Asian Art Museum Quiz 7

General Introduction to Chinese Galleries Much of China, a country slightly larger than the continental United States, is hilly or mountainous. To its east lies the Pacific Ocean; to its south thick jungles. Mountains in the southwest connect in the west with the Himalayas, which merge with other mountains and the Taklamakan and Gobi deserts in the northwest. In the north there are frigid steppes. Internal travel is easiest along river valleys, most of which run west to east; these valleys hold most of the population. Travel north and south between them is difficult, resulting in limited contact that has contributed to the development of more than fifty minority groups speaking dozens of local dialects. This diverse population has been held together by a shared character-based written language. Despite these physical barriers, China developed ties with the rest of the world through conquest, religion, and trade. Many products and technologies that were first developed in China—silk, porcelain, gunpowder, tea, paper, and woodblock printing—were much sought after by cultures far beyond its borders. In exchange the Chinese sought exotic goods, horses, and jade, as well as access to the sources of Buddhism. The eight galleries of Chinese art introduce the splendors of this civilization. While the galleries follow a generally chronological presentation (with rooms devoted to China before 221 BCE, China from 221 BCE to 906 CE, and China from 960 to 1911), they also delve into such key themes as Buddhist Art, Imperial Arts, and both traditional and modern Chinese painting. They begin with a gallery devoted to one of China's most enduring art materials—jade. Essential Features of early Chinese Religion The majority of the objects in this gallery and the next come from tombs. These objects and the tombs themselves are the main surviving physical records of the complex religious structure of early China. People in every station of life had a religious obligation to worship and honor ancestors, and to provide a male heir to continue the family line. At the highest levels, this same belief system applied: worship of a ruler's ancestors was necessary for the continued existence of a state. People were also obliged by their religion to provide for their parents a proper funeral with as much pomp as was financially possible and permitted by the codes of the time. Tombs were to be furnished according to the status of the deceased. Each person was believed to have a complex soul. Some parts of the soul were thought to stay with the body after burial and others to travel to paradise. There were state-sponsored rites to high divinities, such as the gods of the four directions or the four (or eight) winds, and the god of the soil. There was widespread belief in and rituals for deities of local mountains, rivers, old trees, and the like. > Religious buildings (including tombs) and the rites conducted in or about them were required to be properly oriented in relation to the directions and cosmic forces. Adapted from John S. Major, "Characteristics of Late Chu Religion," in Major and Cook, eds., Defining Chu, University of Hawaii Press, 1999. The Early Bronze Age In China, ""Bronze Age"" refers to the period beginning around 2000-1750 BCE and continuing until around 500 BCE. What were the primary uses for bronze during China's early Bronze Age? What can we learn about early Chinese culture from bronzes and other Bronze Age archaeological materials? At least among the ruling clans, early Bronze Age culture was highly organized and stratified. The earliest Bronze Age kings claimed direct descent from the highest being of their religion and, therefore, claimed the divine right to rule. Bronze was used almost exclusively by or for the ruling clans. Its major applications included ritual vessels used in sacrifices to the ancestors of the ruling clans; symbols of power such as chariot fittings, which were used exclusively by these ruling clans; and weapons used to maintain the status of these same clans. Bronze came to represent power and authority. Therefore, the larger the object and the more bronze it contained, the greater the symbolic value. Religious practices during the early Bronze Age were led largely by ritual specialists, who consulted with divine ancestors to find answers to questions ranging from the everyday (such as what caused or might cure a toothache) to matters of state (such as how to influence or get information about the outcome of an intended military action). This didactic will include a Map: China in 1300 BCE The Zhou Dynasty Some time around 1050 BCE a group of people known as the Zhou conquered the Shang people and established a capital near where the city of Xi'an is now situated. The Zhou ruled through a kind of feudal system, appointing as lords of various ranks their family members or "worthy" subjects, each charged with control of a separate region. This system was successful only as long as the central Zhou government remained powerful and the loyalty of the lords to the ruling house remained stronger than their regional interests. In 772 BCE the capital was attacked and the Zhou defeated. The capital was moved east, near what is now the city of Luoyang, marking the end of the Western Zhou dynasty (approximately 1050-772 BCE) and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou (771-221 BCE). During the early Eastern Zhou dynasty, regional variations in religion, culture, and the arts became more distinct. This was the time of Confucius, whose writings were an attempt to provide guidance amid widespread unrest and decentralized rule. By the beginning of the 400s BCE, two large states had begun to emerge as the new powers in China: Qin (pronounced "Chin") in the northwest and Chu in the south. For two centuries, these and other states contended for dominance. Qin ultimately prevailed, and it unified China in 220 BCE. Casting Technology During their Bronze Age the Chinese created most of their vessels employing a casting technology that was derived from a longstanding tradition of ceramic making and that served their needs well. The casting process basically went as follows: A model of the piece to be cast was created in clay. Some details of the surface decoration were included on this model. The model was hardened either by low firing or by drying. Clay slabs were pressed onto the hardened model to take an impression of its shape and decoration. These slabs served as the mold for the casting. The mold was removed from the model in separate pieces, which were keyed for reassembly. The surface of the model was carved down to the desired thickness of the final vessel. The carved-down model then became the core for the casting. Details of the decoration on the mold were retouched. Some additional details were added. The mold was assembled over the core. Bronze spacers, called chaplets, were used to maintain a gap between the mold and the core, so molten bronze could flow between the two. The assembled mold was heated, and the molten bronze was poured into it through specially prepared holes. The mold was broken, the piece was removed, and after some polishing and finishing, the vessel was ready for use or for the addition of appendages. For specific information about how this process affected the final product, see the labels in the case linked here. [ed. note - not certain which case right now - will link when I am.] Shang and Zhou Chariot Fittings and Weapons The case to the left of this didactic [click here to see the case page] contains a survey of Bronze Age weapons and chariot fittings. Most are made of bronze. These objects can be divided into two groups: those used for rituals and those used for war. Both humans and animals were sacrificed in the rituals of this period, and specific types of weapons were made for this purpose. Tradition played a strong role in ritual, and many early bronze ritual blades have shapes derived from late Neolithic period models made in jade and other stones. Symbolism and heraldry also played important roles in ritual, and most of the known examples of ritual weapons from that time have decorations that relate to other ritual implements. Warfare was a fact of life during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Since superior weaponry was nearly as vital as military skill, many of the functional weapons that survive reflect the most up-to-date technologies of their time, and many reveal the influence of China's neighbors to the north and west.Though decorations may have been included in order to increase an object's power to frighten, rarely did they interfere with its function. Elaborate horse-drawn chariots found in separate burials near (or attached to) major Bronze Age tombs also served dual roles: They were symbols of the status and power of the owner as well as functional war machines. These chariots and the horses drawing them were decorated with symbols of power and protection, many of which were created in bronze. A Drawing of a chariot with pieces will appear in this didactic. Inlaid Bronzes Freed from the constraints of the repertoire of bronze decoration of the Shang dynasty, artisans working in bronze during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods experimented with a broad range of new decorative effects. Among them was inlay, which, unlike the relief decoration of many earlier bronzes,relied on contrast in color for its visual appeal.The effects of inlay are closer to those of painting. In order to maximize the effects of contrasting colors, artisans generally made inlaid bronzes in simple shapes. Many feature evenly curved surfaces. In addition to the vessel on view in this case, other examples of inlay can be found in the case behind you and in the display of weapons and chariot fittings to your left. [This didactic is associated with the Eastern Zhou thematic group, but would also be applicable to many other cases in the room.] Laminated Sheets - text not available yet. Shang Ceremony

China through 221 BCE - Gallery 14

Religious and Funerary Practices: The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) through the Tang Dynasty (618-906) The objects in this gallery demonstrate changes in religious and artistic practices that took place over a period of more than a thousand years. During this time Chinese beliefs and practices were profoundly influenced by foreign conquests, the rise and fall of entire aristocratic groups, and the arrival of Buddhism from India. Nevertheless, ancestor worship remained central to the Chinese belief system, some of whose features follow: Because certain aspects of the deceased's soul were believed to continue to dwell in the tomb, it was imperative that the body be preserved and accompanied by goods that represented the status of the deceased. Mingqi ("luminous objects") were also created to accompany the body in the tomb; made of less expensive materials, these objects were often substituted for luxury items or were used instead of sacrificing humans or animals. By around 100 BCE, low-fired ceramics had become the primary medium for mingqi. It was thought that there were specific dwelling places for the immortals and that the soul of the deceased could travel to and reside in those places. Spells and incantations, magical beings, and special elixirs were believed to enable the deceased to reach a state of immortality. Animals, Mythical and Real Clay models of a menagerie of animals, both real and imaginary, have been found arranged in aristocratic tombs dating from the Han through the Tang dynasties (206 BCE-906 CE). They represented the desire of the living to reproduce symbolically the ideal environment for the deceased in the afterlife. The choice of animals provides some fascinating insights into the concerns and activities of aristocratic families during this time. Horses played the predominant role among models of real animals. Valued as beasts of burden, as animals of warfare and sport, and as symbols of almost supernatural power (certain breeds were called "heavenly horses"), they were frequently depicted in funerary sculpture and paintings. Models of oxen, camels, and other beasts of burden also appear in tombs, as do those of pigs, chickens, and the occasional sheep and goat. Models of dogs were buried with their owners, attesting to their status as valued pets, hunting companions, and at times a source of food. A considerable number of clay models of imaginary animals have also been found in tombs. Some, such as fabulous creatures with human heads and composite animal bodies, served as guardians at the entrances to tombs. Others had directional or other symbolic significance. Silk Road Trade routes developed across Central Asia because of a desire for silk and other Chinese commodities in cultures west of the region, and for jade, horses, and exotic goods in China itself. There were several land routes linking China to the West, some from Southeast Asia to Yunnan and Sichuan provinces, others running along the eastern slopes and plateaus of the Himalayas into Sichuan, and still others further north. Buddhist monks traveled to and from India along these same routes. The most famous of the land routes is called the Silk Road. Beginning in Chang'an, the ancient Chinese capital, caravans made their way north and west toward the Chinese frontier. A north and a south route encircled the world's second largest desert, the Taklamakan; both passed through oasis settlements, where travelers might be given access to the water in aqueducts and irrigation systems. The two routes rejoined near modern Kashgar and then led westward across the Pamir Mountains whose fifteen-thousand-foot passes were rarely clear of snow. The route crossed additional rough terrain before reaching the great Buddhist center of Bamiyan in modern Afghanistan. From there, routes diverged toward points further west, with some travelers even going as far as Rome. Sea routes increased in importance during and after the Tang dynasty (618-906). Many ships embarked on their voyages at Guangzhou (Canton) and other ports on the southeast coast of China. From there they traveled south along the coast of what is now Vietnam, west through the sea passages of Southeast Asia, and on to ports in Sri Lanka and along the coast of India. Goods were often transferred at these ports to other ships bound for Africa and Europe.

China, 221 BCE - 906 CE

Neolithic period (approx. 6000-2000 BCE) Neolithic Culture: Majiayao (approx. 3500-2000BCE) (sites: Banshan & Machang) Liangzhu culture (approx. 3300-2200 BCE) Longshan culture (approx. 2500-1900 BCE) Bronze Age (2000-1750 BCE) until 500BCE Shang dynasty (approx. 1600-1050 BCE) Erligang (1500-1300BCE) Anyang (1300BCE-1050BCE) Zhou -Western Zhou dynasty (approx. 1050-771 BCE) -Eastern Zhou dynasty, (approx. 771-221 bce) -Spring and Autumn 771-475 BCE -Warring States 475-221 BCE Qin 221 BCE-206 BCE Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) -Western Han dynasty (206 BCE-9CE) -Xin (9-25CE) -Eastern Han dynasty (25-220CE)

Neolithic period Banshan phase of Majiayao culture Machang phase of Majiayao culture Liangzhu culture Longshan culture Bronze Age Shang dynasty Western Zhou dynasty, reign of King Chengwang Western Zhou dynasty Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period Han Dynasty Western Han dynasty Eastern Han dynasty

In the Zhou Dynasty, bronze bells emerged. Perhaps the oldest class is a small clappered bell called ling (鈴), but the best known is certainly the zhong (鐘), a suspended, clapperless bell. Zhong were cast in sets of eight or more to form a musical scale, and they were probably played in the company of string and wind instruments. The section is a flattened ellipse, and on each side of the body appear 18 blunt spikes, or basses, arranged in three double rows of three. These often show marks of filing, and it has been suggested that they were devices whereby the bell could be tuned to the requisite pitch by removing small quantities of the metal. The oldest specimen recovered in a closed excavation is one from Pudu Cun, dating from the 9th century BC. The finest example discovered so far is an orchestral set of 64 bells, probably produced in Chu (楚) and unearthed in 1978 from a royal tomb of the Zeng (曾) state, at Leigudun (擂鼓墩) near Sui Xian (隨縣) in Hubei Province. The bells were mounted on wooden racks supported by bronze human figurines. They are graded in size (from about 20 to 150 cm [8 to 60 inches] in height) and tone (covering five octaves), and each is capable of producing two unrelated tones according to where it is struck. Gold-inlaid inscriptions on each bell present valuable information regarding early musical terms and performance, while a 65th bell with flat bottom called bo (镈) is dedicated by inscription from the king of Chu to Marquis Yi of Zeng (Zeng Hou Yi, 曾侯乙), the deceased, and bears a date equivalent to 433 BC.

Ritual Bell