Art in Rome Exam 1

Pantheon Architecture 3 Parts of the Plan

1. Colonnaded Porch- arrangement of 16 columns. Follows established tradition of Roman temple design. 8 Corinthian order columns across the front made of Egyptian granite with marble capitals and bases. On the entablature is the inscription with the name Marcus Agrippa and a smaller inscription recording a restoration in the 3rd century under emperor Septimius Severus. The unusually high pediment once enclosed a bronze relief probably of the Roman imperial eagle with other symbolic figures. Inside the portico is 8 more columns that form 3 aisles: wide central aisle leads through the intermediate block into the rotunda; 2 side aisles terminate in niches that once held statues of Augustus and Agrippa. Innermost rows of columns are surmounted by piers and arches that take the weight of the roof. Bronze once covered the inside of the portico roof. Octastyle (eight columns across the front). Prostyle, so the columns are only in front. 2. Intermediate Block- niches that housed statues of Augustus and Agrippa. Forms a transition to the revolutionary feature of the building. Abuts somewhat awkwardly onto the rotunda. As wide as the portico and as high as the rotunda. Much of the marble revetment of its outside walls is still in place. The center aisle of the portico leads into the passageway flanked by fluted Corinthian pilasters and covered by a coffered barrel vault. Immense door of bronze sheets attached to the wooden frame opens into the domed rotunda, a good example of the impressive interior space achieved by Roman architectural revolution. 3. Rotunda- functioned as the cella of the temple. Immense spatial volume. Perfect one-to-one ratio: diameter is 143 feet and the distance from the center of the floor to the domes apex is 143 feet. This is an example of a centralized plan in architecture. The encircling shel of the interior is divided into 3 levels each of which has distinctive features related to visual effects and structure. 2 lower levels are the inner faces of the drum (wall that supports the dome) and the third level is the dome itself that rises to the oculus (opening at the apex).

Pantheon Domed Rotunda

3 Levels- the lowest zone (an alternation of eight recesses and eight piers; on the faces of the piers are eight projecting aedicules). The second zone (attic story), and the third zone is the dome with its rising pattern of coffers. Perfect one-to-one ratio: diameter is 143 feet and the distance from the center of the floor to the dome's apex is 143 feet. This is a centralized plan of architecture in which the main organizing axis is vertical as distinct from the horizontal axis of an oblong longitudinal plan. Visual Features- encircling shell of the interior is divided into 3 levels that has distinct visual effects and structure. Aedicules have a striking visual effect in the alternation of recession and projection, light, and shade which is often characterized as "baroque". Pattern of coffers (slightly curved trapezoidal shapes arranged in 5 rows of 28 panels. Probably once decorated with stucco moldings at the edges and bronze rosettes at the center of each coffer. Their receding surfaces and varying sizes give the dome an illusion of greater height as they rise towards the oculus that the sun shines through. Structural Features- relieving arches and vaults (located in the upper level of the drum) that distribute the dome's weight onto the eight piers of the first level and then onto the deep and very solid foundation.

Pantheon and Roman Concrete

90% of the intermediate block and rotunda is made of Roman concrete (lime, pozzolana, and aggregate combination). For the walls, concrete was laid between rows of bricks which then formed a revetment for the concrete core. For the dome, concrete was laid over an immense wood framework corresponding to the hemispherical shape and to the forms of the diminishing sizes of the coffers. To lighten the dome's weight, builders graded aggregate according to the weight. Travertine and tufa in the lower drum wall, tufa and brick at the next levels, tufa and pumice, and then only pumice in the upper dome. Other materials contributed to the appearance and stability of the building, like white marble that covered the exterior of the intermediate block. Gilded bronze tiles sheathed the domes exterior, but were removed in 17th century and replaced with lead to prevent erosion. Various colored marbles adorn rotunda interior although there has been extensive restoration. The stepped rings on the dome help to counteract the lateral thrust and the upper wall of the drum also acts as a buttress to the lateral thrust of the dome.

Baldacchino

A cloth canopy hanging from the ceiling or carried on poles - often used in religious precessions. Designed by Bernini. A type of ancient custom of sheltering thrones or sacred places with a protective canopy.

Greek Cross Plan

A cross of four equal arms. Combined symmetry and harmony with the basic symbol of Christian faith. Favored by Renaissance architects.

Pilaster

A flat, rectangular column (often fluted) with a capital and base, attached to or set into a wall as an ornamental motif. It may be decorative or used to buttress the wall. Example of the flat columns on the Colosseum.

Pediment

A wide, low-pitched gable surmounting the façade of a building in the ancient Grecian style. It is formed at the end of a building by the sloping roof and the cornice. Or, a triangular element, similar to or derivative of a Grecian pediment, used widely in architecture and decoration.

Column

An upright pillar or post, often used to bear weight. Columns usually consist of a base at the bottom, a round shaft tapering toward the top, and a capital. A half-column is attached to a wall and does not bear weight. Half-columns were used for decorative purposes on the Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome.

Superimposition of Orders

Arrangement of the architectural orders in a specific way. Almost always arranged with the Tuscan at the ground level, the Ionic at the second, and the Corinthian at the third. At the fourth level the Corinthian pilasters divide the wall into bays with alternative small rectangular openings. Have no structural function but are ornamental.

Plan of St. Peter's

Bramante- opted for Greek cross as the plan for the new church. Main interior space would be a large Greek cross, the arms of which terminated in apses with entrances. An immense hemispherical dome, inspired by the Pantheon, would crown the center of the Greek cross. The dome would rise over a colonnaded drum supported by barrel vaults and piers below. Governed by the concept of the building as an organic growth of spatial volumes and masses from the central core. Michelangelo- In 1546, Pope Paul III appointed Michelangelo Chief Architect of St. Peter's. Praised Bramante's original plan of the Greek cross. Eliminated side chapels and bell towers and focused attention on the high altar and shrine of St. Peter. Eliminated 3 of the 4 entrances and designed a colonnaded entrance porch. Corinthian pilasters framed alternating wide and narrow bays for the exterior wall. The walls had organic rhythm that continued upward through the entablature through the attic story. Maderno- transformed the Renaissance Greek cross plan into a longitudinal Latin cross by extending one arm of Michelangelo's plan - a white arch in the barrel vault of the nave clearly indicates where the extension begins. Immense piers separate the nave from side aisles which open into side chapels. He also designed the entrance portico and facade.

Tufa

Building material. Compacted lava mud. In its natural state underground, it is soft and easy to cut through. When exposed to the air, it solidifies and becomes strong. It is typically cut into opus quadratum (rectangular blocs), tufa served for lining cisterns, for temple platforms, and for defensive walls. The high platform of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustian near the present Forum entrance is constructed of gray tufa blocks.

Roman Concrete

Building material. Most essential material in the development of Rome's distinctive architecture. Culminated in the Roman architectural revolution (architecture founded on the principle of enclosing interior space rather than constructing massive interiors). A lime-based mortar combined with other materials as aggregate (inert granular material that's mixed with cement to make concrete or mortar, or with a binder to make some other solid compound. Sand is the most common. Add strength, hardness, softness, color, texture, or economy). Pozzolana- volcanic sand that helped build stronger concrete.

Travertine

Building material. Sedimentary limestone with a pitted surface, became one of the most common building materials in ancient Rome and throughout the centuries. Quarried near Tivoli (ancient Tibur), a hill town east of Rome. Travertine is stronger and more durable than tufa. It has a light color that gives attractive decorative effects on exterior walls and other surfaces. Example: the exterior wall and much of the Colosseum's interior structure are travertine. Also visible in St. Peter's and in many Renaissance and Baroque churches of Rome.

Pieta'

By Michelangelo. Sculpted during his first stay in Rome from 1496 to 1501. Pieta' means "pity" or "compassion". Virgin Mary holding the body of her crucified son. Has an ancient source in relief images of a dead hero or soldier being carried to the tomb. Currently in St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican.

Centralized Plan

Central vertical axis from which the design radiated symmetrically in all directions. A circular building is the most obvious example, but octagonal, hexagonal, and Greek cross plans were variations on the type. Church should be a symbol of divine perfection and have symmetry around a central point, the circle or any form a circle could be inscribed had always been accepted as the most perfect geometrical shape. Therefore, centralized plan could be seen as the most adequate symbol of God's perfection. Traditionally used for tombs, martyria (martyrs' shrines) and baptisteries.

Composite

Combines features of Ionic and Corinthian.

Arch (Arcuated Construction)

Curved construction that spans an opening. In Roman architecture, the typical arch was semicircular in shape - the arched openings on the exterior wall of the Colosseum are an example.

Nicholas V's Project for the New Church

Decided to demolish the old church and construct a completely new edifice. Commissioned Alberti and Rossellino for the project. Details of their design are unknown, but they envisioned an enlarged version of the old basilican plan. Main innovation to have a large dome over the crossing of nave and transept, inspired by the Florence cathedral. Began with construction of a new tribune beyond the apse of the old church. Came to a halt after the Pope's death. For the rest of the century, repair and maintenance of the old basilica continued.

Roman Temple Architecture

Derived from the Etruscan type of temple, had its origins in the ritual of taking the auspices. Priest was required to stand in a certain direction for the Etruscans, which determined the form of the temple that the Romans assimilated. Very strong frontal emphasis.

Etruscan and Greek Sources of Temple Architecture

Derived from the Etruscan type of temple, had its origins in the ritual of taking the auspices. Priest was required to stand in a certain direction for the Etruscans, which determined the form of the temple that the Romans assimilated. Strong frontal emphasis, had a cella. Rather low and constructed of simple materials like wood for portico columns and mud-brick for cella walls. Greek features included the kind of stone (marble, replacing the earlier wood and brick). Architectural orders like columns and entablatures added a greater height and elegance to the temple portico. In some temples the columns were continued around the walls of the cella (engaged in the walls or free-standing). Roman temple never copied Greek idea of free-standing columns on all 4 sides, but they adapted the high platform and frontal emphasis of its Etruscan prototype. Greek Ionic order are present in the first century BC Temple of Portunus near the Tiber.

Colosseum Exterior Wall

Distinctive Features- Superimposition (see other card of definition). Significance- the union of the two systems (engaged columns and entablatures) had big impact on later architecture, especially revival of classical architecture during the Renaissance.

Ciborium

Dome supported on four columns. A type of ancient custom of sheltering thrones or sacred places with a protective canopy. This one is seen over the alters of many churches.

5 Architectural Orders and Functions

Doric, Ionic, Corninthian, Tuscan, and Composite. Structural Functions: supported the wooden trusses and timbers on the sheltering roof. The Pantheon is an example of the structural, weight-bearing function of the orders. Decorative Functions: give articulation, expression, and variety to the supporting piers and walls. The exterior wall of the Colosseum with its three levels of arches framed by Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian columns is an example.

Centering and Buttressing of Arcuated Architecture Construction

During construction, the masonry of an arch, vault, or dome requires support. Centering- wooden framework that supports the masonry of an arch, vault, or dome. Removed when materials are in place. Buttressing- a mass of masonry or brickwork used as a support or brace counteracting the outward (lateral) thrust of an arch or vault.

Colosseum History

Emperors- built during reigns of the 3 Flavian emperors (Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian). Followed the suicide of Nero, the Sun God. Dates- Vespasians came into power in 69 AD. Work on the Colosseum began in 72 AD. When the emperor died in 79 AD the first 2 levels had been constructed. The third level was completed under Titus and he inaugurated the building in 80 AD with elaborate celebrations and games.

Arch of Titus - History and Relief Sculpture

Erected to commemorate a tragic event in Jewish history. The arch was made in 81 AD by Domitian to honor his father and brother. Damaged when it became a part of medieval fortress. Later restored and incorporates the original arch, relief sculpture, and the inscription. Single passageway framed by Composite columns and entablature. Spandrels Winged Victories carry banners. On the attic story the Latin inscription says the "Senate and the Roman people" dedicated the monument "To the Divine Titus, Son of the Divine Vespasian". Historical Narrative Relief- depicts the culminating part of the procession. Narrates a historical event, but the allegorical figures, frontal poses, and static composition convey a more solemn and timeless aura.

Distinctive Features of the Basilica of Maxentius

From the 4th century AD, in the Forum area. Also known as Basilica Nova or the Basilica of Constantine. "One of the great architectural achievements of classical antiquity". Functioned as a law court. Emperors Maxentius and Constantine sponsored construction. Much of the building collapsed during 9th century earthquake. Had groin vaults that covered the nave and barrel vaults that covered the six bays, three on each side, opening the nave. Provided buttressing for lateral thrusts of the groin vaults. Had coffers (recessed panels) in 2 hexagonal and octagonal forms to decorate inner surface of the vaults. 2 colonnaded entrances. Very influenced by Renaissance artist and architects. Inspired construction of St. Peter's church.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

From the second century AD. Built in 141 AD, dedicated to Faustian, wife of Emperor Antoninus Pius and then also dedicated to Antoninus when he died 20 years later. Portico and cella rise on high platform of graytufa blocks which also line the sides of the cella. Reconstructed stairs lead to portico of marble columns in Corinthian order. It is a prostyle temple: columns are only in front, not continued along the sides and back of the cella. Pediment and roof have disappeared, but fragment of the entablature with its sculpted decoration survives. Cella was converted into a church dedicated to St. Lawrence in the Middle Ages. Present Baroque style facade dates to 17th century.

Dome (Arcuated Construction)

Imagine as an arch that has been rotated on its axis to cover a space. Typically hemispherical in Roman construction. The Pantheon dome is the best example.

The Vatican, St. Peter and the Papacy

Important to place Vatican and its Basilica in the context of Catholic doctrine on St. Peter and his successors, the bishops of Rome who bear the title of Pope. Jesus singled out Peter from among the 12 apostles and conferred on him a special mission of authority and guidance. Catholic tradition and doctrine maintain that Peter's mission has been carried on by the popes in the episcopal see of Rome. The Vatican has been the principal papal residence since the 14th century, but the shrine and basilica have always been visible evidence and expression of Catholic doctrine on papal primacy.

Michelangelo Plan and Work Accomplished

In 1546, Pope Paul III appointed Michelangelo Chief Architect of St. Peter's. Michelangelo was reluctant at first due to poor health, age, and other commissions but agreed to honor God and St. Peter and insisted complete authority over the project. He did not completely return to Bramante's original plan. Praised but modified Bramante's original plan of the Greek cross to make it more unified and simplified space. Eliminated side chapels and bell towers and focused attention on the high altar and shrine of St. Peter. Eliminated 3 of the 4 entrances and designed a colonnaded entrance porch. Corinthian pilasters framed alternating wide and narrow bays for the exterior wall. The walls had organic rhythm that continued upward through the entablature through the attic story.

Apollo the Lyrist (Palazzo Altemps)

In Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Leto. Worshiped by Greeks and Romans as god of youth, music, poetry, prophecy, and healing. Also the ideal of reason as distinct from animal passion. Artists represent the god as a handsome young man, his name is often used as a synonym for male beauty. He is identifiable by a number of attributes (symbolic objects) like a serpent, laurel branch, and lyre. Hermes is Apollo's younger brother. Apollo bought an instrument and became a proficient musician, he is a patron of musicians and poets.

The Vatican in Ancient Rome

In antiquity the name designated an area on the right side of the Tiber that consisted of two parts: a flat plain (Ager Vaticanus) and a hill (Mons Vaticanus). Was not included within the premium, the sacred boundary of ancient Rome. It developed slowly in antiquity from a swampy area. By 1st century BC, the swamps had been drained and the suburban villas were constructed. In the early Imperial period, the Emperors Caligula and Nero built a race-course used for popular entertainment, was the origin of the Vatican's association with Christianity. In 64 AD a fire devastated much of Rome. Nero, the reigning emperor, blamed the Christians. ST. Peter was subject to a horrible death in the Vatican race-course. Crucified in an up-side down position. The next step in "Christianization" of the Vatican was after Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313. When Lateran Treaty was signed in 1929, this became Vatican City State, an independent political entity ruled by the Pope.

Relieving Arch/Vault

In the upper level of the drum. Distributes the dome's weight onto the 8 piers of the first level and then onto the deep and very solid foundation. The arches visible in the brick of the exterior wall indicate the position of this structural feature.

Architectural Order

Includes essential elements of column and entablature. The primary division is the shaft, the base (if any), and the CAPITAL. Originated in the temple architecture of ancient Greece. Based on the post (vertical support) and lintel (horizontal beam for support) system. There are 5 architectural orders: doric, ionic, corinthian, tuscan, and composite.

Pantheon Legacy

Influence in Later Architecture- inspired Bramante's dome design supported on a colonnaded drum for the new St. Peter's. Inspired Filippo Brunelleschi, the first major Renaissance architect, when constructing the dome of Florence's cathedral. Also influenced Pietro Bianchi. S. Francesco di Paola in Naples. It is evident in both the combination of colonnaded portico with the domed rotunda and in the offered dome with oculus of the interior.

Nave

Large main space in the interior of a basilica.

Athena (Palazzo Altemps)

Legend says she was born full-grown from the head of her father Zeus. Greeks revered her as the Virgin Goddess and as a military figure, so she is often represented with a helmet and spear. She embodied discipline and restraint in conflict rather than the brute force associated with the destructive Ares. Also the goddess of wisdom, first understood as the knowledge of arts and crafts and then both practical and theoretical wisdom. She founded the city of Athens. The Parthenon on the Acropolis, one of the greatest works of Greek architecture, was her principal sanctuary as founder and protector of the city. Portrayed as a mature women in a gown falling in long folds. ON her helmet on her breast is the aegis (snake-haired head of the Gorgon Medusa presented to her by the hero Perseus who slew the monster and presented the head to the goddess).

Amphitheater

Literally means "theater on both sides". A kind of theater "in the round," a round or oval structure having a central stage or arena surrounded by tiers of seats rising gradually outward from it. Example: the Colosseum.

Colosseum Plan and Materials

Literally means "theater on both sides". Circular or oval structure with tiers of seats rising around an arena. Typically a Roman structure but originated in Campania. Known as the Flavian Amphitheater in antiquity. 3 principal materials were used. Foundation of travertine piers that had weight-bearing function for upper levels, and the exterior wall is also travertine. The walls between the piers are of tufa at the lower level. Brick-faced Roman concrete on the upper-level. Vaulted annular and radial corridors are also of brick and concrete, which provided spectators circulation and supported the tiers of seating.

Roman Art: Roman Looting and Borrowing - Sources

Looted, borrowed, and imitated the art of conquered peoples like the Etruscans, Egyptians, and mostly the Greeks. Roman temples combined the typical Etruscan temple with the columns and entablatures of Greek architecture. They transported statues from Greece to Rome for adornment of public and private spaces. When they ran out, they commissioned copies or derivatives from Greek craftsmen.

Pantheon History and Dates

Marcus Agrippa - original Pantheon dedicated in 25 BC, dates to reconstruction program when Marcus Agrippa built the campaign Campus Martius. The first building likely faced north, like the present structure, and had a circular plan preceded by a colonnaded portico. Rotunda would've been covered by a conical timbered roof unlike the immense concrete dome of the present Pantheon. Hadrian's Pantheon- in 80 AD a fire badly damaged Agrippa's Pantheon and Domitian, the reigning empire, had it repaired. Then again in 110 AD there was another fire causing damage. Present historians identify the current Pantheon as a complete destruction dating to 118-125 AD during the reign of emperor Hadrian. This contradicts the entablature on the portico which states Marcus Agrippa built this. This has caused confusion to historians over the years. However, it is known that Hadrian did not write his name on buildings during his reign. It was likely just a dedication to his predecessor. In the 3rd century, Dio Cassius reports seeing statues of Augustus and Agrippa in the portico which is evidence of Hadrian's reverence for his predecessors. Christian Era- In the 4th century when Christianity was given legal recognition and then became an established religion of the Roman Empire, the Pantheon was closed and its cult statues destroyed. Its survival as one of the best preserved buildings was ensured when it became a Christian church. In 608 AD, Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV who had bones from the Christian catacombs for reburial in the Pantheon. The pope dedicated the temple of "all the gods" to the Virgin Mary.

Arcuated Construction

Of arch-column construction. Supported on piers and solid walls. Retained system of orders in a decorative function to give articulation, expression, and variety to supporting piers and walls. Space is spanned with curved structures: arch, vault, dome. The barrel (tunnel) vault and the groin vault were the 2 main types in Roman construction. Exercise lateral thrust and require buttressing.

Bramante's Plan and Work Accomplished

Opted for Greek cross as the plan for the new church. This is estimated based on a drawing preserved in the Uffizi Gallery and the Caradosso medal struck to commemorate the laying of the cornerstone in 1506. Main interior space would be a large Greek cross, the arms of which terminated in apses with entrances. An immense hemispherical dome, inspired by the Pantheon, would crown the center of the Greek cross. The dome would rise over a colonnaded drum supported by barrel vaults and piers below. Opening off the angles of the large Greek cross would be smaller Greek cross chapels surmounted by domes and all bell towers would stand at the corners. Governed by the concept of the building as an organic growth of spatial volumes and masses from the central core. On April 18th, 1506, the Pope laid the cornerstone and the demolition and construction immediately began. Bramante's zeal in destroying the centuries-old columns and tombs earned him title Il maestro ruminant. Julius II died in 1513 and Bramante in 1514. Not much was completed by the time of his death. When he had died, the only thing that was completed was the four central piers, essential support of the dome, and the arches joining the piers. The pilaster decoration of the piers was also underway. He had established the dimensions of the central crossing and the immense scale of the church. All following architects had to acknowledge his work.

Triumphal Arch Origin, Function, Architecture

Origin- a victorious general and his army were accorded a triumph (procession celebrating the defeat of the enemy). Function- custom of erecting temporary wooden arches along the route of the procession and decorating the gates leading into the city. Architecture- elaborate monuments decorated with columns, sculpture, and commemorative inscriptions. Early types had a single arch, then there were 3 passageways, the central arch being higher and wider than the side arches. Corinthian or Composite orders framed the arches above in the attic story there was dedicatory inscription.

Roman Basilica Origin and Function

Origin- term basilica comes from a Greek word meaning royal or "pertaining to the king". Basilica is typically a Roman building, architectural historians traced antecedents to earlier Greek buildings like colonnaded throne room of royal places or the stoa (colonnaded promenades in Greek cities). Another derivation could be from Greek temple plan with four-sided peristyle (internal colonnaded basilica hall would be a Greek temple "turned outside-in". Earliest Roman basilicas date to 2nd century BC. Function- provide shelter in the Forum for businessmen and general public. First basilicas had commercial purpose as covered markets next to the open area of the Forum. Also acquired judicial functions as law courts for magistrates to hold audiences. Term basilica came to be buildings with even more diverse functions: assembly rooms in palaces, shelters for pilgrims adjacent to temples, and bad weather drill halls in military camps. In 4th century BC, the early Christian basilica appeared for Christian worship.

Ionic

Originated in Greece. Second oldest order. Example is the Temple of Portunus near the Tiber River. Example of White House.

Corinthian

Originated in Greece. Third oldest order.

Doric

Originated in Greece. This is the oldest order. Example of Lee Mansion.

Colosseum Function in Ancient Rome

Place for entertainment of all classes in Roman society. Also related to "bread and circuses" policy adopted by Romans (feed and entertain city's large unemployed proletariat to prevent crime and political subversion). Seating based on social class. Violent games, animal hunts, and gladiatorial combats were the most popular.

Roman Basilica Architecture

Plan- two types of entrances into interior: elaborate colonnaded entrance on one of the long sides, or a smaller portico on a short side. Interior Space- interior was the nave (rectangular hall with large main space) surrounded by colonnades that opened into ambulatories, sometimes with colonnaded galleries above. Wooden trusses framework supported the timbered ceiling that covered terra-cotta tiles on the outside. Judicial basilicas had a distinct space for the magistrate either as tribunal (raised platform) or apse (semicircular domed space opposite the entrance).

Julius II and Bramante

Pope Julius who reigned from 1503-1513 wanted to demolish the old basilica and replace it with a more grandiose edifice. Wanted to honor St. Peter and enhance image of the Church and papacy. Also wanted an adequate setting for his own tomb and commissioned to Michelangelo. Should also incorporate the principles of the new Renaissance architecture inspired by buildings of ancient Rome. The Pope gave the project to Donato Bramante, the first major architect of the Roman High Renaissance. The Plan: Longitudinal vs. Centralized- decided to demolish old basilica and make it more grandiose. Honor St. Peter and enhance image of the church and papacy. Wanted adequate setting for Pope Julius II's own immense tomb commissioned to Michelangelo.

Maderno's Plan - Bell Tower Project

Pope thought bell towers should be commissioned on each side of the facade. Had to be positioned to not block the view of the 2 smaller domes beside the main dome. Engineering problems prevented the erection of the towers during Maderno's lifetime, but the substructures remained in place. Now perceived as lateral extensions of the facade and create a disproportion between width and height which would've been corrected by the verticals of the towers. The next Pope commissioned Bernini to build even higher towers. He had almost finished when it had to be stopped due to cracks in the substructure and the tower was demolished. Later, when Bernini designed the piazza in front of the church, he tried to remedy the facade's disproportion by optical means.

Paul V and Carlo Maderno

Problems- the facade design posed a special problem for Maderno. He abandoned Michelangelo's idea of a portico with a free-standing columns but had to take into account his predecessor's design of the exterior wall which was articulated with colossal corinthian pilasters. He also had to include a benediction loggia in the center for papal appearances and blessings. Instead of free-standing columns, Maderno divided the facade into bays framed by Corinthian pilasters and columns. The pilasters are at the outermost bays, from there the columns increasingly project toward the 3 central bays. Created a climax at the focal points of the main entrance and the benediction loggia above which he crowned with a triangular pediment.

Roman Religion

Roman religion had two related features: much involved with agricultural activity and it was animistic. Spirits- also called numen or genius. *animistic- thought that spirits inhabited every place and object in nature. Included that rivers, fields, and crops had souls to be honored. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- In the Republican period, a belief in a superior being came about. Gods and Goddesses- strong, immortal, whose good will was essential to the security and prosperity of the Roman state. Supreme deities were the Capitoline triad, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Worship was both an individual and family duty and an obligation to the Roman state. There were complex purification rituals to ensure protection of the immortal beings. Pontifices- bridge builders. Held responsibility for the conduct of worship. Pontifex Maximus- head of the college, a pontifice. Officiated at the most solemn functions of the state religion. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Imperial Cult- worship of the emperor and his family. Fundamental both as a religious and political obligation in Roman society.

Roman Art: Chronology (8th Century BC to 5th Century AD.)

Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 BC on the Palatine Hill near the Tiber River. Six centuries later, it became the center of a great empire. It had evolved through 3 forms of political structure: -Monarchy of early Rome (8th to 6th centuries BC), followed by... -The Republic (6th to 1st centuries BC0, which led to... -The absolutism of the Imperial period (1st century BC to 5th century AD) Romans had a genius for military conquest, efficient administration, codification of laws, and advanced building/engineering. It did not, however, extend to artistic originality and creation.

Clerestory

Rows of windows in the upper nave walls of a basilica.

Apse

Semicircular domed space opposite the entrance to a basilica. A distinct space for the magistrate.

Tuscan

Simplified version of the Doric.

Hermes (Palazzo Altemps)

Son of Zeus and Maia, daughter of Atlas. The messenger of the gods symbolized by 2 of his attributes: the petasus (winged helmet) and winged sandals. As a guide, he carried caduceus, originally a staff but later with intertwined serpents. Protected travelers, was a psychopompos (guide of souls to the underworld). Patron of thieves. Shepards and farmers revered him as the protector of flocks, as he was Hermes Kriophores who carries a lamb or calf on his shoulders. Purse to reference role as protector of merchants. Always depicted as an athletic young man, had many duties. The Attempts statue is a Roman copy of the 5th century BC bronze original. Right arm may have originally held a caduceus.

Dionysus (Palazzo Altemps)

Son of Zeus and Semele daughter of Cadmus. For his birth, he reduced his mother to ashes with a thunderbolt and Hermes saved the child by sewing him into his father's thigh. Originally, he was a fertility god sometimes worshiped in the form of a goat. Goat creatures were associated with his myth and image. God of wine, ecstasy, sexual excess, and madness. Antithesis of Apollo, the god of reason and light. Rites associated with Dionysus' cult included drunken orgies and eating raw flesh. Accompanied by maenads (ecstatically dancing females, satyrs, male figures part human and part animal). The group of Dionysus with a Satyr was found on Quirinal Hill. Dates back to 2nd century AD, probably deriving from 4th century BC Greek original. His pose suggests divine possession and drunkenness. God attributes include the grape in his hand and vine leaves in his hair.

Bernini in St. Peter's

St. Longinus- the saint is not named in the bible, "Longinus" probably derives from the Greek word for lance. Identified with 3 figures in the gospel accounts of the crucifixion: the soldier who pierced the side of Christ; the Roman centurion who exclaimed "truly this was the Son of God"; and the centurion who guarded the tomb of Christ. The statue of Longinus is an example of Bernini's "dynamic and dramatic" conception of sculpture. Emphasized a principal, frontal point of view for a large impact of the viewer. Arms outstretched, right hand holding the lance, upward gaze expresses amazed recognition of Christ's divinity and gratitude at being cured of blindness. Chair of Peter- epitomizes the art of Bernini and the Baroque style. Characterized as "visual rhetoric" aimed at persuasion through an overwhelming assault on the senses and emotions. Also an example of bel composto (unity of architecture, sculpture, and light). The chair presents the viewer with levels of reality: floating between earth and heaven. The chair is framed by the Baldacchino. Both express the church's doctrine on St. Peter and the papacy. Saw this as the pilgrims final goal in a journey from the Piazza to the interior of the Basilica. Dates from the 19th century. Piazza S. Pietro- Bernini had to organize a space that could accommadate immense crowds and ensure visibility of the benediction loggia as well as the papal palace. A focal point for the space was already present: the ancient Egyptian obelisk from Nero's Circus that had been moved to a point in front of the church in 1586. Also wanted his design to counteract the disproportionate width of Maderno's facade. He based his design on 2 geometric forms: trapezoid (precedes the church, the further side corresponds to the facade and the slightly diagonal sides merge with the oval of the main space) and the oval (two overlapping circles, the center of which are marked by stone disks and in the center rises the tall vertical of the obelisk). See page 67 for more information.

Aedes

Temple. A structure with specific architectural features. Sanctuary for a god or goddess. A sacred place.

Templum

Temple. Doesn't refer primarily to a building, but to an area that had been set aside for taking the auspices (Etruscan religious ritual to search for divine signs and moments by observing flights of birds and trails of animals). A sacred place.

Cella

Temple. Enclosed chamber, usually housed the cult statue and various sacred objects. Only the priests dedicated to the cult of the divinity could enter the cella. All other public ceremonies, like sacrifices, took place at an altar in front of the building. Located at the rear of the platform.

Sacred Places

Templum- doesn't refer primarily to a building, but to an area that had been set aside for taking the auspices (Etruscan religious ritual to search for divine signs and moments by observing flights of birds and trails of animals). A distinct priestly college, augurs, presided over the ritual. Aedes- a building that was usually erected in the temple precinct. A structure with specific architectural features. Not for community worship, but for sanctuary for a god or goddess. Had a cella.

The New St. Peter's Historical Background

The Avignon Period- the Pope's were absent from Rome, residing in the French city of Avignon. As a result, St. Peter's was in poor condition in the 15th century. The Great Schism- a period when there were 2 and sometimes 3 claimants to the papal throne. Thus, for more than a century, Rome suffered from the absence or weakness of its principal spiritual and temporal authority. Period of confusion and unrest that afflicted the entire city, including the basilica and shrine of St. Peter.

Colosseum Structure

The columns and entablatures are engaged (embedded) in the wall and are decorative, not weight-bearing.

Entablature

The upper section of a classical building. Resting on the columns, it consists first of the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice on top.

Drum

The wall that supports the dome. Part of the two lower levels of the encircling shell of the interior.

Aedicule

There are eight of them on the faces of the piers. They project shrines with columns, entablatures, and pediments. Once held statues of Roman deities, and now enshrine statues and paintings of Christian figures. Have a striking visual effect in the alternation of recession and projection, light, and shade which is often characterized as "baroque".

Roman Art: Roman Originality - Sculpture

Two types of sculpture: realistic portrait and narrative reliefs. Realistic Portrait- originated in the realistic images, based on death masks, created to perpetuate the memory of family ancestors or to honor political authorities. Historical Narrative Relief- depiction of real historical events instead of the mythical or idealized stories preferred by the Greeks. Architecture- originality is more evident here. While they assimilated Greek architectural forms for both structural and decorative purposes, they also developed a new architecture where interior spaces was more important than a massive exterior. This is called the Roman Architectural Revolution. The Pantheon is the best living example.

Longitudinal Plan

Typical Christian basilica, such as the old church of St. Peter's. Main horizontal axis extending from the entrance to the apse. Dominated in Western European church architecture.

Capital

Uppermost and crowning element of the column. The top element of a pillar, column, or pilaster. It surmounts the shaft, placed just beneath the entablature and/or lintel. There are three basic types of capitals which originated with the ancient Greeks: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

Pantheon Dome Structural Support

Use of mortar and aggregate mixtures dates back to 3rd century BC. In the 1st century Roman builders combined this with the arcuated structural system and moved toward new architecture of interior space. This culminated in the 2nd century with the Pantheon. At the base, the dome is 20 feet thick, corresponding to the thickness of the drum wall. Diminishes to thickness of 6 feet at the apex. The dome weights approximately 5,000 tons, so the architectural achievements by Roman architects was immense. Evidence of the high level of architecture and engineering skill of Roman builders attained include the following 4: 1. Gradation of aggregate in concrete mixture contributed to lightening the dome's overall weight. 2. Visible on the outside of the dome are stepped masonry rings, their downward pressure helped counteract the lateral thrust of the dome. 3. Upper rotunda wall was built higher to function as a cylindrical buttress against the lateral thrust. 4. The system of relieving arches and vaults in the attic story and lower dome distributed its weight onto the 8 piers between the recesses of the lower level.

Pantheon Function and Meaning

Usually referred to as a "temple" dedicated not literally to "all the gods", but to the principal deities of the Roman state religion. Functioned as a tribunal and audience hall during Hadrian's reign. Maybe a monument for the family of Julius Ceaser and his grand-nephew Augustus-- implied due to the mention of a statue of the Deified Julius Ceaser. Could've conveyed a message about ruler worship and the imperial system of government. Attempts have been made to identify the deities enshrined in the niches and aedicules. Possibly the 7 planetary deities there were: Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Sun, Moon, and Saturn. Symbolism in Antiquity- the Pantheon suggests universality in 2 ways: the circular pat of the planets under the dome of heaven and in ideated circumference of the universal empire. The rotunda stands for the claim of a unified, perfected, seamless and comprehensible whole - the order of the empire sanctioned and watched over by the gods.

Vault (Arcuated Construction)

When an arch is extended to cover a larger space. In Roman architecture, they were semicircular and of type main types: the barrel (tunnel vault) and the groined (created by the intersection of two tunnel vaults).