by the famous golden mask. Made of beaten gold and inlaid with lapis lazuli, turquoise, and carnelian, it is a supreme monument to the sculptor's and goldsmith's crafts in Egypt.

Warrior Vase, terracotta, Mycenaean, ca. 1200 B.C.

-Unlike in Minoan imagery, scenes of violence and warfare pervade Mycenaean art, which is not surprising as their wealth was derived from mercenary activities and military conquest. The Mycenaeans' major military achievement was the conquest of the island of Crete around 1450 BC. They destroyed the Minoan palatial centers one by one, the last being that at Knossos. The conquering of the Minoan world meant that the Mycenaeans suddenly had access to massive amounts of artistic and financial resources. Cretan artisans were likely brought back to mainland Greece to produce works of art for their new Mycenaean masters, which is why many elements in Mycenaean art are derived from Minoan prototypes. However, over time, Mycenaean art came into its own, often abstracting and formalizing earlier Minoan elements. -It should also be remembered that it is during the latter years of Mycenaean civilization that the Trojan War, the great 10 year battle between the Greeks and the Trojans, a people in northwest Asia Minor, is believed to have taken place. There is archaeological evidence that Mycenaeans were involved in the destruction of the site of Troy around 1200 BC, but it was probably more of a glorified cattle raid than the extended struggle described in the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which originated as oral poetry that was written down and codified in the 8th century BC. -This krater, or mixing bowl, was used to mix wine and water at drinking parties. It shows a woman at the far left bidding farewell to a column of heavily armed Mycenaean warriors. The figures are depicted using both silhouette and outline and a combination of frontal and profile views. -6 soldiers have similar features though some of them have pointed noses- they are bearded. They march to the right with their left legs forward wearing body armor that consists of a corselet with long sleeves and a fringed white spotted tunic. Greaves or leggings cover the lower leg, and they are fastened above the knee. Crosshatching on the feet and lower leg suggests boots, either of cloth or leather. Their spears have bags tied to them, perhaps for carrying food and drink. Their circular shields have the bottom cut away.

Republican portrait of an old man, marble, Roman, ca. 80-50 B.C.

-Unlike in the Greek world, where portraits were always shown as full-length figures in public places and were to a large degree invention, Roman portraits could be public or private and either a full-length figure or a bust. During the Republican period, Roman portraits are characterized by meticulous attention to idiosyncratic details of the sitter's physiognomy- a development from the early Roman devotion to ancestral wax portraits and death masks. These masks were an essential part of funeral processions and were kept in the large central reception area (atrium) of patrician homes. Plebian families were not allowed to keep such portraits in the domestic sphere. By the late Republic, the exhibition of masks in the atrium seems to have been replaced by portraits of marble and bronze. -This verism seems to reflect the Roman belief that the individuality of the person lay in his or her facial features and is an outgrowth of Etruscan sculpture which often included considerable attention to the details of the subject's appearance: skin textures, lines, scars, blemishes, etc. -In the Republican period, Romans preferred portraits that embodied their aristocratic ideal- a mature individual full of modesty, dignity, and clearly bearing the scars of life (including military service) as opposed to the rather "god-like" portraits favored by Hellenistic rulers.