Art in society test 2

Renaissance

"rebirth"; following the Middle Ages, a movement that centered on the revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome

The Goddess Hathor and the overseer of Sealers

(6th century BCE) Deities of ancient Egypt were personifications of natural forces. Most were represented as animals or as animal-human combinations. The goddess Hathor, associated with the sky, stars, love, mirth, and joy. Depicted as a human and a cow or as a combination of a woman and a cow. The Egyptian religion was polytheistic. One goddess, Hathor, is represented as a cow, as seen in Hathor encompasses and hovers protectively over Psamtik, an Egyptian official. Her horns surround the head of a cobra, a sign of royalty, and the sun disk with a crown of feathers. Even in images of Hathor as a woman, her head is usually topped by the same combination of horns and sun disk, which symbolize royalty and divinity. The side view of this piece shows the entire length of the cow striding forward, with bone and muscle beautifully sculpted. In our front view of her calm, majestic face, we see more stylized features, such as the repeated ridges above the eyes and the radiating pattern in the ears. Psamtik keeps pace with Hathor. His standardized face and body show conventional divisions of breast, rib, and belly, while the arms and hands are presented frontally and symmetrically. His official duties are inscribed on his skirt. The work was likely commissioned by Psamtik as an offering that would have been placed in a temple to Hathor.

Reliquary Guardian Figure

(commemorative art) 19th-20th century placed over the container that contained the bones and skull of venerated ancestor reliquaries from Africa often held the remains of venerated ancestors. Most African religions honor ancestors through ritual and sculptures because they are believed to affect the welfare of the living in many ways. Mbulu Ngulu (Reliquary Guardian Figure), from Gabon in west-central Africa, was placed on a bag or basket that contained the skulls and long bones of the ancestors who founded a clan. The guardian protected the relics from evil and helped obtain food, health, or fertility from these ancestors. The sculpture, combined with the relics, was considered the image of the spirits of those dead ancestors. Offerings were made to them.This Mbulu Ngulu (Reliquary Guardian Figure) and others like it were constructed over flat wooden armatures and then covered with sheets and wires of brass or copper. The faces were oval and usually concave, with projections to show the elaborate hairstyles traditionally worn in the area. The guardian figure probably evolved from figurative sculptures with hollow torsos in which bones were originally placed, a practice that became impractical as more bones were accumulated. In their present form, these figures could also be used in dances. These sculptures were extremely influential in the development of twentieth-century European modern art.

Sullivan, Carson Pirie Scott & Co.

1904 high-rise building one of the first innovative tall buildings in the 20th C. was Carson Pirie Scott and Co. Architect, Louis Sullivan, exploited the design possibilities of steel frame construction, coupled with the invention of the elevator stores and businesses are often located in high-rise buildings. The architect, Louis Sullivan, believed that "form follows function," meaning that buildings should not be shaped according to preconceived ideas but should be an outgrowth of their function and of the materials used. He exploited the new design possibilities of steel frame construction, coupled with the invention of the elevator. Although iron and steel had been used in the past, those buildings were often sheathed in stone or brick or were novelties like the Eiffel Tower. Sullivan's buildings were supported by the steel framework with non-load-bearing walls stretched over it, much like the skin and muscles of the human body over the rigid skeleton. Height was emphasized more than horizontal elements. On the ground floor, Sullivan introduced the large display windows that have become familiar fixtures in almost every retail store in the United States today. Sullivan saw these display windows as pictures, so he framed them with ornate cast ironwork with organic motifs referencing birth, flowering, decay, and rebirth. In contrast, the upper floors are plain with large horizontal windows that make evident the steel structure underneath. The curved corner provides vertical emphasis, with narrower, taller windows. The roof is deemphasized, with no overhanging eaves or cornices. Rather, the building gives the impression that several more floors, similar in design, could be added right on top of the existing structure.

Thiebaud, Pie Counter

1963 examples of works that deal with food supply artwork glorifies food Highlights role of food as popular icon (especially cafeterias) In contrast to de Heem's work It deals with food as a visual display and as a popular icon rather than as nutrition for the body. Pie Counter shows the plentifulness, standardization, and bright colors in contemporary mass-produced cafeteria food, which is so appealing to many Americans. The thickly textured paint and bright colors are visually seductive and very different from de Heem's style. Thiebaud also alludes to the fact that, for many, the abundance of fattening food has become something to resist rather than something to eat, while mass-media advertising pushes it. Interestingly, Thiebaud's painting and Warhol's Heinz 57 Tomato Ketchup ( Fig. 5.13 ) are both from the same era of Pop Art.

Pei & Partners, Bank of China

1989 reaction against mid-20th century office buildings this was a movement away from the rectangle and toward triangles and diagonals Architecture I.M. Pei dissolved the rectangle into triangles and diagonals in the Bank of China building The base is subdivided into four equal triangular sections, and more triangles are created by the diagonal braces that stabilize the skeletal frame, a necessary addition because of earthquakes and high winds. Pei emphasized rather than hid the braces. The skeletal support for this light-reflecting building is innovative. At the corners are four massive columns. Beginning at the twenty-fifth floor, a fifth column at the center supports the load from the upper floors; that load is transmitted diagonally to the corner supports. The lower floors surround a twelve-story-high central atrium, while on top, dining and entertainment establishments boast spectacular views.

Hadid, Broad Art Museum

2012 Deconstructivist architecture, which rejects established conventions and seeks to shake the viewer's expectations, began in the 1980s. Zaha Hadid's buildings often seem to be the result of a grand gesture or to five the impression of frozen movement Deconstructivist buildings can be disorienting and irregular, and outside forms may give no clue to the space of their interiors. Many Deconstructivist buildings resemble abstract sculptures more than traditional architecture, and they generally reject historical notes, as seen in the Piazza d'Italia. One example is the Broad Art Museum, which was designed by Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid beginning in 2007 and opened in 2012 on the campus of Michigan State University in East Lansing. Hadid's buildings often seem to be the result of a gesture, like a push that created this leaning façade, or to give the impression of frozen movement.

Ziggurat at Ur

2100 BCE Neo-Sumerian Many civilizations in the Middle East continued to grow. Babylon was a center of religious worship, with tall ziggurats topped by temples, not unlike the earlierZiggurat at Ur It is a sacred artificial mountain erected by the Sumerians of the city of Ur to honor their special deity from among the Sumerian pantheon of gods. Its corners point toward the four points of the compass, reflecting the movement of the sun. The word ziggurat means "mountain" or "pinnacle." Surrounded by flat land, this terraced tower of rubble and brick seemed to reach into the heavens. The Ziggurat at Ur has three broad staircases, each with one hundred steps, leading to a temple-shrine 40 feet above the ground, dedicated to protective gods and goddesses and attended to by special orders of priests and priestesses. The ziggurat was a piece in a temple complex that served as an administrative center for the city, and which was a shrine of the moon god Nanna, the patron deity of Ur. third dynasty pyramidal stepped temple tower that is an architectural and religious structure characteristic of the major cities of Mesopotamia (now mainly in Iraq) from approximately 2200 until 500 BCE. The ziggurat was always built with a core of mud brick and an exterior covered with baked brick. It had no internal chambers and was usually square or rectangular, averaging either 170 feet (50 metres) square or 125 × 170 feet (40 × 50 metres) at the base. Approximately 25 ziggurats are known, being equally divided among Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria.

Mausoleum

A large and impressive tomb an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb, or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum a final resting place above the earth. A space for above-ground entombment, a mausoleum contains one or many crypts, or burial spaces, for both whole body burial and cremated ashes.

Hinduism

A religion and philosophy developed in ancient India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and a supreme being who takes many forms featuring belief in many gods and reincarnation a major religious and cultural tradition of South Asia, developed from Vedic religion. their "gods" are all manifestations, or "avatars,"of a divine universal spirit—in this case, Brahman the Unbounded. Brahman is one—pure being, pure intelligence, and pure delight—and is, therefore, unknowable. Although never pictured, Brahman can be partially known through the human senses because all natural things, humans, and spiritual beings reflect Brahman.

Judaism

A religion with a belief in one god. It originated with Abraham and the Hebrew people. Yahweh was responsible for the world and everything within it. They preserved their early history in the Old Testament. the monotheistic religion of the Jews. the monotheistic religion of the Jews having its spiritual and ethical principles embodied chiefly in the Torah and in the Talmud one of the oldest monotheistic religions of the Western world and also the foundation of Christianity and Islam. The Jews consider themselves the Chosen People and have a special covenant with their God and Creator, Yahweh, who alone is to be worshiped. It was thought by scholars that the making of art images in the Jewish faith was forbidden because of the Second Commandment.

Catacombs

An underground cemetery, esp. one consisting of tunnels and rooms with recesses dug out for coffins and tombs.

Buddhism

Belief system that started in India in the 500s BC. Happiness can be achieved through removal of one's desires. Believers seek enlightenment and the overcoming of suffering. the teaching of Buddha that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct and wisdom and meditation releases one from desire and suffering and rebirth A religion based on the teachings of the Buddha. Rooted in Hinduism, the Buddhist religion follows the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a prince born in India near Nepal around 563 bce. He fled from court life to become a homeless holy man and later achieved enlightenment, or Buddhahood. The Buddha, also known as Sakyamuni (meaning "the sage of the Sakya clan"), continued to teach for the next forty-five years until his death. Buddhists, like Hindus, hold that humans are perpetually reincarnated, most often into lives of suffering, based on the deeds of their past lives. By following the teachings of Sakyamuni, humans can overcome desires and the cycle of rebirth. Then they can attain nirvana, a transformation of their consciousness from the material world to the eternal realm.

Type 1 Sample question: Which of the following terms corresponds with this definition? Definition: "An Asian religion with the belief that the rejection of personal desires will lead to complete spiritual enlightenment." A. Boddhisatva B. Buddha C. Buddhism D. Nirvana

Buddhism

Bodhisattva

Buddhist worthy of nirvana who postpones it to help others a person who has attained enlightenment but who has postponed nirvana in order to help others achieve enlightenment a person who is able to reach nirvana but delays doing so out of compassion in order to save suffering beings. Over the centuries, Buddhist beliefs became more complex and varied, with some resembling philosophy, others atheism, and still others pantheism. In some variations, Bodhisattvas are living beings who have attained Buddhahood but who have chosen to remain on earth to help others. While Buddhas in their serenity in nirvana may seem remote to struggling humans, the Bodhisattvas are immediate personal intercessors who give aid. The Water and Moon Guanyin Bodhisattva is the most powerful Bodhisattva,

Día de Los Muertos

Diego Rivera 1923 represents aztec and christian cultural elements of feast day One famous tradition is the Day of the Dead, a popular celebration mixing Christian and Aztec beliefs. It is celebrated, with local variations, in Mexico and parts of the United States. During the day, marketplaces become sites for parades and spirited celebrations. In private homes, altars commemorate the family's dead, with burning incense and pictures of the departed placed next to their favorite foods to welcome their returning spirits. Families may spend the night at the graveyard with the deceased, decorating the gravesites and burning hundreds of candles.Diego Rivera depicted this important ritual celebration in a series of murals about Mexican history and culture in the Ministry of Education building in Mexico City, which is our focus figure here. The painting Día de Muertos ( Fig. 8.25 ), executed in 1923, shows the urban observance of the feast day; two other panels depict more traditional rural observances. Great crowds fill the marketplace in a raucous celebration. In the foreground are food vendors and children in skull masks. Hanging under the awning in the background are satirical skulls and skeletons of various characters, including a priest, a general, a capitalist, and a laborer. In Mexico, the carnival atmosphere of Day of the Dead invites political satire and commentary. Rivera painted his figures in a simplified, rounded, monumental style. He insightfully recorded different individuals' personalities, and he captured the crush and excitement of the crowd and the spirit of the event.

Chartres Cathedral, Rose Window

Europe 1145-1170 christian stained glass filled the church with light, Mary and Jesus in center surrounded by Old Testament prophets from 1233, on the north transept of Chartres, shows rings of Old Testament prophets and kings surrounding Mary with her child Jesus. This illustrates the Christian concept that the Old Testament culminated in the birth of Christ. Mary's central location indicates the raised status of women. (In fact, the church is dedicated to Mary.) The female model was now Mary, mother of the savior Jesus, rather than sinful Eve. Geometry was used to locate the various small scenes in this window by inscribing and rotating squares within a circle. The window is shaped like a blooming rose, a symbol of Mary.

Pantheon

For comparison, we see centuries later how simple geometric shapes formed the basis of a Roman building that alluded to divine qualities of perfection and completion. dated 118-125, is a shrine to the chief deities of the Roman Empire. A 142-foot-diameter sphere fits into the interior space, making the width of the building equal to its height. The dome, a perfect hemisphere, is the top half of that sphere. A 30-foot circular opening at the top (the oculus, or eye) creates a shaft of sunlight that dramatically illuminates the interior. Squares are inscribed in the dome and wall surfaces and are the basis of the pattern on the marble inlay floor. The entire structure is symmetrical, both inside and out, and creates the impression of loftiness, simplicity, and balance. we will see the circle and square and verticality in many religious structures, and geometry was important for their placement and orientation.

Tribute in Light

John Bennett and others 2002 memorial that consists of light beams he tragedies of September 11, 2001, have been memorialized in several ways. For one month in 2002,Tribute in Light, designed by three architects, two artists, and a lighting consultant, projected two powerful beams of light into the night sky where the twin towers of the World Trade Center once stood. Tribute in Light has been re-created each year since 2002 for the anniversary of the attacks. These temporary "towers" of light appeared architectonic because each was composed of forty-four high-powered lamps that, combined, resembled a three-dimensional column with fluting. As light, the beams referenced hope and aspiration, but because they were immaterial, they also recalled the transitory nature and vulnerability of earthly things.

Moore, UIG & Perez Assoc., Piazza d'Italia

Other reactions against the International Style were more radical, like New Orleans' Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore with U.I.G. and Perez Associates. Moore believed that cities had lost much of their unique character because of new skyscrapers that all looked alike. He favored the Postmodernarchitectural style in his Piazza d'Italia, emphasizing visual complexity, historical references, colorfulness, and even fun. Postmodernists believed that "less is a bore."Piazza d'Italiacombines elements from the Roman Empire, the Italian Renaissance, and twentieth-century entertainment sites. A map of Sicily sits at the center of the plaza, connected to the larger map of Italy that joins the curved architectural fragments behind it. The Piazza d'Italia suffered severe decline in the 1990s because of the lack of commercial enterprises around it. In order to be adequately supported, urban public spaces need to be completely tax supported or commercially successful for entrepreneurs. The Piazza has recently been partly restored with funds from private developers. Architecture continues to evolve past the Postmodernist Piazza d'Italia.

Cathedral

Raymond Carver A large and important church The major church of a diocese, where the bishop has his seat

Type 2 Sample question: Which of the following was made for the Chinese ruler's tomb in Shaanxi province, China? A. Soldiers from Pit I B. Reliquary Guardian Figure C. Día de los Muertos D. Tribute in Light

Soldiers from Pit I

Aids Memorial Quilt

The Names Project organized a commemorative work with a personal and political impact Another powerful art project to compare is the AIDS Memorial Quilt, shown here in 1996, a commemorative work with a personal and political impact. The quilt is composed of thousands of individual 3- by 6-foot panels, approximately the size of a twin-bed blanket, which would cover the body of one person who died from AIDS. Friends or family make each panel and decorate it, sometimes only with initials but often more elaborately, with photographs, memorabilia, or details of a life story. The work is organized by a group called the Names Project in San Francisco, and most people contributing quilt pieces have no art training. The format of a quilt is especially appropriate for this collaborative, grassroots product of loving remembrance. Begun in the mid-1980s, theAIDS Memorial Quilt had become a vast public spectacle in only a few years, which communicates the enormity of the epidemic and its toll in the United States alone. The quilt changes every time it is displayed. Its proximity to the White House and government buildings means that the disease was recognized publicly as a crisis and a tragedy by the U.S. government.

Torah

The first five books of Jewish Scripture, which they believe are by Moses, are called this A Hebrew word meaning "law," referring to the first five books of the Old Testament.

Koran (Qur'an)

The holy book of Islam Muslim holy book Islamic holy book

Pueblo Bonito

Type of Housing (11th century) - group living In creating Habitat, Safdie was also influenced by Pueblo Bonitoat Chaco Canyon, especially its energy efficiency, location near natural resources, and design for many residences. It was constructed by the Anasazi people of New Mexico, who were the ancestors of many native peoples of the U.S. Southwest. They were skilled farmers in a dry climate. Pueblo Bonito was a ceremonial fortress that may have been reserved for the Anasazi elite. It was built all in one piece over the rubble of previous construction, with precisely aligned walls and doors. The structure has sweeping lines, contrasting with the rough vertical cliffs behind it. The walls cover 4 acres, with five-story structures and approximately 660 rooms surrounding dual plazas to accommodate perhaps 1,000 residents. Various clans occupied certain sections of the pueblo. The round underground structures are kivas, centers for ceremony and contemplation.

Wright, Fallingwater

Type of Housing (1936-1938) - individual home - falling water has cantilevered porches, which were influenced by Japanese and Chinese architecture arguably one of the most famous modern houses in the United States. Frank Lloyd Wright designed it for the wealthy Kaufmann family from Pittsburgh as a weekend home in the woods to balance their urban lives. Wright believed that houses should be unified wholes that merge into their natural settings, using local materials. A large boulder is the base of the house's central fireplace, while stones for walls came from nearby quarries. Geometric blocks, some vertical but most horizontal, sit low to the ground. There is no decoration, except the contrasting textures of stone and concrete. The house is arranged to allow maximum sunlight inside. Long, rectilinear windows frame views of the surrounding trees. Fallingwater has cantilevered porches, which were influenced by Japanese and Chinese architecture where cantilevers were used extensively in roof designs. Like much of the traditional domestic architecture of Asia, the walls inFallingwater are not load bearing but act as privacy screens. Also from Japan was the idea of a flowing interior space, with few walls and large windows.

House of Julius Polybius

Type of Housing (2nd century) -individual home -airy courtyards, gardens, and artworks distinguished the villas of the wealthy in the ancient Roman Empire The designs of individual homes embody climate concerns, aesthetic preferences, and cultural choices. a spacious and beautiful house for wealthy Romans in Pompeii in the first century ce. (In contrast, average Romans at this time lived in cramped, unheated, multistory apartment buildings with no sanitary facilities.) The villa's exteriors were rather plain, but inside, individual rooms opened onto courtyard spaces that brought fresh air and light into the center of the house. The front atrium in such houses often had a pool, called the impluvium, for collecting rainwater. Paintings and mosaics covered most interior walls and floors. Interior spaces flowed into the courtyard garden, usually furnished with marble tables and fountains. The Roman house was organized symmetrically around an axis that ran from the entrance to the back of the house, aligning a succession of lovely views and providing illumination throughout the dwelling.

Pueblo Bonito, Anasazi

Type of Housing 11th century - group living

Palladio, Villa Rotonda

Type of Housing 1552 Individual home the harmonious geometric shapes of villa rotunda represent renaissance philosophical principles of orderliness and hierarchy a sixteenth-century Italian house influenced by Greek and Roman designs. This era was theRenaissance, known for the rebirth of learning in Europe from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries and for the study of Greek and Roman culture. The designer, Andrea Palladio, was the chief architect of the Venetian Republic and wrote books promoting symmetry and stability as controlling elements of architectural design. Centuries later, his writings influenced Thomas Jefferson's design of his home, Monticello. Palladio's villa has a centralized plan, with thirty-two rooms and four identical porches, united by the central, dome-covered rotunda. The harmonious geometric shapes represent Renaissance philosophical principles of orderliness and hierarchy. Steep flights of stairs lead up to the structure, very much like a Roman temple on a platform.

Stupa

a dome-shaped structure erected as a Buddhist shrine. For several hundred years after his death, Sakyamuni was represented by a set of symbols but never as a human because he had achieved enlightenment. One symbol for Sakyamuni was the stupa, a sign of his death and attainment of nirvana. Originally, a stupa was a mound tomb. It eventually was transformed into a monument that contained the ashes or relics of a Buddha.

Sarcophagus

a large stone coffin usually decorated with sculpture and inscriptions used for wealthy Egyptians

Nirvana

a state of perfect peace in which the soul would be free from suffering forever The state of englightenment for Buddhists. a condition of great peace or happiness

Shiva as Nataraja, or Lord of the Dance

americas ca 1000 hinduism The god Shiva, one of the primary avatars, is the source of good and evil, male and female. He is the unity in which all opposites meet. He is the destroyer of life who also recreates it—terrible and, at the same time, mild. Since the tenth century, Shiva has often been depicted in Hindu art as Nataraja, or Lord of the Dance, seen here in a sculpture from c. 1000. Shiva's body is shown as supple, sleek, and graceful. Cobra heads form the ends of his hair, and he stands in perfect balance. As the lord of the unending dance, he is the embodiment of cosmic energy, yet the balanced pose also contains the concept of eternal stillness. The multiple arms tell of his power, and his divine wisdom is shown by the third eye in the middle of his forehead. His far right hand holds a small, hourglass-shaped drum, the beating of which stands for creation and the passing of time. The second right arm is coiled by a snake that symbolizes regeneration, while the hand forms a mudra, a symbolic gesture that here is a sign of protection. The far left hand balances a flame that symbolizes destruction, while the other left hand points to his feet. The left foot is elevated in the dance, indicating release from this earth, and the right foot crushes the personification of ignorance. The circle of fire that radiates around Shiva shows the unfolding and transformation of the universe and its destruction.

vanitas

an artwork in which the objects remind the viewer of the transience of life a still-life painting of a 17th-century Dutch genre containing symbols of death or change as a reminder of their inevitability. a theme in still life painting that stresses the brevity of life and the folly of human vanity

Synagogue at Dura Europos

ancient mediterranean (245-256) Judaism images have been found in scripture illumination and on the walls of ancient synagogues. we see the interior of the Synagogue at Dura-Europos, dated 245-256 ce, which is covered with paintings depicting Old Testament themes. Dura-Europos was an outpost in Syria and was probably founded around 323 bce. The Synagogue at Dura-Europos, originally a private home with a courtyard, was transformed into a place of worship in the second century ce. The paintings on the walls were didactic, illustrating stories found in the Hebrew Bible. The figures have stylized gestures; lack expression, mass, and depth; and, for the most part, stand in frontal rows, providing a means to explain a concept or illustrate a story. Action was not depicted. Yahweh was shown as a hand emerging from the top of the panels. Evidently, this kind of image making was not forbidden for the Jews, but the worship of images was.

parthenon

ancient mediterranean (447-432BCE) Polytheism the Greek civilizations established city-states, the strongest being Athens and Sparta. The ancient Greeks are credited with developing the early forms of democracy. Around 500 bce, the Golden Age of Greece began, producing great advances in philosophy, the arts (see Parthenon, Fig. 7.32 ), architecture, writing, crafts, medicine, mathematics, and Olympic sports. a good example of a standard Classical Greek temple. Following a three-hundred-year precedent, it is a two-room structure with pediments above the short sides and a colonnaded porch all around. It is more graceful and refined than older temples, but, like them, it was covered using the post-and-lintel system. This particular style (or "order") of temple was called Doric and could be easily identified by its column. The Doric column had no base, a simple cushion capital, and a shaft that was fluted, or carved from top to bottom with thin, vertical channels. High-quality marble blocks were carefully stacked and finished so that the columns originally appeared seamless. the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates often treated it more like a piece of sculpture than architecture. Like a pedestal, the steps form the base for the structure. They are higher at the middle of each side and lower at the corners, to counteract the illusion of sagging in the middle. Thus, the Parthenon contains optical illusions. The corner columns are thicker and placed closer to neighboring columns to compensate for the glaring bright sky behind them that would make them seem thinner. Outer columns lean slightly toward the middle of the building to make the Parthenon more visually cohesive. The shaft of the Doric column has a slight swelling at the middle, called an entasis, to give the column a feeling of organic flexing. The Parthenon had two interior rooms for housing sacred objects, rooms that only a few priests entered. Religious ceremonies took place outside, so originally the exterior was richly adorned with sculpture and brightly painted. the frieze shows a long procession of Greek worshipers climbing up to the Parthenon, including marshals, youths, maidens, musicians, jar carriers, horsemen, and charioteers, some bringing animals for sacrifice. builders used a consistent set of proportions to determine the length and width of parts within theParthenon, and they balanced horizontal and vertical elements to give the structure a quality of self-containment. By not being overwhelming in size, the Parthenon also reflects the Greek idea of the value of the individual.

Etruscan tombs

ca. 520 BCE Sarcophagus with reclining couple commemorative art in ancient world It is interesting to compare Egyptian funerary practices with those of other cultures. The Etruscans were another ancient people who buried their dead in earthen mounds furnished for the afterlife. The Etruscan civilization was a loose band of city-states in west-central Italy. It developed in the eighth and seventh centuries bce, flourished, and then was overtaken by the expanding Roman Empire in the fifth and fourth centuries bce. Around the city of Cerveteri, the Etruscans buried their dead under row after row of earthen mounds arranged along "streets" in a necropolis. The Etruscan tombs often had several modest-sized rooms, laid out much like houses. These tomb chambers were carved directly out of the soft bedrock, called tufa. Furnishings, such as chairs and beds and utensils, were sometimes carved in relief on the underground rock surfaces. They simulated a domestic interior. In contrast to those of other civilizations, the Etruscan tombs are not grand monuments to powerful rulers but reminders of a society that emphasized sociability and the pleasures of living. The freestanding terra-cotta sculpture Sarcophagus with Reclining Couple, c. 520 bce, comes from a tomb in Cerveteri. The clay sarcophagus, with life-size figures, was molded in four pieces. The wife and husband are shown at the same scale, reclining together at a banquet, sharing the same couch. This reflects the fact that Etruscan women had more rights than women in most other cultures. The facial features are similar and standardized on both figures, and their hair is represented as a geometric pattern. Their bodies are somewhat flattened and unformed from the waist down. Despite these unnatural features, the wife and husband still give the impression of alert liveliness, health, and vigor. Their gestures are very animated. Etruscan tomb art emphasizes pleasure. In tombs carved into cliffs near the Etruscan city of Tarquinia, the walls were often covered with paintings. One example is Banqueters and Musicians ( Fig. 8.9 ), c. 480-470 bce, from the Tomb of the Leopards, so named for the leopards painted on the wall near the ceiling. To the left, banqueters recline on couches while servants bring them food and drink. The women are shown with light skin and the men with dark, according to conventions of representation at that time. One man holds an egg, a symbol of rebirth. To the right, musicians dance across the wall. Gestures are lively and animated and are made more visible by the oversized hands. Golds, reds, and greens predominate, and the circle and checkerboard patterns on the ceiling add to the general colorfulness of the scene.

Soldiers from Pit I

commemorative art in ancient world 221-206 BCE from tomb of Chinese emperor Our next comparison shows one of the most extensive tombs ever constructed. In 259 bce, at age thirteen, Ying Cheng became the ruler of the Qin state. By 221bce, he had subdued the rival neighboring states to unify China and founded the Qin Dynasty. A brutal ruler, he assumed the title Shi Huangdi, the "First Emperor." Shi Huangdi accumulated amazing power, ruthlessly homogenizing Chinese culture and eradicating all opposition to his rule (see History Focus). Shi Huangdi built for himself a large, lavish underground funeral palace. In 1974, peasants digging a well uncovered pieces of a huge, buried army of 6,000 life-size clay soldiers guarding the afterlife palace complex. Since then, archaeologists have concentrated on excavating and restoring the terra-cotta army; the tomb is mostly untouched.The Soldiers from Pit 1, from 221-206 bce, are arranged in eleven columns, with four soldiers abreast in nine of the columns. In this image, only a small percentage of the life-size sculptures are visible! The torsos are hollow, while the solid legs provide a weighty bottom for support and balance. The bodies are standardized: frontal, stiff, and anatomically simplified. Certain features, such as hands, were mass-produced in molds. However, every face is different and sculpted with great skill and sensitivity, like theWarrior. He is one of four kinds of soldiers—cavalry, archers, lancers, and hand-to-hand fighters—all sculpted at least 4 inches shorter than the commanders. The hair is shown with detailed, individualized knotting and braiding, typical of Chinese infantry of the time.The clay soldiers were outfitted with bronze spears, swords, or crossbows, or all three, and were originally painted in vivid colors. The army stood on brick "streets"that were 15 to 20 feet below ground level. Separating the columns were rows of pounded earth that supported wood beams that once covered the entire pit. Fiber mats and plaster were placed over the beams to seal the pits and prevent water seepage. All were hidden under a low, flat mound of dirt.

Great Pyramids

commemorative art in ancient world 2500BCE tombs of the pharaohs The Great Pyramids of Egypt are perhaps the most famous ancient burial sites, and they serve as the focus figures for this section. Like Newgrange, the Great Pyramids are very old, very large, very influential in style, and oriented to the sun. They are the tombs of the pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt who were believed to be the sons of the most powerful of all the gods, Re, the Sun God. The pyramids, standing dramatically on the edge of the Sahara Desert, are artificial mountains on a flat, artificial plane. They are part of a necropolis, composed of tombs and mortuary temples, that extends for fifty miles on the west bank of the Nile. The pyramids of pharaohs Menkaure (built c. 2525-2475 bce), Khafre (built c. 2575-2525 bce), andKhufu (built c. 2600-2550 bce), shown in Fig. 8.4 , are the largest among all the pyramids. The numbers associated with the very largest, the pyramid of Khufu, are often recited but still inspire awe: 775 feet along one side of the base; 450 feet high; 2.3 million stone blocks; average weight of each block, 2.5 tons. The Great Pyramids have interior chambers that are quite small and, when opened in modern times, contained only empty stone crypts. The tombs may have contained provisions, but they were robbed shortly after they were sealed. In an effort to thwart grave robbing, which was rampant in ancient Egypt, later pharaohs stopped building enormous, expensive, ostentatious tombs like the pyramids. Instead, later rulers were buried in less costly chambers cut deep into the sides of mountains, with hidden entrances.

Saltcellar

example of artwork that stored food (16th century) stored salt like water, salt is essential. At times, it has been a form of wealth. The European nobility used elaborate saltcellars as a status symbol, while medieval Europeans used salt to distinguish the status of guests: prestigious people sat "above the salt,"while people of lower rank sat below The ivory Saltcellar was carved by African artists for export to Europe. The salt is held in the orb that is topped by an execution scene, showing a victim about to be sacrificed. Alligators serve as vertical supports below. The style reflects both African and Portuguese tastes, and both cultures valued the warmth and luster of ivory and used it for diplomatic gifts. The Portuguese likely drew the original design on paper, but African artists interpreted it, especially the figure proportions, which echo African aesthetics with the large heads, simplified bodies, and short legs The ivory has been worked very skillfully, with intricate patterning relieved by smooth areas and with solid shapes punctuated by empty spaces.

Warhol, Heinz 57 Tomato Ketchup and Del Monte Free stone Peach Halves

example of artwork that stored food (1964) An example of Pop Art represents two boxed that store food in order to highlight everyday examples of popular visual culture are silk-screened wooden sculptures that look like mass-produced cardboard packing boxes for common grocery store items. In the United States, packaged foods are often more familiar than food in its natural condition, and Warhol is celebrating this commercialism, indicating that most people enjoy it and are comfortable with it. To him, the design of a ketchup box is art and, therefore, as meritorious and meaningful as any other work of art. Its formal qualities are bright colors, large type, simple graphics, and an organized layout. Yet there is a sense of irony to the work because whatever is merely comfortable eventually becomes hollow and meaningless. This work was created during the Pop Art movement, which was noted for glorifying popular culture items into art icons.

Hall of Bulls

examples of works that deal with food supply (ca. 15000-10000 BCE). a cave painting that depicts hunting Painting: naturalistic, focused on the animals' energy and movements, and used the side view for easy recognition. Color came from naturally occurring materials, such as tar and charcoal for black, colored earth for yellow and brown, and rust for red. Dry pigment could be applied as powder or brushed on with animal fat. The great majority of Paleolithic art is related to food and shelter. Paintings of wild animals have been found in caves and rock shelters in southern Europe and Northern Africa Food, art, and ritual are likely linked in prehistoric cave paintings, like those in the Hall of Bulls at Lascaux in southern France possibly linked to bounty of nature with huge woolly mammoths, horses, rhinos, aurochs (wild cattle), and reindeer. The paintings' exact purpose is unknown, but some anthropologists propose that rituals could be performed on the animals' likenesses to ensure a successful hunt. Spears and arrows were painted in or perhaps actually thrown at the image of the prey, ritualistically killing it. other scholars argue that the painted "arrows" are few and could be plant forms. They propose that these paintings paid homage to earth and animal spirits. Either way, the current consensus is that these images had a ritual purpose linked to bounty in nature and the human food supply in the Paleolithic era.

Jan Davidsz. De Heem, A Table of Desserts

examples of works that deal with food supply artwork glorifies food a still life in a addition to sustaining us, food is beautiful food's shapes and texture are the subject of many sculptures and still life paintings reflects cultural and religious beliefs. In Europe, seventeenth-century still life paintings often were lavish displays boasting of wealth and abundance, in which food had become an aesthetic experience for refined taste. This was the Baroque era in art, known for exaggeration, artifice, and theatrics. Paintings of food took on almost a fetish quality, detailed and lovingly painted, like de Heem's sumptuous fruits and sweets on silver platters, laid on velvet. The food is not shown as a person standing or sitting at a table would see it but is elevated to eye level, centralized and formally arranged, and surrounded by heavy draperies and musical instruments. Oil paint made deep, rich colors and textures possible. Yet moral themes are part of A Table of Desserts. The tipping trays and half-eaten, soon-to-spoil food allude to the idea of vanitas—that is, the impermanence of all earthly things and the inevitability of death.

Liminality (Duncan essay)

he transitional phase of a ritre of passage, during which the participant lacks social status or rank, remains anonymous, and follows prescribed forms of conduct, dress, etc. Duncan examines the term in terms of the kind of attention one brings to art museums. Turner and Schmidt are two examples that Duncan used to make her argument that liminality beings new perspectives. "Others, too, have described art museums as sites which enable individuals to achieve liminal experience- to move beyond the psychic constraints of mundane existence, step out of time, and attain new, larger perspective." Liminality is for reprieve and revitalization. used to describe the experience of visiting museums that effects the visitors by transforming their perspective of the world, bring them to a higher level of consciousnessand appreciation of life and beauty. Museum visiting is described as a "rational pastime" ideal for a post-Enlightenment culture. (7, Duncan) A successful museum has a very controlled "narrative structure" that stages visitors to be enlightened spiritually andmentally by art.

Taj Mahal

mausoleum (commemorative art) 1632 - 1654 islamic shrine, memorial to wife of great shah Possibly the most famous Islamic mausoleum is the Taj Mahal, the final resting place of Mumtaz Mahal and a monument to the greatness of her husband, Shah Jahan, ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. The emperor apparently loved her dearly; she may have been his trusted advisor. built between 1632 and 1654, is an imposing and impressive structure, comparable in ambition to theBaldacchino in St. Peter's and the Chapel of Henry VII. The Taj Mahal sits at the north end of an expansive walled and gated garden, like some in Turkey and Iran. Such gardens symbolized Paradise and were earthly re-creations of it. Canals divide the thirty-five-acre garden into four equal squares, with a large reflecting pool in the center. Those four squares are further subdivided into fours. The canals symbolize the four rivers of Paradise, from the Quran. An inscription on the garden's main gate reinforces the link between the garden and Paradise: But O thou soul at peace,Return thou to the Lord, well-pleased, and well-pleasing unto Him.Enter thou among my servants,And enter thou My Paradise.(The Quran Sura 89) The Taj Mahal symbolizes the throne of Allah, a celestial flowering rising above the Paradise garden, buffered from the outside world. A red sandstone mosque and guesthouse flank the white mausoleum. The Taj Mahal is a compact, symmetrical, centrally planned structure, constructed on a raised platform and surrounded by four minarets. The huge dome dominates and unites the entire building, but the various parts, from arched portals to windows to porches, maintain their own identity. The Taj Mahalseems billowing and light, and, combined with its reflection in the pool, it seems to float. The walls throughout the Taj Mahal are decorated lavishly with inlaid or carved floral designs, with onyx, red sandstone, agate, jasper, cornelian, lapis, coral, jade, amethyst, green beryl, and other semiprecious stones.

Wamiss, Halibut Feast Dish

store food and water (2005) serving dish for potlatches the potlatch is a ritual feast from the Native Americans of the northwest coast the potlatch was a formal mechanism for establishing social order Another important ritual feast is the potlatch, from the Native Americans of the Northwest Coast. The potlatch was the formal mechanism for establishing social order among the people. The most powerful people gave the most lavish feasts and gifts, and the guests acknowledged that superior status by eating the food and by accepting the gifts. Some traditional serving dishes were as long as 20 feet and were prized possessions passed down through families. a contemporary serving dish for potlatches. Traditionally, carved animal forms were abstracted and rendered as geometric patterns, usually symmetrically around a vertical axis. Certain features, such as eyes, beaks, and claws, were emphasized, and black outlines established the skeletal framework for the entire design. Contemporary pieces like this are brightly colored because the artists used commercially available paints instead of natural dyes and pigments.

Buddha

the "enlightened one"; Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism He is said to have renounced his worldly possessions and taught of a way to overcome suffering. He is said to have found a path for overcoming suffering.

Polytheism

the belief in many gods he belief in many gods with distinct and sometimes several functions.

Islam

the religion of Muslims collectively which governs their civilization and way of life Submission to the will of Allah A religion based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammed which stresses belief in one god (Allah), Paradise and Hell, and a body of law written in the Quran. Followers are called Muslims. was founded by Mohammed in seventh-century Arabia. Islam requires complete submission to Allah, who is seen as the same deity as in the Jewish and Christian faiths. Islam's sacred scriptures, the Koran, contain its articles of faith. Whereas images of Allah were forbidden, the Prophet Mohammed is sometimes shown in religious manuscript art.