ASB 101 Exam 2

In Danger Cave, Utah, dry conditions led to preservation of all organic material. How old is that cave, what did the people eat? What was their main hunting weapon?

(11,000 bp). Everything is well preserved due to lack of moisture, plant remains, spear throwers, baskets, nets, fur blankets, twine matting, course cloth, sandals and moccasins, bone tools, wooden knife handles, gambling bones, and even human feces containing seeds, insects, rodent, fish and frog bones, and pinworm eggs. Although large game such as antelope, sheep, and deer were hunted, most food probably came from rabbits, ducks, and seeds.

Know the time of beginning for Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Holocene.

1) the QUATERNARY period 1.9-present 2) the TERTIARY period 65-1.9 MY ago PLEISTOCENE 2 Cooling, periodic Homo sapiens glaciations, rather Homo erectus rapid climate fluctuations Homo habilis PLIOCENE 5 Increasingly cooler, dryer Hominins: Australopithecines Expansion of savannah habitat MIOCENE 23 Cooling "ground apes:" Dryopithecus, Forest habitat expands, then contracts Ramapithecus, Sivapithecus

What are the four ways that hunter-gatherers contrast with apes

1)Life History 2) Cooperation 3) Culture 4) Cognition.

2. What is mean expected adult lifespan (after age 15) for chimps and humans?

15 year old chimpanzees have on average about another 15 years of life left, whereas human hunter-gatherers of the same age have a mean adult lifespan almost 3 times that long (40 more years on average).

What evidence of long distance trade was mentioned for the Natufians living at Ain Mahalla, Jordan?

2) trade in obsidian and sea shells. Some came from as far away as the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile river, and Turkey. 3) probably trade in salt as well--salt becomes a critical part of the diet once people shift from diet of animal flesh, because cereals and other plant foods lack salt

What does level of sexual dimorphism tell us?

3- Sexual dimorphism in body size or teeth (weapons) tells us about social organization - polygyny levels. Mammals with low levels of sexual dimorphism are often monogamous. High levels of sexual dimorphism is associated with polygyny.

What was the only major region on earth (continent) where agriculture was never discovered?

Australia is the only major human habitation area where agriculture was never discovered.

When did people first arrive on the continent of Australia?

Australian archeological remains suggest that modern Homo sapiens arrived about 40,000 ya. but there is some evidence that they arrived as early as 60,000 ya .

What is the significance of the "burin"?

Burins- an important chisel tool used to make other tools (awls, pins, needles). Projectile weapons: throwing spear (400 kya Germany), spear thrower (> 30 kya Europe), bow and arrow (60 kya? Howieson Poort)

What fraction of all the plants in the world account for 80% of the world's food energy production?

Domesticated Plants-There are 200,000 species of plants .Only a dozen account for 80% of worlds production: Wheat, corn, rice, barley, sorghum, soybean, potato, cassava, sweet potato, sugar cane, sugar beet, banana. All of these domesticated thousands of years ago. No new plants domesticated in modern times

How many different known species of hominins lived in Africa between 2.5-2 million years ago?

During the time period from 3 mya to 2 mya there were 4 to 6 different species of Hominins in Africa. In some places two or three species lived in the same place at the same time.

Prejudice

Evidence suggests that human predjudice is based more on ethnic differences than racial differences. (rich vs. poor and urban ghetto vs. middle American --- culture determines more about black experience than does race)

Why might H. erectus have evolved a very thick skull?

Extremely thick skull. This seems likely to indicate more need for brain protection from violent assault. What could be the cause? Predators, or other humans. Perhaps fighting with clubs between males becomes common in H. erectus as it is in many other modern human societies.

What is the first stone tool industry called and how long did it last?

Flaked stone tools are first found in the same places and at the same times as early Homo! The very earliest are from the Afar region of Ethiopia dated 2.52-2.6 mya. These flakes, choppers, scrapers and hammer stones all refered to as the Oldowan tool industry. Flaked tools show microwear consistent with cutting both meat and plant materials. The main tools are probably the flakes, not the residual core pieces. Also the early flakes produced at Olduvai suggest that the tool makers were right handed!

What is the chemical process of fossilization?

Fossilization is an extremely rare process with only a tiny fraction of all dead organisms ever becoming fossilized. Usually this requires protection from degradation (often rapid buriel in sediments) and then efficient mineralization. Alluvial deposition environments more commonly lead to fossilization. Fossils and archeological sites are often preserved through burial in sediments left by flooding: this also creates stratigraphy- layers of deposition where oldest layers are lower down in the ground. Intentional burial is often important in later human sites and helps maintain structural integrity.

What is the biggest advantage of bipedality over knuckle walking?

Gorilla and Chimpanzee knuckle walking seems to be another adaptive solution that works on the ground and is superior for tree climbing. But knuckle walking is not as efficient on the ground. There is evidence that bipedalism is a more efficient form of locomotion that chimpanzee knucklewalking in a purely terrestial context. David Raichlen U of Ariz, showed on treadmills that human bipedality is four times more efficient than chimpanzee quadrepedality

What is a half life? What is the half life of C14 and K40?

Half-life. The time it takes for 50% of an isotope to be converted into another isotope. Radiocarbon, this dating technique is based on the fact that living animals incorporate C14 into their tissues in the same ratio as C14 to C12 in the atmosphere. This is about 1:1 trillion. When they die C14 is converted to N14 at a constant rate with a short half-life (5730 years). Potassium-Argon, this dating technique is used mainly on volcanic ash with a lot of potassium. It is based on knowing the half-life of the conversion from K40 to Ar40 (1330 million years).

Why does the high seasonality of grasslands lead to an environment with more food for humans?

High seasonality favors plants with energy storage reproductive strategies. Humans specialize on feeding from these plant sources.

When do we first find H. erectus in the fossil record, and when did it first leave Africa?

Homo erectus spread throughout Africa, Southern Asia and Southern Europe during the time period 1.8 mya to about 300,000 years ago. This means that hominins had moved into a much more diverse set of habitats: inlcuding cold, seasonal, northern climates.

How do H. habilis and H. rudolfensis differ?

Homo habilis has a larger brain (610 cc) than Australopithecines. Their skull is more rounded and the face protrudes much less. Teeth are smaller, with thinner enamel, dental arcade is rounder (like humans). They also show long arms and short legs, and small body size - all similar to Australopithecines Homo rudolfensis These fossils (found at Lake Rudolf in Kenya) show larger brain (up to 800cc), but also larger molars, and longer legs. Because their brains and legs are more like humans, but their teeth are more like Australopithecines it is difficult to decide if they are on the direct phylogenetic line leading to later Homo. Some think they are just a regional variant of H. habilis.

What is notable about the Sima de los Huesos fossils?

Homo heidelbergensis entered Europe during warm wet climate periods. By >800 ka there are Hominins in Spain. The most spectacular assemblage contains 28 individuals at Sima de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain. (400-600 ka). Brain size 1125-1390 cc. 25% of the early skeletons were cannibalized!

How does childhood growth and age of sexual maturity differ between chimps and humans?

Human children in hunter-gather populations are weaned around 2.5 years of age but chimpanzees are not weaned until age 4-5. From age 5 to 10 chimpanzees grow much faster than humans.

What are two important implications of bipedality?

In particular, the freeing of the hands from use in locomotion allowed them to develop constrained only by manipulative function. For this reason hominins were ultimately able to make tools easily that no other primate could make. Most importantly tools could be easily carried, thus it was worth the effort to make good tools. Second, the energetic efficiency of bipedalism led to increased day range which meant that some rare resources were more regularly encountered. This could have ultimately led to important dietary shifts.

What are index fossils? How can biostratigraphy be used to assign a date to some material?

Index fossils: Some other animals are known to have lived only in a certain time period (using absolute dating). If fossils of unknown age are found with them, we can limit the possible age span of those fossils.

What is intensification?

Intensification = putting more time and energy into a subsistence practice per unit of land area, in return for higher productivity per unit of land.Clearing, planting, irrigating, weeding and harvesting is a continuation of INTENSIFICATION. 1) once people begin to settle down, the area they habitually exploit is becomes limited or circumscribed. 2) any increase in population will mean that the amount of resources available per person is decreased.3) In order to obtain more food people may intensify their efforts to get more resources out of the same area. They can start to consume resources that were previously lower on the preference list when higher ranked resources become scarce. This may require additional PROCESSING in order to make them edible.(eg. the harvesting and grinding and cooking of wild grains for porridge or bread)

Name 5 striking chimpanzee behaviors first reported by Jane Goodall.

Jane Goodall was the first to describe striking chimpanzee behaviors like hunting, warfare, infanticide, cannibalism, and extensive tool use.

Homo erectus...

Know that H. erectus has a thick skull with prominent brow ridges, no chin, a projecting face, a projecting nose, a poscrainial skeleton almost identical to modern humans, and a brain of about 900-1200cc.

According to analyses of MtDNA when is the last common ancestor of all the human groups outside of Africa?

Last common Ancestor of all Humans ~170 kya

What evidence suggests that Australopithecines did not rely mainly on ripe fruit?

Little can be said beyond that inferred concerning diet and mating patterns. Teeth structure and tooth microwear patterns suggest that A afarensis still ate a good deal of plant material, maybe hard fruits, nuts, berries and some roots. But clearly Australopithecines were not dependent on ripe fruit to the extent found in chimpanzees, since hominin teeth are much larger and have thicker enamel. Meat eating is not demonstrated archeologically, but since chimps eat meat, A afarensis probably did.

How are magnetic reversals useful in obtaining dates for fossil material?

Magnetic reversals- The earth has reversed magnetic field dozens of times during the past 20 million years. These reversals can be detected by looking at the way crystals are aligned in some material. Knowing the magnetic orientation of a particular sequence of strata can allow them to be dated when comparing to sequences of strata of known dates.

What two kinds of tools suggest the importance of cereal grains in the diet of the Natufians?

Material culture of the Natufian: 1) large numbers of microliths, particularly sickles blades with SICKLE SHEEN from harvesting. They also had picks that later evolved into axes and adzes for cutting trees. 2) pestles, mortars, grinding basins and slabs made of ground stone 3) earliest known substantial architecture, consisting of villages of circular pit houses as much as 7-9 meters in diameter, but usually about 3-6 meters in diameter, as evidenced by the circular stone foundations. 4) Lots of adornments made of bone and shells.

What new tool industry arose about 1.5 million years ago and what is the most common tool of that industry?

Mode II - the Acheulean tool tradition. Named after St. Acheul, a site in France. (~ 1.6 mya Africa, maybe never in Asia). They are made up until about 300 kya. a) the most characteristic tool is the Acheulean hand-axe, a pear shaped, bifacially flaked tool 10 to 35 cm long

What is the Nariokotome boy, and why is it interesting?

Nariokotome boy WT15000 (1.6 mya), Kenya Homo erectus may have been as tall as modern humans (an African 11 year old boy who lived ~1.6 mya was already 5'3")

What is different about Neanderthal and human hunting?

Neanderthals were successful hunters -- short range spear thrusting may have made them more subject to injury many sites have deer, bison, wild sheep, wild goats, aurochs, wild horses. Sites with mainly one or two species. No sites contain megafauna (elephants, hippos, rhinos) even though they were abundant at that time?

Know three areas of woodland-grassland where cereal grains were abundant (leading to agriculture) and one tropical area where non cereal crops were domesticated early in history.

Old world WOODLAND/GRASSLAND environments are found : a) the FERTILE CRESCENT of middle east b) hilly regions of Mesoamerica, c) some areas of Southeast Asia, China. These were core areas in which early agriculture developed autonomously. New data show that agriculture also arose in tropical New Guinea by 10 ka. (taro root, bananas). Thus open woodland is not critical!

How old is the Ardipithecus fossil that was described in Science in October of 2009?

On Oct 2, 2009 Tim White and a team of paleoanthropologists introduced details of Ardipithecus ramidus. This was a bipedal hominin that lived 4.4 mya. This hominin was bipedal, but had an opposable toe, long arms, small thumbs and no arch in the foot. The bipedal gait would have waddled from side to side.

What is the biological definition of a race?

Race --a subset of a species (one or more breeding populations) partially genetically isolated and with unique alleleic frequencies considered significant.

Radiometric dating is based on what process? What is an isotope?

Radiometric dating- Many atoms contain isotopic forms. Those forms change to other forms at well measured rates through time. Eg. Carbon has six protons and may have six or eight nuetrons thus C12 and C14. But C14 changes to N14 and C12 at a constant rate. Likewise Potassium 40 changes to Argon 40 at a known rate.

When are the first fossils of genus Homo found in Europe?

Recently fossils dated ~1.75 mya found at Dmanisi in the republic of Georgia are sometimes called Homo georgicus. These are intermediate between H. erectus and Homo habilis, suggesting that hominins left Africa even earlier. Cranial capacity is only 600cc, sexual dimorphism is high, and cervical vertebra are large like humans indicated good control over breathing patterns (speech?).

About how long ago did the woman that contributed the mitochondrial DNA ancestor type common to all Homo sapiens live?

Referred to as mitochondrial "Eve" She was not the only female living at the time Data indicate that the last common ancestor (LCA) for human mtDNA lived ~170 kya in Africa

9. What is age-specific reproductive value Vx ?

Reproductive value at age x, (Vx) is the expected reproductive total output from age x, or the probability of surviving to each future age, times the fertility expected at each of future age, starting from age x.

How do we know that social ranking emerged at this time?

SOCIAL RANKING: with increased "packing" of an area and with increased sedentism, any increase in population will result in competition over resources WITHIN a social groups as well as BETWEEN them--in a sense, territoriality occurs within defined social groups as well as between. Good land for agriculture is often concentrated in small areas that can be easily defended and monopolized. Those people who do not "own" the best agricultural areas may be willing to accept subservience in exchange for access to good land controlled by others. In essence they pay a social tax in order to be allowed access to an area defended by others.

13. What is senescence?

Senescence is a gradual deterioration of body function under optimal conditions.

What are 4 significant shifts in settlement pattern of modern humans?

Settlement patterns : 1. Density of settlements on landscape much higher 2. Sites occupied longer 3. Evidence for shelters 4. Multi residential group social structure - trade and visiting leads to long distance flows of materials and tools.

Where are most A. africanus fossils found?

Since that time thousands of A. africanus fossils have been found. Most are from Limestone caves which mean they cannot be dated with any method except by comparing them with other animals found in the same caves

AAC features

Some of the AAC features are very recent. Voight et al 2006 looked for "selective sweeps" , genes that are at very high frequency and have carried other alleles to high frequency as well. These are recent , highly advantageous mutations < 10,000 years old. From the 26,000 loci surveyed they found several hundred highly favored loci that were specific to the geographical regions, and a few that were common to all regions.

4. What is reproductive value at birth?

The total expected lifetime reproductive output of an individual at birth is called reproductive value at birth or V0.

When do the first representatives of genus Homo appear in the fossil record?

They are present in east and south Africa until about 1.6 mya. These forms are often called Homo habilis (named by Louis Leakey in 1964 = "handy man") but they may represent more than one species. They all share special features that allow scientists to classify them in our own genus.

What three things were discovered at Pinnacle Point cave in South Africa, and what is their date?

Untreated & heat treated silcrete 72kya, Pinnacle Point, South Africa (Curtis Marean 2009) Extensive remains of shellfish at Pinnacle Point, South Africa, 164 kya

In what region of the world are Mode II tools rarely found, with Mode I dominating until very recently?

Very few Mode II tools have been found in Asia, mainly Mode I tools until around the time that modern H. sapiens arrives to the area.

Know the basic facts of chimpanzee warfare.

Warfare - Males attack and kill males from other communities, but will allow foreign females to join them if they are not too old. In two field sites one group of chimpanzee males completely annihilated a neighboring group over a period of a few years. Males sometimes kill the offspring of joining females (infanticide). Females rarely migrate again during adulthood unless their male community is going extinct (due to warfare).

Understand that unique clusters of gene frequencies can be used to separate populations in to categories even when single genes show clinally distributed frequencies.

With the frequency of enough genes we can use factor/cluster analyses to assign unknown individuals with almost perfect accuracy to a major geographical region based on their COMBINATION of allelic frequencies.

What does the Y chromosomal analyses tell us about human origins?

Y chromosome DNA shows a last common ancestor between 140-40 ky. The LCA for non-African groups is between 89-35 kya. While these are large confidence intervals for the Y chromosome LCA, they clearly indicate that the male line originated in Africa as well.

What are the differences in genetic diversity within and between populations for chimps and humans? What does this indicate?

human genetic diversity is low compared with chimps. Mean difference between Chimp populations is 13% whereas mean difference between African and European H. sapiens is only 0.3%. This is true both within geographic regions and between them. Diveristy in Africa is much higher than anywhere else, thus humans must have lived in Africa for a long time before a subset of genetic variants migrated out to the rest of the world.

Where and when did the Natufian culture exist?

this sedentary village tradition in Israel and Jordan is called the NATUFIAN, and is generally dated between about 13 kya and 10 kya.

Know five examples of human biological dominance

• >50% earths land surface converted to human use. •cycle more nitrogen than all terrestrial forms of life combined (Vitousek et al 1997 ). •100 x more biomass than any large species that has ever lived (Lynas 2004) • We, and domestic animals make up >98% of terrestrial vertebrate biomass!! (Smil 2002) •equivalent biomass to all ants (>14,000 species) the most successful terrestrial invertebrate group (Hoelldobler and Wilson 1990).

What are the three major forms of symbolic representation associated with behavioral modernity?

• Graves are more elaborate and include ritual frequent grave goods Red ochre is very common• Evidence for "personal adornment" Pierced shells and animal teeth common Animal and human carved figurines • Cave paintings appear

What is the Younger-Dryas stadial.

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What fossils are referred to as "the first family"?

"first family" which consists of 13 individuals who all died together in a single event.

What are three useful features of mitochondrial DNA?

1) Maternal inheritance-- mtDNA is inherited cytoplasmically through the ova. There is no recombination and no paternal contribution! Any new mutation is passed down through maternal lines 2) High mutation rate-- mtDNA accumulates new mutations at a much faster rate than nuclear DNA. This allows for a well calibrated estimate of recent events (past few 100,000 years) of evolutionary divergence. 3) Many copies-- every cell has several hundred copies of mtDNA, so it is easier to extract mtDNA from ancient material.

What is a difference in the finger bones of A. afarensis and modern humans and what does it indicate?

Althought A. afarensis is fully bipedal, small differences in the pelvis, feet and fingers (long curved fingers and toes) and inner ear suggest that bipedality may have been slightly different and that tree climbing was still an important actitivity to A. afarensis. Lucy has short legs relative to her torso length.

What part of the world did the Neanderthals live in?

The NEANDERTALS were a distinct biological type of H. sapiens that developed in Europe, around the Mediterranean, and to the east as far as Afghanistan. They are a cold adapted northern variant of Homo sapiens which shows up farther south near the same time period.

At what time period do the first anthropoids appear in the fossil record?

The Anthropoids, ancestors of modern monkeys and apes, first appear in the fossil record around 35 million years ago.

Know about the Iceman's clothes, tools, foods consumed and how he died. When did he live?

The discovery of the Iceman on the Austrian-Italian border tells us a lot about early Neolithic Europe. He was frozen and is well preserved with all his belongings. He is 5300 years old. He was 159 cm tall (5'3") and his hair was dark. He was wearing crude sewn fur clothing (with threads of deer and goat hair), leather boots stuffed with grass for insulation, and had tattoos on several locations of his body, and a crude wooden framed backpack. His teeth are extremely worn down (lots of sand in the diet). He carried a yew wood bow and a quiver with 14 flint tipped arrows, a flint knife, and a copper hafted axe. He also carried an arrow repair kit, several pieces of woven string, some misc small items and two lumps of an antibiotic producing fungus. Recent X-ray analyses shows that he was killed by an arrow in the chest cavity.

Know what is a Hominoid vs Hominid/Hominin

Hominoids have no tails and a few other subtle anatomical differences from the monkeys. They ranged in size from 20 to 80 pounds, walked like modern quadrepedal monkeys, and probably ate ripe fruit. Hominins are all the species that are uniquely derived from African apes and one the phylogenetic line that leads to Homo sapiens rather than extant apes. They are all bipedal.

rWhat kinds of habitats supported large sedentary hunter-gatherer populations near the end of the Pleistocene?

Late pleistocene hunter-gatherers developed complex cultural traits with new high density, semi-sedentary sites. This period is called the mesolithic or epipaleolithic. 1) Some areas with higher potential for human harvest, -- allowed populations to survive by collecting and hunting within a small area. -- typically seacoast, riverbank, lakeshore in savannah woodlands. Aquatic resources show high density and little depletion. 2) In most areas, large permanent settlements never developed

What is significant about the Neanderthal association with Chattelperonian tools?

One very late (36 kya) Neanderthal site, St. Cesaire, shows Chattelperionian tools, a complex type associated only with modern Homo sapiens. There are Neanderthal remains at the site. Did they learn to copy the tools, steal them, find them, were they killed by Homo sapiens?

What does the sexual dimorphism in body size of A afarensis indicate?

This indicates a mating system where some males mated with many females and victory in male-male competition was partially dependent on size. Thus A. afarensis was not monogamous like we find in modern humans with lower sexual dimorphism in body size!

Know about when the Paleolithic period is defined as ending, and when the Neolithic begins. The Mesolithic is just anything transitional.

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What is a "cline" of alleleic frequencies for a gene

...A cline may be due to a history of interbreeding-migration, or natural selection.

. Know 6 locations mentioned in class where agriculture arose independently, and know approximately when (within 2 kya).

1) Africa northern Sub-saharan area about 8kya. Egyptians were making copper tools by 6 kya and bronze tools by 5 kya. Huge changes in Africa came about after 3 kya when iron working was developed in Egypt spread to allow tropical forest clearance. 2) Pakistan , India barley, wheat, goats and cattle by 8-6 kya. 3) Taro root (~10kya) bananas (7kya) cultivated in highland, New Guinea 4) Spirit cave,Thailand cucumbers, bottle gourds, water chestnuts and legumes ~14 kya, -- don't know if they were cultivated. 5) China and Thailand first cultivate rice and millet about 8.8 kya. Chickens were first domesticated about 4 kya. 6). Americas - First maize from Mexico ~9kya. First squash (10kya), peanuts (8.5 kya), cotton (6 kya) in Peru.

Why is Richard Klein's idea about a "human revolution" around 50,000 years ago likely to be wrong?

1) Blades and bladelets are common (mode 4 technology) beginning 250 kya 2) Regional variation in tools is seen in Africa but not Europe 3) Sophistocated bone tools are found in the African MSA but not in the European Middle Paleolithic. 4) MSA people acquired raw materials from >100 miles away at some sites. Mousterian Neanderthal stone usually comes from within 2 miles of the location where it is found 5) MSA sites include well-built shelters not seen in the Middle Paleolithic of Europe 6) There is evidence of artistic carvings and use of red (ochre) paint in the MSA of Africa. Adornments by 70kya, shell beads, etc.

11. Understand the 4 evolutionary implications of the age specific reproductive value?

1) Evolve to value kin according to their reproductive value, (the relative genetic contribution they are expected to make). Young children and old people are always 'worth' less in genetic terms than are prime adults. 2) People should value themselves relative to other kin according to their own reproductive value. Older adults should generally sacrifice to help younger adults. In societies with low child mortality, adults should make great sacrifices for children of all ages. 3) Characteristics that indicate low reproductive value should tend to lower one's value to kin. This explains why abortion and infanticide are so common when infants are defective, conceived outside of marriage, twins, the wrong sex (eg. one that may not find a mate), etc. This also explains why some individuals may be willing to commit suicide if they think they are taking resources away from kin of higher Vx. 4) Since females are 'reproductive factories' that males try to monopolize over a life course, they will often be valued according to their Vx. This is the basis for why all traits correlated with peak Vx in human females are considered to be attractive by males (body shape, skin condition, hair, waist/hip ratio, face dimensions, lip thickness, etc).

What are three types of plants besides cereals that are domesticated early on?

1) Legumes--include wild peas (pulses), lentils, chick peas (garbanzos), vetch. The legumes contains necessary amino acids not found in wheats or barleys, plus are nitrogen fixing plants--they have a wide range of natural habitat and it is difficult to tell if the plant is domesticate or wild archeologically 2) Nut and acorn trees-- these trees are native and plentiful to the open woodland habitats of the hilly areas of the Fertile Crescent. They include oaks and pistachios and are important source of dietary oils, which are low in the cereals in legumes, and they ripen in the Fall rather than the Spring, making them an important off season crop that alternates with spring ripening cereal crops 3) Fruit trees: olives, grapes, dates and figs--these are later domesticates. appearing 3000-4000 BC.

What 3 types of observations do archeologists use to make inferences about the past?

1) MORPHOLOGY: Shapes of living remains or associated artifacts often provide important information about behavior. Examples: 1- limb morphology and organization with respect to the body can tell us about locomotion behavior, even though we can't directly observe a fossil animal ambulating in the environment. Quadrupeds, Brachiators, Bipeds in hominid evolution. 2- dental morphology (teeth) can inform us about diet: Insectivores, Carnivores, Herbivores, Omnivores 3- Sexual dimorphism in body size or teeth (weapons) tells us about social organization - polygyny levels. Mammals with low levels of sexual dimorphism are often monogamous. High levels of sexual dimorphism is associated with polygyny. 4- the morphology of tools and other artifacts also inform us about activities of prehistoric peoples. (shapes of projectile points in the great basin- get smaller especially late prehistoric very tiny- shift from spear thrower to bow and arrow. Darts ~ 6-7 gms. arrows < 2.5 gms. Early points have no notches or barbs, later ones do.). 2) DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE. Precisely where fossil or archeological features are located often provides important information. A) environmental reconstruction tells us about the range and habitat of fossil animals and prehistoric peoples Eg. geography of distributions: If you find marine animals can conclude it lived on seashore. Since all early Hominids are found in Southern and Eastern Africa we can conclude early Hominids are woodland savanna dwellers. B) Precise position of artifacts, ecofacts and features can inform us on past behavior. Eg. excavation of Upper Paleolithic cave in France, found 20 claws in a particular orientation. implies bear skin rug if you see exactly where they came from. Without spatial map you might guess they were necklaces, something worshiped, etc. Eg. Finding only the front and hind limb bones at a site, or finding only the heads of animals. Have implications for whether you think game is hunted or scavenged, and what pieces are eaten at the kill site vs. at a base camp. provenience- 3 dimensional position of a feature. This is measured using grids and piece-plotting context- The location of the item in relation to something else that gives interpretive meaning. (eg. knowing the location of the bear claws in relation to each other, pot sherds in a fire implies cooking pot). 3) DISTRIBUTION IN TIME. The precise time period at which an organism lived or an archeological site was constructed is critical for understanding evolutionary processes.

What are three traits that are common to the animals that are first domesticated by humans?

1) grazing animals have the ability to digest cellulose and convert it to energy and protein on the hoof--thus they can eat the stalks and leaves of grasses, while humans harvest and use the seeds--thus a symbiotic relationship develops. Because of these advantages large herbivores were independently domesticated over and over. Genetic evidence suggest that cows were independently domesticated in the middle east about 9 kya, and in India/Pakistan about 7 kya. Perhaps also later in Europe as well. The different species were later inter-bred and hybridized to get many useful variants. Exceptions: 2) dogs were domesticated early and can't digest cellulose, but they are usually not raised for food, or in large numbers or herds--they are useful in herding and hunting of tame or wild herds of ungulates. 3) Pigs can digest cellulose, but not very efficiently, and part of their diet actually competes with humans--they cannot be herded.

Know the features that distinguish Neanderthals from H. erectus and H. sapiens.

1) low cranium with prominent brow ridges, widest point of cranium is low, at about ear level. Occipital bun, where neck muscles attached to back of skull. 2) unique facial characteristics: 3) brain case slightly larger than modern H. sapiens (about 1520 cc). a) face pushed out, nose and teeth protrude more than mod. H. sapiens. b) cheek arches slope backward, forehead slopes back rather than rising abrubtly. c) capacious nasal passages and cavity d) dentition pushed out, large teeth, with massive roots--possible teeth were used as tools. Molars are small but incisors large and heavily worn. 4) Post-cranial: massive limb bones, long bones somewhat bowed, prominent tendon attachments, even in fingers--all indicative of very heavy musculature. Neanderthals were a few inches shorter than modern Europeans but males may have weighed 180-210 lbs!

Know the eight implications of shift to an extracted/hunted dietary niche.

1) sharing between hunters 2) Individuals specialize in complex foraging tasks a) Women do extractive foraging b) Men hunt 3) The two sexes share with each other (carbohydrate vs. protein-lipid) 4) Juveniles cannot feed themselves -- monogamy and lowered sexual dimorphism a) learning rather than foraging during childhood 5) Food sharing lowers mortality → longer lifespan 6) Learning , economic payoffs late in life, favor long lifespan and a larger brain. 7) A regular supply of high quality lipids allows for greater brain growth 8) Dependence on nutrient dense foods and cooking leads to reduction in gut size.

Know the main features on the trajectory to human uniqueness.

1)Bipedality- tool manufacture, extensive home range 2)Hunting/extracting - juvenile dependency, sharing, long lifespan, breeding bonds 3)Cooperative breeding - shared intentionality, high fertility, higher juvenile survival, menopause, prosocial emotions(kin) 4)Life history shifts, juvenile dependence, post reproductive lifespan 5)Pair bonding, bilateral kinship, reciprocal exogamy, multi-band social units 6)High fidelity social learning - cumulative culture, language, social norms 7) Social Norms - prosocial behavior (strong reciprocity) between NON KIN. Regulated marriage & exogamy. Ethnicity/ Ritual (signaling adherence and symbolic reinforcement) Trade

What are four new findings based on sequencing Neanderthal DNA?

1)Neanderthals contributed NO mitochondrial DNA to modern humans (no surviving female lineages). 2)Neanderthals lived in small, isolated populations 3)Neanderthals may have contributed dozens to hundreds of nuclear genes to humans. This is called introgression (the introduction of DNA from the genome of another species) -minimal interbreeding 4) Many Neanderthals have the gene for pale skin and red hair.

What are the five content components of human culture?

1)Transmission of techniques and technology 2)Transmission of symbolic communication system (language) 3)Transmission of social norms (conventions, rules, laws, institutions), and the values that underlie them (morality, ethics) 4)Transmission of traits that signal adherence to a specific set of norms (ethnicity) 5)Symbolic reinforcement of the social norms (ritual , religion)

What is an astounding illustration of human technological dominance on the planet?

1.We are technologically dominant-- world extra-somatic energy output ~15 Terawatts (5 x maximum sustained aerobic output of 6 billion adults).

5. What is the probability of survival to age 70 for hunter-gatherers?

20-30%

provenience

3 dimensional position of a feature. This is measured using grids and piece-plotting

Most of the AAC clustering is accomplished through examining loci that differ due to genetic drift (non functional gene sites). What is known about differences between AAC in functional genes?

377 loci from >1000 individuals shows that multiple gene frequency differences characterize AAC and can be used to accurately identify unknown sample individuals! If we ask for a statistical package to find two clusters it separates Afro-European-Central Asian populations from E. Asian-Oceanean-American populations.. With three clusters, Africa separates out from its larger group. With four clusters, E. Asia-Oceania separates out from Native Americans, and with five clusters we get 1) African; 2) European-Central Asia; 3) East Asia; 4) Oceania; 5) Native Americans. These are the major geographical AACs that have traditionally been called races in biological studies. But note that we can continue looking for many more clusters and break each of the big 5 AACs into further smaller subunits.

What features of A afarensis teeth look more apelike, what features look more human-like?

A afarensis has teeth more human-like than chimpanzee like. This includes: a) reduced canines b) large molars c) thick enamel 4) A afarensis shows high sexual dimorphism in body size similar to gorillas and orangutans (AD Gordon et al 2008).

What is the brain size of A. afarensis?

A afarensis shows a cranium much more like an ape than a human! a) A afarensis had a brain size like that of chimpanzees (404cc vs. 1350 for humans) b) the base of the cranium is broad and flat, with a nucchal line (for neck attachment). c) the face juts far forward (prognathism) d) there is a gap between incisors and canine teeth (diastema)

Know the details of the two theories of domestication we presented in class

A) Lewis Binford's Marginal Zone Hypothesis. Binford proposed that all optimal zones of foraging were full and that emigrants from those zones moved into marginal areas due to population pressure. There they tried to create their old familiar ecosystem by helping along the grains that grew well naturally in the optimal zones. This model is both theoretically more satisfying and is supported by the evidence, i.e. the earliest evidence for domestication is found on the edges of the natural habitats--in areas where the growth of wild cereals must be "helped along" by humans B) A variant of the Marginal Zone Hypothesis might be the temporal marginality hypothesis. Perhaps people in zones of high wild cereal production experienced quick deterioration of climate (we know this happened about 11,000 to 10.300 ya) and as they suffered hunger and population collapse they figured out how to encourage the production of cereals to increase their local productivity.

What are the characteristics of robust early hominins - Paranthropus? When did they live?

A) Robust Australopithecines have large jaws, huge molars, and a saggital crest for attachment of jaw muscles. B) Robust Australopithecines are about the same size as the gracile forms (females weigh about 70 lbs vs. 65 lbs for A africanus and A. afarensis). But they have larger brains (530 cc vs. 400-430 cc.). C). A aethiopithecus (the black skull) is hyper-robust and shows features intermediate with A. afarensis. It is the earliest robust (about 2.5 mya) and found in east Africa. A. boisei is a later super robust type of robust Australopithecene also found in east Africa. Some members of this species lived until 1.4 mya. A. robustus lived in Southern Africa at the same time as A. bosei lived in east africa. They had extremely large molars and thick enamel. D) For many years anthropologists believed that Robust Australopithecenes ate tough plant foods (seeds, nuts, roots, shoots), but recent chemical analyses of bones suggests they ate a good deal of meat. This means that they may have large molars only because of their dependence on hard plant foods during one season of the year.

Name 5 economic changes associated with behavioral modernity and middle to late Pleistocene people.

AMH hunted not only medium sized herbivores (like previous hominins) but also large dangerous animals, and small evasive mammals (like rabbits). humans begin exploiting fish and fowl systematically. 1) Dogs were domesticated from wolves 2) AMH hunted not only medium sized herbivores but also large animals, and small evasive mammals (like rabbits). 3) Most sites show specialization for one large herbivore (red deer, sheep, etc.) 4) humans begin exploiting fish and fowl systematically. 5) Some sites show evidence of seeds and fruits in diet. Shellfish at Pinnacle Point, South Africa 164 kya.

. What are Mode 4 and Mode 5 technologies? How are microliths used?

African AMH invented Mode 4 (blade, bladelet) technology by ~165 ka. They also heat treated stone for better flaking by 70 ka, and made composite tools with wood, stone, and bone.1) standardized tool types - chisels, scrapers, points, knives, drills, burins, borers, can be interchanged in tool kits 2) variety of raw materials. Some, such as soapstone lamps, bone harpoons, etc. 3) complex composite tools (embedded microliths) and use (e.g. multi- component tools, such as spear-throwers)

In what domains is human cognitive performance far superior to that of other apes?

Although apes have similar cognitive abilities as humans in some domains, Human cognition is especially designed to solve cooperative social problems

6. What is the typical difference between males and females in mortality rate? What does testoterone have to do with this difference?

Among mammals males die at higher rates than females. --males take high risks to achieve greater mating success, & they use energy in a way that gives them lower disease resistance (building muscles with testosterone compromises the immune system).

What does the graph of genetic diversity around the world tell us about the origins of modern Homo sapiens? Which region of the world shows lowest genetic diversity and why?

Analyses of mtDNA shows more variation in African populations, suggesting that the current world's population is derived from there. Only a subset of African mtDNA types left Africa and gave rise to European and Asian mtDNA. MtDNA diversity is lower in populations farther from Africa. This fits the predictions of the serial founder model which presume that some variants will be lost each time a small population migrates to a new area. Only a subset of total mitochondrial types was transmitted to each population that got further and further from Africa.

When do anatomically modern humans first show up in Africa and when do leave Africa, and when do they arrive in Europe?

Anatomically modern humans show up in Africa about 200,000 ya (Omo Kibish, Ethiopia 195 kya) and the Middle east around 100,000 years ago. Modern Homo sapiens found first in eastern Europe (Moscow, 45 kya) then Romania (35kya) then move SW to France by 30 kya.The most recent Neanderthal fossils come from the period of 28-30kyafrom Spain, Croatia, and the Caucasus mountains. About 50,000-80,000 years ago H. sapiens left Africa and colonized S. Asia. Around 40-60 kya they arrived in Australia. Around 45,000 years ago they entered Europe. Beginning 35,000 years ago, the Neandertals disappeared rapidly over a period of about 5000 years. Homo erectus also disappears from Asia around this time, but the dating there is still uncertain. At the same time the new anatomically modern humans that replace them show a tremendous increase in tool technology and complexity.

8. What are 4 implications of the V0 equation?

Anything that can affect future survival or fertility is worth less than anything that affects current survival and fertility. - humans discount things far into the future relative to things that can happen now. 2) Since lx is a cumulative measure anything that affects mortality early in the lifespan will have a huge impact on fitness. (all future fertility will be lost if you die now). 3) Conversely, survival is not strongly favored by natural selection near the end of the lifespan (few individuals ever survive to these ages thus selection is weak senescence). 4) With no future fertility there is no selection pressure to survive! There should be no post-reproductive period! (implies that post-reproductive individuals still contribute genes by helping their kin).

What are artifacts, ecofacts, features, sites, and settlement systems? Be able to recognize examples of each.

Artifacts- objects produced by humans (pots, points, etc.) Ecofacts- remains of human activity that are not intentionally produced (eg. fire ashes, pollen from collected plants, animal bones from food, etc). Features- non-portable evidence of human activity (eg. a fire hearth, post holes from a hut, storage bins). Sites- collections of artifacts, ecofacts, & features.

What term is now used by biological anthropologists in order to avoid the politically charged nature of the term "race".

Because of the socio-political nature of the term "race" many modern human biologists are suggesting we use terms like "associated ancestral clusters (AAC)".

When did H. heidelbergensis emerge, and what is the brain size of that fossil type? What behavioral trait is indicated by cutmarks on heidelbergensis bones?

Beginning around 600,000-400,000 years ago, there was a transition from H. ergaster to H. heidelbergensis, H. heidelbergensis showed brain size from 1100 to 1400 cc.

Know the differences in chimp and bonobo behavior and morphology.

Bonobos are also called pygmy chimpanzees because it was once thought that they were smaller than common chimpanzees (they are thinner but sometimes taller). There are a few thousand found only in Central Africa in forests south of the Congo river. There are some interesting differences between chimpanzee and bonobo behavior. Bonobos travel in larger groups (than chimpanzees) which often are comprised of many females. Parties of >4 make up 18% of the observations of chimpanzees at Gombe but 98% of the observations of Bonobos at Wamba. Males associate with each other less than in chimpanzee communities, while female bonobos associate and groom each other more than female chimps. Bonobo communities often have peaceful encounters. No evidence of chimpanzee like warfare between males. There is also no evidence of infanticide but there are several reports of males hunting. Bonobos are the only mammal besides humans that mates face to face. Both sexes engage in sexual activity with each other as part of their affiliative behavior.

What type of tools were used at Boxgrove, England a half million years ago?

Boxgrove, England. About 500,000 ya warm interglacial. A couple H. heidelbergensis fossils and hundreds of bones and Achuelian tools. Animals as large as wolly rhinocerous have cutmarks on them. One horse scapula had a spear thrust through it. Fauna in the area include lions, hyenas, wolves, giant deer, rabbits, frogs, birds.

What are the two theories for brain size expansion?

Brains use a huge fraction of all metabolic energy (25% of all glucose) despite making up less than 5% of total body weight. They also require a regular source of long chain fatty acids for normal development (this comes only from animal products). Large brains are strongly correlated to long lifespan among all mammals. Brain size is also correlated with body size, but humans are an outlier on this graph. The two most popular theories for why primates have large brains in general are: 1) brain size corresponds to a complex feeding niche 2) brains are useful in social competition/cooperation and brain size correlates with group size (more individuals leads to greater social complexity).

What is EQ and what does it tell us about the historical trajectory of hominin intelligence?

But many studies suggest that brain to body weight ratio is a better predictor of intelligence. This is calculated as an allometric formula of proportion brain size increase with proportional body size increase for mammals. The ratio of brain to body size is called Encephalization Quotient (EQ). By the EQ measure, H. heidelbergensis was still not as cognitively advanced as modern humans. This is mainly because they were large body size compared to smaller more gracile modern humans.

. What does genetic data suggest about the spread of agriculture in Europe?

By 6.5 kya farming has spread across all of southern Europe and along major river valleys. - spread at a rate of about 1 mile per year. Genetic data suggest the spread was due to conquest/invasion by middle eastern farming populations rather than adoption of farming culture by previous hunter-gatherers. DNA analyses of European skeletal material shows that only in the Basque region of Spain is there a significant genetic component that does not originate in the middle east.

Organic material in what time span can be dated using C14 dating?

By measuring the ratio of C14 to C12 in a sample we can estimate the age of the sample very accurately (when not contaminated with younger organic material). This dating technique works well up to about 50,000 years. It also requires a few grams of material for an accurate date (must be organic material), and can be calibrated to known dates in many places. Willard Frank Libby discovered this dating technique in 1949, and he won the nobel prize for his discovery in 1960

What are the traits of the Catal Huyuk settlement in Turkey 8.5 kya?

Catal Huyuk, Turkey. Was inhabited from 8500-7400 bp. They lived in a pueblo style village with 200 rooms that were entered through the roof. The village covered some 32 acres (13 hectares) of land. Houses had plastered and painted walls and many rooms had niches for clay figurines and shrines. Some had plastered animal skulls set into the walls. By the time the settlement vanished at 7 kya it had woven textile clothing (from flax) sophisticated pottery, and copper tools.

Which two species of ape are most closely related to humans phylogenetically?

Chimpanzees and Bonobos are genetically closer to humans than to gorillas. Genetic evidence suggest that humans and chimpanzees split from 4.6Ma to 6.2Ma.

How large is a typlcal chimp community and which individuals are usually related?

Chimpanzees live in defined communities. Most communities have 8-10 adults, but Ngogo, Kibale has ~140 individuals. All members of a community are rarely ever seen together. Groups form and split up from one day to the next (fission-fusion social organization). They consist of males who were born in the community and females who migrate in from nearby communities (male philopatry). Males often stick together for days at a time, but females frequently forage in small parties alone with just their offspring.

What is the main source of energy for chimpanzees? How do males and females differ in the way they obtain protein?

Chimps eat mainly ripe fruits. During the peak dry season when fruits are scarce they rely on unripe fruit, flowers, plant growing shoots, etc. They also hunt and eat meat regularly, with meat making up a substantial portion of the male diet during some seasons of the year. Most of the prey items are other monkeys. Females don't hunt but fish for termites using tools. Both sexes use stones to crack nuts at the Tai forest site.

What are the main features of climate in the late Pleistocene?

Climate changes were quite drastic in the later Pleistocene. At this time there were alternating glacial (cold) and interglacial (warm) periods about every 100 ka, but with lots of variability on much smaller time scales as well. The middle Pleistocene is defined by climate and goes from 780 ka to 126 ka. The period from about 195 ka to 126 ka is refered to as Marine Isotope Stage 6. It was cold and very dry in Africa with Homo divided up into small refuges in places that had more rainfall and vegetation. Between 126 ka and 114 ka there was a very warm period where sea levels were 6 meters higher than today.

What are the major climate changes from Plieocene, to Pleistocene, to Holocene that help explain the origins of agriculture in the Holocene?

Climate during the Pleistocene had shown extreme variation, and swings from glacial to interglacial conditions several times. The penultimate glaciation in Marine Isotope Stage 6 had coincided with the emergence of homo sapiens. The last glacial period peaked at 20ka and was followed by a warming trend (and increased sea levels) until 12,800 bp when there was about a 1,000 year cold period followed by extremely rapid warming. The Holocene begins around 12ka and is the most recent interglacial with very stable climate. The warm and stable climate has allowed the development of agriculture.Holocene - a return to interglacial conditions and extreme climate stability. About 12,000 bp.Last glacial maximum - 20 ka , Quick warming ~15ka Younger-Dryas 12,800 bp (lasts 1,200 years).After the last glacial maximum at ~20 kya human economies diversified to exploit more plants, marine resources and small animals.

What fraction of African Americans in the US are more than 50% European genetically?

Considerable mixing of distant populations after 15th century colonial expansion. 10% of African Americans are more than 50% European genetically (Shriver 1998).

What is cooperative breeding? What kinds of prosocial behaviors are found in cooperative breeders?

Cooperative breeding allows for the evolution of prosocial tendencies. Cooperative breeders - species with a significant number of non-reproductive helpers who assist in feeding and raising offspring.Cooperative breeders show "other-regarding behavior", and punish those who are not cooperative. They show more advanced communication systems.Humans have a life history that evolved with cooperative breeding. Because of long juvenile dependency, breeding pairs cannot feed all their offspring. They receive help from younger and older kin (menopause), and from unrelated individuals who adhere to cooperative social norms.

What are 4 physical changes that frequently take place to animals when they are domesticated?

D) physical effects of domestication 1) growth is effected--initially domesticated animals are somewhat smaller than wild ones--easier handling? 2) coat color changes and becomes more homogeneous 3) changes in skull--becomes more paedomorphic (child-like) with more rounded "cuter" features; brain size decreases; tooth size decreases 4) post-cranial skeleton changes because stress patterns on skeleton change due to various factors involved in domestication E) How domestication is recognized archeologically 1) skeletal changes: horn shape (see chart in text); female sheep lose horns; size becomes smaller 2) finding evidence of species outside in natural habitat (i.e., same as for wild plant species) 3) evidence for selective slaughtering--big changes in the proportions of age or sex of a particular species; big changes in the proportion between species (i.e. sudden change in proportion of sheep to goats, etc.)

How far back can we get dates using dendrochronology?

Dendrochronology- tree rings form unique patterns based on the climate and growth in a particular area. Once certain patterns are tied to known dates (using carbon dating) other trees with similar patterns can be fit into the known calendar. Also rings can simply be counted back from known dates in some cases to assign a year in which the tree was cut. Works up to a couple thousand years.

What feature of the environment/economy allows for the emergence of stratification in the early Holocene hunter-gatherers?

Dense resources patches that are small size and easily defendible along with storage and accumulation results in economic stratification between those who control and don't control resource patches 1) "latecomers" to dense resource patches may accept life under reduced circumstances rather than emigrate to less favorable patches. 2) The result is unequal access to resources within a social group. Ownership of means of production by a minority.

What time period do the first apes show up in the fossil record, and when do most ape species go extinct?

During the Miocene the climate gets much cooler and dryer. But the first Hominoids (Apes) appeared about 27 million years ago and lived in rain forest environments. Hominoids have no tails and a few other subtle anatomical differences from the monkeys. They ranged in size from 20 to 80 pounds, walked like modern quadrepedal monkeys, and probably ate ripe fruit. Most apes went extinct near the end of the cold dry miocene and monkeys became much more abundant. This suggests that apes were adapted to tropical forest and didn't adjust well to drier open habitat (as is true today for all but humans). Some giant apes such as Gigantopithecus in Asia didn't go extinct until recently (about 250,000 years ago).

When is the first evidence of the controlled use of fire?

Earliest evidence of controlled fire Kenya 1.5 mya, S. Africa 1 mya, & certainly by ~700 kya in Israel. Koobi Fora, Kenya- A find of a H. erectus female 1.6mya shows that she died from vitamin A poisoning, suggesting that she ate liver of carnivores in the area over a period of time. Experiments on fire pits in these sites provide strong evidence that fire was prolonged in the same place for extended periods, thus couldn't be due to natural causes. This is first good evidence of fire.

When is the earliest clear evidence of domestication of plants in the middle east?

Earliest grain agriculture is documented for the same region as the Natufian culture around 10,500 to 10,100 ya. All of the fertile crescent shows grain agriculture (wheat and barley) and domestication of goats and sheep by 10-9 kya. At this time there were a dozen settlements that were 3-8 times larger than the largest Natufian settlement. Rooms were large and sometimes divided inside by walls. Jericho may have been the world's first walled city (10 kya). Both walls and a large tower suggest that raiding and warfare were common. Some of these small cities had a central plaza for public activities. Polished stone axes are first made at this time suggesting that people began to cut the forest. By 8 kya cattle and pigs were domesticated. Also, very importantly, copper began to be worked into art and tools between 10-6 kya father to the north and was traded between all mid-eastern communities. People lived in small villages of brick, adobe or stone houses and made storage and cooking vessels from pottery by perhaps 8 kya. By 6 kya wheeled carts were being used to transport goods.) Ali Kosh, Iran. (read textbook description). Additional information: Agriculture begins about 9,500 ya. Irrigation is first introduced about 7 kya, and cattle drawn plows by about 5 kya. Early evidence suggests a good deal of hunting and gathering as well as agriculture and goat raising. These villagers may have been trekkers the way modern Yanomamo villagers abandon their home site during some seasons of the year and go off to live from forest resources (sometimes up to 5 months of the year). By 4,500 ya they had undergone a good deal of population growth and were trading with many far away regions on all sides of them.

What materials can be dated with Electron Spin Resonance?

Electron Spin Resonance- Can be used to date some materials by measuring number of trapped electrons (and changes in magnetic field) due to high energy radiation accumulation after the teeth were formed. Electron spin resonance is used mostly to date calcium carbonate in limestone coral, fossil teeth, mollusks, or egg shells. It also can to date quartz and flint. So far, ESR has been used to provide dates going back roughly ½ billion years.

When was Stonhenge built and what is its apparent function?

Farming reached northern Europe and Ireland later still (2 kya reached Moscow). People in Northern Europe made houses of logs rather than brick or stone. During this early farming phase many Western European populations produced megalithic structures and large stone chambered tombs. Stonhenge in England is the most famous example. It was constructed of stones weighing around 30 tons between 6 kya and 4 kya, and its function is unknown.

What is the chimpanzee mating pattern?

Females of a community mate promiscuously with any and all males in their community. They also mate occasionally with males of neighboring communities. But they form consortships with only high status males during the days of the esterous cycle when they are most likely to conceive. Consortships may be maintained by the female (she moves with the male), or they may be coercive (she tries to evade the male) he forces her to stay with him.

What do Australopithecine tooth eruption patterns suggest?

Finally, the life history must have been chimp like since they have small brains, and tooth eruption patterns suggestion a chimp-like juvenile period rather than a human-like one.

How does fission track dating work?

Fission track dating- Many glassy materials like obsidian or mica contain small amounts of uranium 238. This decays into lead releasing energetic alpha particles which burns the material and leaves tracks which accumulate. These can be counted , thus telling us how old the material is. Works on material of any age.

What are the three ways that living things and artifacts are preserved?

Fossilization- organic structures are slowly partially dissolved and replaced by inorganic minerals. This is particularly likely in volcanic ash, limestone and highly mineralized groundwater. Fossils are rock, not bone!!! Natural preservation - DRY environment, COLD environment, HYPOXIC environment- because these environments deter organic decay. Carbonization- organic parts are turned to charcoal but not completely destroyed. Preserves structure of organic material but no further decay takes place-- especially true for plant remains.

What was the last species of genus Homo to go extinct? What were their unique features?

H. Floresienses (the Hobbit) was discovered in 2004 on Flores Island in Indonesia. They are only 3'6" tall and weigh about 55 lbs. They appear to descend from H. erectus and lived on Flores from 35kya to 12 kya. Brain size is only 380 cc, yet they are associated with complex (mode 3) tools!!!

Beginning with which fossil species does hominin phylogeny become clear, with no guesswork about ancestral and descendant species?

Here is our best current phylogeny from 5 million years ago to 1.8 million years ago and Homo erectus. Note that none of the Australopithecines after A. afarensis seem to be on the line leading to genus Homo, because they all show evolution away from later derived traits that characterize Homo. (including them would imply reversals in adaptive evolution).

What are the differences the age pattern of food production between collecting vs. extracting and hunting?

Homo entered a feeding niche dependent on hunted and extracted resources (roots, nuts) rather than collected foods (fruits). These complex resources require a long period of learning before maximum acquisition rates are possible (Walker et al 2002). Although hunting appears to require the longest learning period, even root digging can be a complicated task in which children and teenagers are not as skilled as adults. By contrast collecting fruits does not require a long period of learning in order to become efficient. Learning these complex foraging niches provides economic payoffs relatively late in life, and may favor the coevolution of long lifespan and a larger brain.

How does sexual dimorphism in H. erectus compare with Australopithecines?

Homo erectus could be tall (an African 11 year old boy who lived 1.6 mya was already 5'3") and as large as modern humans. Sexual dimorphism is much lower than in Australopithecines. H. erectus shows a decrease in sexual dimorphism.

Where and when are the first fossil Homo sapiens found?

Homo sapiens first appears in the fossil record about 190 kya in Africa.

What is probably indicated by increasing brain size but decreasing tooth size

Homo sapiens has a larger brain still, but a less robust body and smaller teeth than Homo erectus. These traits may indicate an increasing reliance on tools.

Unique

Humans are unique: COMBINATION of non-unique traits, which arose through non-unique processes but produced an outcome = "spectacular anomaly"Goal is to understand the evolution of underlying cognitive capacities that produce human uniqueness.

What are five features that show that even hunter-gatherer populations exhibit outlier features among living organisms?

Hunter Gatherers developed complex institutions (insurance, banking, social security, common defense, adjudication), stratified societies, capitalism, slavery, monumental architecture. Inter-group exchange of resources, technology, (>1,000 km).

Why do peat bogs preserve organic material?

Hypoxic bogs- Air and oxygen are used by most decay organisms. Some water has very low oxygen levels, anerobic environment. Organic material from peat bogs can be preserved for thousands of years.

Homo erectus traits and implications

I. Homo erectus traits for which their is less physical evidence: A) Projecting nose. The shape of the nasal hollow suggests that H. erectus is the first hominid to have a projecting nose like modern humans. This may be useful in hot dry climates for brain cooling and air humidification. It is also useful in colder dry climates. B) LOSS OF BODY HAIR--this is related to changes in ways of managing heat build-up in the body 1) mammals with hair lose body heat by RADIATION, that is, heat radiates from the body--also, cooling by panting, holding tongue out 2) fur or hair can be an effective insulation against solar heat, as long as animal doesn't build up to much internal heat through running or other work in full sunlight. But for diurnal animals that do work in hot temperatures another way of losing heat is through CONDUCTION via EVAPORATION of SWEAT. Internal body heat is conducted to the surface of the skin through contact with moisture on the skin--evaporation dissipates the heat. This works best on hairless skin, since hair would tend to move the sweat off the skin surface by forming drips--the seat drips off instead of staying near the skin to conduct heat away. 3) Sweating allowed hominids to run and do other heavy work in the heat of the day (since hominids were in fact DIURNAL, day living mammals). Humans can literally run many other mammals to death, through heat exhaustion. Sweating as a temperature regulator also had the effect of making hominids THIRSTY, and more dependant on nearby water sources. C). Extremely thick skull. This seems likely to indicate more need for brain protection from violent assault. What could be the cause? Predators, or other humans. Perhaps fighting with clubs between males becomes common in H. erectus as it is in many other modern human societies. D) Size of pelvic opening suggests most brain growth took place after birth. This indicates that juveniles were dependent on adults for an extended period of time. E) H. erectus shows a decrease in sexual dimorphism. This probably indicates a new mating system, with lower levels of polygyny. All these features along with the increase in dependence on hunting suggest male provisioning and pair bonding between males and females.

When do first primates first appear in the fossil record. What major feeding niche first emerged at that time?

I. Primates have their origins at the end of the Cretaceous period, which ended about 65 million years ago (mya). Early Eocene primates looked much like lemurs and tarsiers. Some were nocturnal and probably ate insects. Other were probably diurnal and ate plant material.

Combinations of Relative and Absolute Dating

Important. Generally combinations of relative and absolute dating are used to date all modern fossil material. ex. East African hominid fossils are dated through studying their stratigraphic relationship to strata of volcanic deposits that can be dated absolutely using K-Ar, ESR, biostratigraphy, etc. Lucy was dated at 3.18 Million years using Argon39-Argon40, paleomagnetic, sedimentological and biostratigraphic methods.

What is the newest Australopithecine found in April 2010 called, and where is it from?

In April 2010 the discovery of a new Australopithecine was announced. The species, A. sediba, comes from a limestone cave in South Africa, is 1.78-1.95 Ma and appears a bit transitional between Australopithecines and genus Homo.

Why was agriculture probably impossible in the Pleistocene?

In the Pleistocene climate was too variable and too cold for agriculture to ever get going. Just as new techniques and technologies were developed they would have had to be abandoned for tens of thousands of years. Holocene climates are warm, stable, and have high levels of C02 favorable for plant growth.

During 2 million years of the Pleistocene how much did Homo erectus brains increase in size? What is notable about H. heidelbergensis brain size (look at graph by Rightmire 2004).

Later Homo had much larger brains than early Homo. H. erectus brain size grew from about 800cc to around 1100 cc during the 1.8 million years it existed. Given that modern brains average about 1380 cc, this might mean that fully modern intelligence had evolved by 300 kya.

What is different about Neanderthal and human settlements?

Lived a open sites and caves, no constructed shelters Did have fire. Seem to have moved frequently. "Camp sites" imply very small social groups. Low density of sites on landscape.

Molecular DNA evidence suggest that humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor about how long ago?

Molecular DNA evidence suggests the last common ancestor of hominins and African apes lived about 5 to 7 million years ago, but we still have no fossil evidence of this creature.

Know five other hypotheses to explain the origins of bipedality. These all appear less likely after the Ardipithecus discovery.

Other hypotheses point out some advantages to bipedality for an African hominin: a) Easier to feed on fruits that are at eye level (savannah bushes); b) better for spotting predators in grassland; c) less body surface exposed to sun, reducing heat load; d) better endurance running due to uncoupling of breathing and gait. e) bipeds can carry items in their hands.

Know the difference between paleontology, paleoanthropology, archeology.

Paleontology: Remains of past life forms. Fossil, skeletal and other remains, Paleoanthropology: Studies of Hominins and primates--environmental reconstruction Archeology: Material cultural products, remains of human disturbance

What is some experimental evidence of exceptional human cooperation.

People often cooperate in one shot prisoner's dilemma, they prefer the Coop x Coop outcome despite lower payoff, expect cooperation from others, make generous offers in Ultimatum, Dictator, Trust and Public Goods games. = "prosocial/other regarding" - "concern for the payoff to others"People often engage in third party punishment & this leads to greater levels of cooperation

How old are the footprints at Laetoli found by Mary Leakey?

Petrified tracks of an Australopithecine walking 3.5 mya in Tanzania were found by Mary Leakey.

What is the difference between absolute dating and relative/associative dating?

Relative dating and associative dating- Something above, below, or in the same stratographic horizon as the material of interest can be dated by one of the above methods. This allows associations to provide a logical chain for dating Absolute dating- fossil material, or material associated with it is dated using known physical, chemical and biological rates. Radiometric decay Fission track Thermoluminescence Electronic spin resonance Tree ring, tooth enamel

What is the evidence that genus Homo was strongly dependent on meat for its diet?

Some sites have hundreds of animal bones from species that range in size from small rodents to antelopes, pigs, and even elephants and giraffes. Bones at these sites are often covered in cutmarks made by stone tools. Importantly the hominin thorax shape changes at this time suggesting a reduction in gut size. We know that modern humans have very small guts compared to other apes, and that this is an indication that they are adapted to eat low fiber diets (eg. meat) but it is also a result of cooking food, which greatly increases digestability.

What is taphonomy?

Taphonomy is the study of decaying organisms over time and how they may become fossilized. Taphonomic analyses shows hominin activity at a number of sites. Stone tools were used to butcher the carcasses of the animal fossils found.

What is taphonomy?

Taphonomy- study of animal remains at sites....

When did humans first arrive in the new world? Where were the classic spear points found that were used to hunt mammoths and giant bison?

The Americas were first colonized about 15,000-35,000 years ago.Earliest humans in the Americas hunted some of the megafauna using spears before its ultimate extinction. Clovis points found near Clovis, New Mexico are the earliest well dated type of North American artifact. They were large spearpoints used to hunt giant bison and mammoths.

Glacial Maximum

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to a period in the Earth's climate history when ice sheets were at their most recent maximum extension, between 26,500 and 19,000-20,000 years ago,[1] marking the peak of the last glacial period.

What are Neanderthal tools like?

The Mousterian is characterized by smaller, more complex tools, with a larger number of different kinds of tools made from flakes, including points, burins, borers, denticulates, notched flakes, knives, as well as scrapers, shoppers, and hand axes. Mousterian tools can be contrasted sharply with previous tool traditions in terms of their complexity. Mode III prepared core technology around 300 ka. Neanderthals probably engaged in soft percussion using wood or bone hammers and pressure flaking. Neanderthals trimmed flakes to make scrapers, points and knives. They did NOT make blades or microliths (mode IV) like modern humansThey used wooden tools (broken wooden spear point) and hafted stone points onto wood to make spears or axes, but they did not extensively use bone tools (like humans) No evidence of throwing anatomy or obvious projectile weapons (spear throwers, bow and arrow)!

7. What is the main difference between male and female age specific fertility curves in humans?

The age-specific fertility curve in traditional populations shows a peak for females at around ages 20-30, and a peak for males several years later.

What has to be done to a sample in order to measure the amount of K40 that has converted to Ar40?

The argon is a gas whereas potassium is a solid, thus when the material is heated bubbles of argon gas are released. The technique is very good for dating material from about 500,000 years to about 3 billion years.

What is the hominin type that is very well described and includes Lucy as a representative? How old is Lucy?

The earliest well described hominin fossils are categorized as Australopithecus afarensis. They are found in Ethiopia, Chad, Kenya, and South Africa and mainly date from about 3.5 mya to about 2.8 mya. We have many very well preserved examples of A. afarensis including "Lucy" dated at 3.2 mya

What are the four major types of changes that constitute "behavioral modernity"

The hallmark of AMH is their behavior, not their small changes in anatomy. These changes are now referred to as the emergence of "behavioral modernity". The late Pleistocene humans are characterized by four major changes: 1) Ecological range—H. sapiens expanded to inhabit dry areas, and far northern regions. Near the end of the Pleistocene they colonized all areas of the earth, except a few very remote islands and the continent of Antarctica. They began to frequently exploit a wide range of resources from megafauna (mammoths) to fish, birds, and plants. 2) Technology - H. sapiens made a wide variety of tool types in highly standardized form. These varied through time and across space, suggesting discrete cultural traditions. Some of these tools were made from antlers, ivory, bone and wood as well as stone. Many composite tools included multiple component materials. They made elaborate shelters, clothing, projectile weapons. 3) Social Organization—H. sapiens lived at higher densities, in larger groups, and traded long distances for raw materials, indicating frequent and friendly relations between multiple residential units. 4) Symbolic expression—H. sapiens created art, adorned themselves with paint and rare objects, performed ritual burials and probably practiced other symbolic behaviors. For the first time we see good evidence of regional ethnic groups.

What are the two critical features that appear to interact to produce human uniqueness?

The interaction of two critical features that allowed biological success of H. sapiens: 1) Cumulative culture from specialized social learning mechanisms -high fidelity imitation guided innovation. Teaching - social learning is actively facilitated by a cooperative "donor" of information = "ratchet effect" 2) Cooperation between non-kin facilitated through social norms that regulate competition and include third party punishment of violators & ethnic markers and ritual to signal adherence. -→ SPECIALIZATION

context

The location of the item in relation to something else that gives interpretive meaning. (eg. knowing the location of the bear claws in relation to each other, pot sherds in a fire implies cooking pot).

What does the fact that all modern humans are equally closely related to Neanderthals tell us?

The mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests that no unbroken lines of females outside a small population of AM humans that arose in Africa about 200,000 ya survive to the present. Only 2 mtDNA lineages (M & N ) from 1 family (L3) made it out of Africa to give rise to all current mtDNA sublineages.

Know some of the features that are associated with the Monte Verde site in Chile. How old is that site?

The oldest securely dated archaeological site is Monte Verde in Chile. One portion of this site has been dated to 12,500 years old and a lower layer may be much older. One of the best preserved Paleo-Indian sites is Monte Verde in Chile where a dozen rectangular huts 3 x 4.5 meters were made from wooden frameworks covered with skins and comprised a village. They hunted mastodons and camels with spears and ate nuts, fruits, berries and tubers. The site is dated securely at 12,500 bp, even older than the clovis site. Because it is in a well preserved bog it contains stakes from skin tents, chewed up food (seaweed and potato), stone tools, and even mastodon bones showing Paleo-Indians hunted Pleistocene megafauna

What are two changes that take place in plants after they are domesticated?

The origin of agriculture can be detected by changes that occur during the domestication of plants. 1) grain kernels become more likely to stay on the head (those that fall to the ground are never planted). This is due to the evolution of a structure called the "rachis" that binds kernals onto the grain head in domesticated but not wild cereal grains. 2) Head's of grain become larger (wheat, corn) and the kernels themselves become larger.

Which fossil species, found by R. Dart, was the first clear bipedal ape on the hominin line, and considered to be a true "missing link"?

The type specimen for Australopithecines is A. africanus first found by Raymond Dart in South Africa. Dart's find was a small child (called the Taung child) that many paleontologists thought was an ape. But he showed that it had a foramen magnum placed well forward in the center of its skull and therefore had to walk bipedally. In 1924, then scientists finally had their definitive evidence of a bipedal ape-man missing link between chimpanzees and humans, but it really took until the 1940s for Darts fossil to be fully accepted as Hominin. Raymond Dart's find of an Australopithecus africanus in South Africa in 1924 was the first fossil that was clearly intermediate between an ape and a human and led many scientists to accept Darwin's scenario for human evolution.

About how many polymorphic genetic loci are needed to separate people with 100% accuracy into major geographical regions of ancestry? How many total polymorphic sites are there in modern humans?

There are ~15 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in humans. & 1.7 million large structural polymorphisms Only ~1000 polymorphic sites are needed to distinguish individuals of major geographical regions with ~100% accuracy

What kind of material can be dated with thermoluminescence?

Thermoluminescence- High energy processes trap electrons in the lattice of a rock. When it is heated those electrons are released. By heating samples in a laboratory one can estimate how long has passed since the rock was last heated to a high temperature. This is useful for dating some stone tools or pottery that have been heated by hominid fires. Accurate from present up to about 300,000 years.

Why did humans arrive in Australia missing some of the behavioral and technological features that were used to define behavioral modernity in Europe and Africa?

They lost technology along the way, just like the loss of mtDNA diversity in serial founder models. Many of the specific cultural traits defining "behavioral modernity" did not arrive to Australia with humans. Just as genetic alleles were lost, so were some cultural ideas. But the capacity for behavioral modernity was there, and the traits that had been lost were reinvented.

Associated Ancestral clusters

This kind of research led to the use of the new term "associated ancestral clusters (AAC)". The AAC may seem like "races" when we look at only a few, but they can be broken into any number that we desire, with very high accuracy of distinction even with many groups (Tishkoff et al 2009). With 14 groupings around the world due to genetic clumping, six of the groups are located within Africa and there are 8 subclusters in all the rest of the world. Africa shows more divisions because of the longer time period for genetic divergence between the populations that currently reside in Africa. If we take a single world region, cluster analyses can also be used to distinguish sub groups by genetic difference. For example in Europe when we look for two clusters, the Basques of Spain fall out as different from all other Europeans. We will come back to this in the next lecture.

Why is AAC stereotyping unlikely to be important in fields like medicine where population level biological differences might be crucial?

We do not yet know enough about genetic differences between AAC to evaluate the overall utility of AAC as biological categories.

What is uniformitarianism?

We have to make uniformitarian assumptions (such as life forms in the past were also based on DNA replication and not some other system; organisms had the same general requirements as today) to talk about evolutionary processes and the past.

What are 5 pieces of evidence that show A. afarensis is fully bipedal?

a) the shape of the pelvis; b) the knee joint; c) the position of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spinal column enters); d) the feet; e) other body proportions.

Biostratigraphy

fossils of known ages above, below, or in the same stratigraphic layer, can be used to date and unknown fossil specimen. Eg. If A. afarensis fossils are always below a certain pig species, which is found stratigraphically below Homo habilis fossils elswhere, we can conclude that A. afarensis is older that H. habilis. [ eg, biostratigraphy (tools and extinct animals in Europe)]

How did Dart know that the Taung child was bipedal. What species name did he give it? How old is it?

he showed that it had a foramen magnum placed well forward in the center of its skull and therefore had to walk bipedally.

What aspect of social structure facilitated the evolution of costly social learning mechanisms that allow cumulative culture?

human social structure is unique and allows multiple residential units to engage in frequent and friendly interaction due to pair bonding of sisters to males of adjacent groups. This means that rare novel ideas that arise in one group can be learned by members of another group, thus favoring costly social learning.

How many Neanderthal genomes have been sequenced? When did Neanderthals split from the line leading to Homo sapiens, according to DNA evidence?

mtDNA from 3 Neandertals was completely sequenced. Complete Nuclear Genome of Neanderthals suggest complete population split at ~300-400 ka. Neanderthals show higher affinity to Asian and European populations with 1-4% of non-African genes coming from Neanderthals

14. Why do humans get old and die?

natural selection favors a life history that invests little in survival beyond a certain age. It is not worth it for the body to evolve physiological mechanisms that would lead to eternal life (perfect somatic repair, anti-oxidizing anti-aging mechanisms) since nobody would live long enough to reap the benefits. Instead the energy required for that level of somatic repair and maintenance is used in earlier reproductive effort, which is under strong natural selection because most individuals will still be alive.

How does the serial founder effect leads to lower genetic diversity farther away from the original source population of a species.

serial Founder Model - Genetic drift will lead to loss of some genotypes as small founder populations spread. If humans migrated out from Africa, those most distant should show lowest mtDNA diversity

Understand stratigraphy and the law of superposition?

stratigraphy- series of layers deposited by some geological process (wind, water, volcanic ash), principle of superposition- objects on the bottom of an undisturbed stratigraphy are older than those on top- follows from the law of gravity.---with enough stratigraphic sequences we can use logical consistency to date some fossil forms relative to each other even if never found in close proximity.