ATI TEAS science (S.1.1 General Anatomy & Physiology of a human), ATI TEAS 6 Review, ATI TEAS 6 - English & Language, TEAS 6 SCIENCE (IN-DEPTH BEYOND STUDY GUIDES), ATI TEAS 6 - Science (Human Anatomy and Physiology)
The airway of the respiratory system
nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea(windpipe), bronchi and bronchial network. It is lined with cilia that trap microbes and debris and sweep them back toward the mouth.
telophase 2 (meiosis)
nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Telophase creates 4 daughter cells with different sets of chromosomes.
Each cell consists of? (3)
nucleic acids, cytoplasm, and cell membrane
Cranial
of the skull or toward the skull
Axon is insulated by ________________, and myelin sheath with gaps known as nodes of Ranvier.
oligodendrocytes
Suffix: or, er
one who takes part in: conductor, fighter
milli means
one-thousand of something
Which two small molecules typically can pass through the cell membrane?
oxygen and water
Anaphase
pairs of chromosomes, called sisters, begin to pull apart, and may bend
Parathyroid glands secrete ______________,which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from the bone to the blood
parathyroid hormone
Microtubules
part of the cytoskeleton and help support the cell. They're made of protein.
Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually?
pass through the cell membrane
what transport is gas exchange
passive transport
External structures of the Male Reproduction System
penis, scrotum, and testes
Percent means
per 100
what do organelles do?
perform tasks including obtaining energy from food and reproduction. (A specialized part of a cell that has a specific function)
Mitochondria
performs various functions such as generating ATP (energy), and is involved in cell growth and death.
relationship of digestive organs to the peritoneum
peritoneum - is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity a. visceral peritoneum - cover the external surfaces of most digestive organs b. parietal peritoneum - is continuous with the visceral peritoneum; it lines the cavity walls c. peritoneal cavity - the fluid fill cavity between the visceral and parietal peritoneum
Macrophages
phagocytes that alert T cells to the presence of foreign substances
A membrane is composed of?
phospholipids
Cytokinesis
physical splitting of the cell (including the cytoplasm) into two cells.
Medulla oblongata
piece of the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain. It also has an important role with the autonomous nervous system in the circulatory and respiratory system
what gland is the stimulating gland
pituitary
Where does bile come from?
pituitary gland
B cells differentiate into?
plasma and memory cells
Which type of cell secretes antibodies?
plasma cells
Cerebellum
plays a role in processing and storing implicit memories
Pituitary gland
plays important role in growth and development. Where FSH comes from
Thymus gland
plays role in immune responses
The lungs are surround by a _____________, which reduces friction between surfaces when breathing
pleural membrane
When the volume of the chest cavity increases
pressure inside decreases
Cell cycle
process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division.
Cell differentiation
process that helps to determine the cell type for each cell
plasma cells
produce antibodies
Leydig cells
produce testosterone
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin)
promotes retention of water by kidneys
Memory cells remain in blood stream to?
protect against future infections from same pathogen
Glycoprotein
protein with carbohydrate attached
How does water move through the cell membrane?
proteins
Antigens are typically?
proteins on the surfaces of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Drugs, toxins, and foreign particles can also be antigens
collagen fibers
provides flexibility and strength found in bone and cartilage
Which blood vessel contains the LEAST-oxygenated blood?
pulmonary artery
Pancreas islets
raises and lowers blood sugar; active in carbohydrate metabolism
Dendrites
receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons and transmit them toward the cell body
A negative feedback system consists of what 3 components?
receptor, control center, and effector
What is the most abundant cell?
red blood cells
Distal
refers to distance or structures further away from the center of the body. The knee is distal to the hip
Cell cycle
refers to the process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, the duplication of genetic material, cell division. - complex organisms w/ many cells use the __ __ to replace cells as they lose their functionality and wear out
What is the simplest act of Nervous System?
reflex
Parathyroid
regulates calcium levels in blood
Contextual
related to surrounding content
Diastole
relaxation of centricles of the heart (refills with blood)
Memory T cells
remain in blood on alert incase the invader attacks again
What regulates blood pressure?
renin regulates blood pressure by acting on blood volume (renin is provided by the kidney and is part of the renin angiotensin aldosterone syste RAAS)
Meiosis only occurs in
reproductive cells called gametes.
Nucleus
responsible for passing on of genetic traits between generations, defining structure of eukaryotic cells contains: - nuclear envelope - nucleoplasm - nucleolus - nuclear pores - chromatin - ribosomes
left hemisphere of the brain
responsible for speech
What are the functions of: - Ribosome - Golgi Apparatus - Mitochondria - Nucleus
ribosome - carries out protein synthesis Golgi apparatus - modifies and packages proteins secreted from a cell mitochondria - converts energy present in chemical bonds of food accessible to the cell nucleus - stores and processes instructions contained in the DNA that tell the cell what its functions are
ex of organelles?
ribosomes, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, nucleus are ex of what?
The flow of blood in heart goes in what direction?
right to left
Name the 4 lobes of the liver
right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum and what is the difference between the two?
rough and smooth. Rough ER has ribosomes and Smooth ER does not.
Scrotum
sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses the testes and keeps the testes at proper temperature for spermatogensis
Vacuoles
sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal.
Muscle fibers are composed of repeating contractible units called?
sarcomeres
Bartholin's glands
secrete a lubricating fluid
Apocrine glands
secrete and oily solution containing fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins.
Exocrine
secrete digestive enzymes through ducts
Endocrine
secrete hormones (ex: insulin) into blood stream
goblet cells
secrete mucus
Exocrine glands
secrete substances into ducts
Digestive Role of the Pancreas
secretes enzymes to small intestine to help break down many foods, especially fats and proteins
Neuron
sends electrical impulses
Receptor
sensory cells located in the dermis of the skin
What is the function of the temporal lobe?
sensory input (auditory)
Meiosis involves which kind of cells?
sex cells or gametes
Frontal lobe
short term memory, planning, judgement
cilia
short, Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane (cell surface) and are used for locomotion. A cell usually has numerous flagella. Composed of microtubules.
Anaphase 2 (Meiosis)
sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
seminiferous tubules
site of sperm production
What are the three muscle tissue?
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
What is the main absorption organ of the digestive tract?
small intestine
Vesicles
small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.
Nucleus
small structure that contains chromosomes and regulates the cell
Body Cavities
spaces within the body that contain and protect internal organs
The respiratory system is responsible for?
speech
Metaphase
spindle moves to the center of the cell. Chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle structure
Follicle stimulating hormone
stimulates spermatogenesis
Luteinizing hormone
stimulates testosterone production
proximal
structures closer to the center of the body - The hip is ___ to the knee Closer to point of attachment
main function of respiratory system
supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
Effector
sweat glands, blood vessels, and muscles (shivering)
which part of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for accelerating heart rate?
sympathetic nervous system
Prophase 1 (crossing over) (meiosis)
synapsis and crossing over occurs. This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called crossing over. It's helped along by a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex that holds the homologues together.
Solution
the answer
Cause and Effect
the author describes a situation and then its effects
Purpose: Expository Passage
the author explains an idea or topic to the reader -fair and balanced representation of a topic -the author intends mainly to present the details or ideas to the reader to make a decision
Compare and Contrast
the author explores the similarities and differences between two or more things
Chronological
the author lists events in the order in which they happened
Problem and Solution
the author presents a problem and offers a solution
Purpose: Narrative Passage
the author tells the reader a story often to illustrate a theme or idea the reader needs to consider
Purpose: Persuasive Passage
the author tries to convince the reader to accept an opinion or belief NOTE: make sure you are aware of what the author believes about the topic
Which part of the body has the least amount of sweat glands?
the back
*(Ext.)* Testes (Testicles)
"*Male Gonads*" -Produce *sperm and testosterone.*
ie
"I" before "e" except after "c" or in words like neighbor and weigh
Prepositional phrases
"In, out, around, about" are examples of what kind of phrases?
Nouns
"Person, place, thing, animal, idea, or feeling" are examples of what?
Articles
"The (definite)" and "A & an (indefinite)" are examples of what kind of adjectives?
Zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction.
Blood pressure
the fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle
Gallbladder
the gallbladder - stores bile and then expels it into the cystic duct a. homeostatic imbalance - i. gallstones/biliary calculi - form because there is more cholesterol and bile salts to dissolve it. The cholesterol will crystalize forming the stones. ii. jaundice - may arise from a blockage of the bile duct or may indicate liver disease; yellow bile pigment is deposited on the skin
What is the right side of the pancreas called?
the head
Control center
the hypothalamus, which is located in the brain
A number is divisible by 4 if _________
the last two digits of that number is divisible by 4. Example: 516. The last two numbers are 16. 16 is divisble by 4. 16÷4=4; therefore, 516 is divisible by 4. 516÷4= 129
Lymphatic system
the main fuction is to return excess tissue fluid to the blood stream. The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body
Synovial joints
the most common, and are freely movable. Found at the shoulders and knees
Digestion begins with?
the mouth - chewing and mixing nutrients with saliva
Percent decrease
the negative difference between two numbers, divided by the first number, multiplied by 100.
Convert decimal to a fraction by
(make sure fraction is in reduced form.) Multiply by 1,000. Then reduce fraction.
Cell body
(soma) contains the nucleus of the neuron
*(Int.)* Overies
*"Female Gonads"* -Produce *the ova* and secrete *estrogen and progesterone.* -Graafian follicle: In response to changing hormones. Eggs is released as follicle matures. ~*Corpus Luteum*: Empty Graafian follicle. Produces large amounts of *progesterone* to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the fertilized egg. Uterine lining sheds if fertlizations doesn't occur.
Cell Membrane
*"Plasma Membrane"* -Made of *Lipids and Proteins* -*Isolates* the cell from its external environment while still enabling the cellar to communicate with the outside environment. -Consists: *Phospholipid bilayer* with the hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing external environment. *~Cholesterol*: Adds stiffness and flexibility *~Glycolipids*: Help cell to recognize other cells of the organisms. *~Proteins*: Help give cells shape *~Special Proteins:* Helps cell communicate with external environment. *~Other Proteins:* Transport molecules across membrane
Leukocytes
*"White Blood Cells"* -Produced in the *Red Bone Marrow* -Classified as Monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells), Granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils), T Lymphocytes, B Lymphocytes, or Natural Killer (K) Cells.
Autonomic Nervous System
*(ANS) maintains homeostasis within the body*. -Controls the functions of the *internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissue, and glands*. Accomplished through the direction of the *hypothalamus* (located above the midbrain). -
Central Nervous System
*2 Primary Components:* -*Spinal Cord and The Brain*
Basophils
*Alert* the body of invasion
Chyme
*All three* secretions together
*(Int.)* Fallopian Tubes
*Carry mature egg* towards the uterus. -*Fertilization* occurs in fallopian tubes. If fertilized, egg will travel to uterus, where it implants into uterine wall (endometrium) and produces the placenta. -*Placenta*: Allows fetus and parents to share blood within eachother. Nourishes the fetus and removes wastes.
3 Basic Neuron Parts
*Cell body, The Axon, And many Dendrites.*
Open Lymphatic System
*Circulates and filters interstitial fluid* between cells and eventually *drains* into the circulatory system. -Cleans up excess fluid and proteins and returns them to the blood.
Hypothalamus
*Controls the ANS* through the brain stem. Direction from the hypothalamus, the ANS helps *maintain a table body environment* by *regulating* numerous factors including *heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, and blood pH*
Cartilage Tissue
*Cushions* and provides *structural support* for body parts. - Jelly-Like base and is fibrous
Cell differentiation
*Determines the different cell types* -When less-specialized cell becomes a more-specialized cell. Process is controlled by *genes of each cell among a group* of cells known as a *zygote*. -Cell builds certain proteins and other pieces that set it apart as a specific type of cell. ~Example: Gastrulation (early phase in embryonic development in animals)
Capillaries
*Drain interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between cells* -Filters it through a system of lymph nodes that are enriched in lymphocytes and provide surveillance by immune system.
Sweat Glands
*Either Eccrine Glands or Apocrine Glands* -Can contain trace amounts of *Urea, Lactic Acids, and Alcohol. *Eccrine Glands*: Not connected to hair follicles. -Activated by elevated body temperature. Also, as part of body's thermoregulations. -Located throughout the body and can be found on *forehead, neck, and back.* -Secrete a *salty solution* of electrolytes and water containing sodium chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, glucose, and antimicrobial peptides. *Apocrine Glands*: -Secrete oils solution containing *fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins*. -Located in the *armpits, groins, palms, and soles of feet. -Secrete oil when person is experiencing *stress or anxiety.* -*Bacteria feed* on apocrine sweat and *expel* fatty acids, producing *body odor*.
Bone Tissue
*Hard* tissue that *supports and protects* softer tissues and organs. -Marrow produces RBC -Connective Tissue
Sebaceous Glands
*Holocrine Glands* -Secrete Sebum ~Sebum: Oily mixture of *lipids and proteins*. ~*Inhibits* water loss from the skin and *protects* bacterial and fungal infections. -Connected to *hair follicles* and secrete sebum through the *hair pore*.
Control Center
*Hypothalamus*
Enzyme Function
*Infused* into digestive systems to *assist* the absorption and processing of nutrients.
Eosinophils
*Large, long-living phagocytes* that *defend* against multicellular invaders
Cytosol
*Liquid* materials in the cell. Mostly water, also contains floating molecules.
Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
*Located in the neck just below the larynx* *Basic function of thyroid gland is to Regulate Metabolism* -Parathyroid Glands are *4 small glands that are embedded on the posterior side of the thyroid glands* -*Thyroid Gland*: Secretes the hormones *thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. ~Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine: *Increases metabolism* ~Calcitonin: *Decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue.* -Hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to *secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)*, which stimulates the thyroid gland to *secrete parathyroid hormone* which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from the bone to the blood.
Epidermis
*Most superficial layer.* -Deepest portion is *stratum basal*. Single layer of cells that continuously undergo division. Older cells pushed towards the surface. -Most epidermal cells are *Keratinized*. ~Keratin: Waxy protein that helps waterproof the skin. -As cells *die* they are sloughed off.
Efferent Nerves
*Motor* -*Brings signals from* the CNS *to* the sensory organs and skeletal muscles.
Adaptive Immune System
*Responds by remembering signature molecules* called Antigens. Functional cells are *Lymphocytes*
Somatic Nervous System
*SNS* -*Controls the 5 senses and the voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.* -Has all the neurons that are connected to the sense organs. -2 Nerves that send signals to neurotransmitters: *Efferent and Afferent*. They help SNS operate the senses and the movement of skeletal muscles. ~*Reflex Arc*
*(Ext.)* Bartholins glands
*Secrete* a lubricating fluid
Nervous System
*Senses, Interprets, and Issues commands* as a response to conditions in the body's environment. Made by a very complex communication system organized as a *grid of neurons*. *Integrates muscles and nerves*.
Skeletal System
*Structures*: Bone and Cartilage. *>200 Bones*: Divided into 2 parts ~*Axial*: Includes skull, sternum, ribs, and vertebral column (spine). ~*Appendicular*: Includes bones in arms, feet, hands, legs, hips, and shoulders.
Blood
*Transports* Oxygen to cells and *Removes* wastes. -*Carries hormones* and *Defends* against disease.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
*Two Types:* *-Rough ER:* Has ribosomes on surface. ~*Functions*: Manufacture lysosomal enzymes, Manufacture of secreted proteins. (Protein production, protein folding, quality control, and despatch) *-Smooth ER:* Has no ribosomes. ~*Functions*: Manufacture Lipids (fat), Metabolism, Steroid Hormone production (adrenal cortex and endocrine glands), Helps liver detox. -*Tubular Network* that comprises the transport system of a cell. It is *fused* to the nuclear membrane and *extends* through cytoplasm to the cell membrane.
Rounding Rules
- 5 or *LARGER*, round *UP* (decimals) - 5 or *SMALLER*, Round *DOWN* (decimals) - Numerator is *GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 1/2* the denominator, then round whole # *UP* - Numerator is *LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 1/2* the denominator, then round whole # *DOWN*
size, charge (like charges are repelled, opposite charges attracted to cells surface) , solubility (those thatre soluble in phospholipids can usually pass thru CM)
- Cell Membrane has selective permeability with regard to __, __, and ____
Cell Membane/PM
- Isolates cell from external envmt - still enables cell to communicate w/ outside envmt
Airway
- Lined with cilia to remove microbes and debris -*Lungs*: Bronchial Tree -> lungs -> terminate into alveoli (air sacs) -> gas exchange with blood capillaries *Walls of Alveoli *allow for the exchange of gases* with the blood capillaries that surround them. *Right lung* - 3 Lobes *Left lung* - 2 Lobes -Surrounded by *Pleural Membrane* (reduce friction) -*Muscles*: *Diaphragm*: separates thoracic/abdominal cavities *Intercostal*: between ribs
Percent Increase Equation
- Percent Increase ~ PI= new amount - original amount/ original amount X 100%
Decimal Placement/Converting
- Value greater than 1, Move decimal to right till you get whole number. - Number becomes numerator and 1 becomes denominator with the number of 0's that matches number of moves for decimal. = *Fraction* - Value less than 1. Use whole number as numerator and the *Place value* of *last decimal Digit* as denominator. =*Fraction*
Animal Cell Structure
- centrosome - centriole - lysosome - cilia - flagella
Mitochondria
- have an inner and outer membrane - inner membrane is where the DNA and ribosome are - between the inner and outer membranes are folds (cristae) - chemical reactions occur here that release energy, control water levels in cells, recycle and create proteins and fats. - Aerobic respiration occurs in the ___
Meiosis vs. Mitosis
- meiosis has 2 cell divisions, mitosis only has one - in meiosis homologous chromosomes pair up on cell's equator, in mitosis homologous chromosomes never pair up - in anaphase 1 of meiosis sister chromatids are still paired, in anaphase in mitosis, sister chromatids are separated - meiosis results in a haploid cell, mitosis results in a diploid Meiosis creates 4 daighter cells, Mitosis only 2
Duodenum produces what enzymes?
-"Brush Border" enzymes -*Proteases, Lactase and other disaccharides, and bicarbonate.*
Muscular System
-*3 Types of Muscle Tissue*: Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac. -*3 Common Properties*: ~*Excitability*: Tissues have an *electric gradient* which can reverse when stimulated. ~*Contraction*: Tissues have the *ability to contract, or shorten*. ~*Elongate*: Tissues *share the capacity to elongate, or relax*.
Alveoli
-*Aqueous Surfactant*: The *median* for gas exchange and keeps lungs from collapsing on itself due to surface tension
Digestive Role in Pancreas
-*Assists in the digestion* of foods by *secreting enzymes* (to the SM.INT.) that help *break down* many foods, like fats and proteins. -*Precursors to enzymes* (zymogens) are *produced* by groups of *exocrine cells* (acini). -*Converted through a chemical reaction* in the gut, to an *active enzyme* (like pancreatic lipsae and amylase) once entered into small intestines. -*Secretes* large amounts of *sodium bicarbonate* to *neutralize* the stomach avid that reaches the small intestines. -*Exocrine Secretions*: ~*Controlled by hormones* released by the stomach/duodenum when food is present. ~Flow into the *main pancreatic duct* and are *delivered to the duodenum* through duct.
Heart Functions
-*Atrial Contraction*: Fills ventricles and then ventricular contractions empty them, forcing circulation "cardiac cycle" -*Cardiac Muscles* attach to each other and signals *for contraction* spreading rapidly. -*Complex Electrical System*: Controls the *heartbeat* -*Cardiac Muscle Cells*: *Produce and conduct* electrical signals.
*(Int.)* Bulbourethral (Cowper's)
-*Glands that secrete* a fluid into the *urethra* to *neutralize* the acidity in the urethra.
Beginning of Digestion
-*Mouth*: By chewing and mixing of nutrients with saliva. -*Salivary Glands*: Stimulated and secrete saliva. ~*Saliva*: Contains enzymes that initiate the breakdown of starch in digestion. -Once swallowed, food moved down *Pharynx* into the *Esophagus*, headed towards the stomach.
Midbrain
-Above the pons and the medulla oblongata. -*Parts:* Tectum, the Tegmentum, and the Ventral Tegmentum. -Important Part of *Vision and Hearing.*
Absorption Process
-Acidity *helps break down* the food and *make nutrients* available for absorption. *Smooth muscle contractions* move nutrients into the *small intestines* where absorption process begins.
Arteries vs. Veins
-Arteries have *thick walls* to withstand the pressure of blood pumped by the hearts. -Veins have *walls with a thinner muscle layer and larger lumen.*
2 Integrated Circulatory System
-Closed Circulatory System -Open Lymphatic System
Lymphoid Organs
-Consist of lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, adenoids, thymus, tonsils, and small patches of tissue in the small intestines. *Lymph Nodes*: Located at intervals through the lymph vessel system. Contains *lymphocytes and plasma cells.* *Spleen*: Filters blood, stores of RBC and macrophages. *Thymus*: Secrets hormones. Major site of lymphocyte maturation.
Breathing Process
-Diaphragm/Intercostal muscles *contracts* to expand lungs -*Inspiration* (Inhalation): Diaphragm *contracts* and moves down *increasing* the chest cavity -*Expiration* (exhalation): Intercostal muscles *contract* and ribs *expand*, *increasing size* of chest cavity ~Volume of chest cavity *increases*, then the pressure inside chest cavity *decreases* ~When *relaxed*: Size of cavity *decreases* forcing air out. -Controlled by *Medulla Oblongata* ~*Monitors* carbon dioxide in blood, signals the breathing rate to *increase* when levels are too high.
Pepsin
-Initiates chemical digestion of proteins by this *enzyme* -Activated by *acid and autocatalyst*
Occipital Lobe
-Located at the back of the head just above the brain stem. -*Responsible for visual input, processing, and output; specifically nerves from the eyes enter directly into this lobe*.
Temporal Lobe
-Located at the left and right sides of the brain -*Responsible for all auditory Input, processing, and output.
2 Types of Bone cells
-Multinucleate *Osteoclasts*:Remove Bone -Mononucleate *Osteoblasts*: Make Bone
Ureter
-One for each kidney. -Small tubes that carry Urine from the Kidneys to the Urinary Bladder.
Ratio/Rate Change
-Ratio: Simply just a fraction. Once you add/attach WORDS (units) to fraction then it becomes a RATE. - Example- ~Y2-Y1/X2-X1 rise over run ~Unit Rate - denominator HAS to be 1
Narrative Passage
-will have supporting details--the specific things the author says to develop the story and the characters
Informative Passage
-will primarily use facts about the topic to support the main idea
Secondary Sources
-written analysis or interpretation of a primary source -no firsthand experience -examine primary sources to draw conclusions or make generalizations about people, events, or ideas -i.e. literary criticism, political analysis, biographies, essays on ethics and social policies
Kilo
1,000
1 liter (L)
1,000 mL
What is the nucleus responsible for?
the passing on genetic traits between pores, chromatic, and ribosomes
Percent increase
the positive difference between two numbers, divided by the first number, multiplied by 100.
Cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.
cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function. This process is controlled by zygotes/the genes in zygotes. the cell builds certain proteins that set it apart from other cells.
Common Denominator
1. Find least on on multiple of denominator 2. Change each fraction to make their denominator the same as least common denominator ~List multiples of each denominator and find SMALLEST number ~Multiply numerator by multiple of LCD, Use LCD as denominator
The 11 Major Organ Systems are?
1. Integumentary system 2. Respiratory system 3. Cardiovascular system 4. Endocrine system 5. Skeletal system 6. Muscular system 7. Digestive system 8. Excretory system 9. Immune system 10. Nervous system 11. Reproductive system
Stages of mitosis
1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis
Questions to Consider
1. Is the source current? 2. If it is a secondary source, is it based on both primary as well as other secondary sources? 3. Is the author an expert in the area of study? Does he or she cite relevant information from other authorities on the topic? 4. Is the author's purpose clear? That is, is there any apparent bias? 5. What does the author assume is true? 6. Does the author present multiple viewpoints? 7. Does the content align with other reliable sources on the topic?
cell cycle
the process by which a cell reproduces. involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material and cell division. Two ways for cells to reproduce: meiosis and mitosis.
The 4 functions of the Mitochondria are?
1. Production of cell energy (ATP) 2. Cell signaling 3. Cellular differentiation 4. Cell cycle and growth regulation
Functions of the Thyroid gland
1. Regulate metabolism 2. Functions in growth and development 3. Secretes the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin
Cell cycle and growth regulation
the process whereby the cell gets ready to reproduce and reproduces
Milli
1/1,000
Deci
1/10
Centi
1/100
Deca
10
Appendicular skeleton
126 bones, bones of arms, feet, legs, hands, hips and shoulders
Proportion
the relationship between two numbers; a ration in fraction form set equal to another ratio in fraction form.
organs of the urinary system
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary bladder, two sphincter muscles, and the urethra
Endoplasmic reticulum
2 types - ROUGH (has ribosomes on surface) - SMOOTH (doesn't) It is the tubular network that comprises the transport system of a cell/transports proteins across cell.. It is fused to the nuclear membrane and extends through the cytoplasm to the CM.
Meiosis(only happens in specialized reproductive cells called gametes), Mitosis
2 ways cells can reproduce
Protein digestion begins where?
the stomach
What is the left side of the pancreas called?
the tail
Gram- g (household approximation)
the weight of one asprin tablet
Centimeter- cm (household approximation)
the width of an average pinkie finger
What is the final result in meiosis? How many cells are there?
4 daughter cells
1) the production of energy 2) Cell signaling 3) Cellular differentiation (the process whereby a non differentiated cell becomes transformed into a cell with a more specialized purpose) 3) cell cycle and growth regulation (the process whereby the cell gets ready to reproduce and reproduces)
4 functions of Mitochondria
Parathyroid glands
4 small glands embedded on the posterior (back) of thyroid
Muscle tissue Nerve tissue Epithelial Tissue Connective tissue
4 types of tissues?
B cells
these cells target specific bacteria for destruction
T cells
these directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria
In the second division of meiosis, the daughter cells are haploid. What does haploid mean?
they contain half the genetic material of the parent cell
Milimeter- mm (household approximation)
thickness of a dime
Cerebral cortex
thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum
The right lung has how many lobes?
three lobes
Pharynx
throat; passageway for food to the esophagus and air to the larynx, located behind the mouth.
What gland needs iodine to function properly?
thyroid gland
The hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to secrete __________, which stimulates the thyroid gland to release these hormones as needed via a negative-feedback mechanism
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Axial skeleton
80 bones, including skull, sternum, ribs, vertebral column (spine) and hyoid bone
Less than
<
Greater than
>
Antibody
A blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen
Nerve
A bundle of axons that transmits electrical impulses to peripheral organs
cell membrane
A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell. Protects the cell.
Antigen Presenting Cell
A cell that displays foreign antigens with major histocompatibility complexes on their surfaces
Hormone
A chemical substance that regulates specific processes in the body
rheumatoid arthritis
A chronic systemic disease characterized by inflammation of the joints, stiffness, pain, and swelling that results in crippling deformities
When a dependent clause precedes an independent clause in a complex sentence; What should separate the two?
A comma
Osteoporosis
A disease that causes brittle, fragile bones
Barrier
A divider between parts of the body
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins. It stores information about a plant or animal. FUNCTION: All known cellular life and some viruses contain DNA. The main role of DNA in the cell is the long-term storage of information.
Nucleoplasm
A fluid INSIDE of the NUCLEUS, very similar to the cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is a highly viscous liquid contained within the nucleus that surrounds the chromosomes and other subnuclear organelles.
Cystic Fibrosis
A genetic disorder that affects the lungs and other organs, characterized by difficulty breathing, coughing up sputum, and lung infections
Terminate
to end
Adrenal Gland
A gland above the kidney that produces hormones to regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and other functions
Tissue
A group of cells with similar structure that function together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs
Brittle Bone Disease
A group of diseases that affect collagen and result in fragile bones
brittle bone disease
A group of diseases that affect collagen and result in fragile bones
organ systems
A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions. - functions include digestion of food, circulation of nutrients, removal of wastes, reproduction
Dependent clause
A group of words that contain a subject and a verb, and does not contain a complete thought
Independent clause
A group of words that contain a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought
Transverse/Axial Plane
A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts; Top/Bottom division
Cytoplasm
A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended. Found within the plasma membrane, NOT within the nucleus. (See Nucleoplasm)
Macrophage
A large white blood cell that ingests foreign material
Small Intestines *Absorb* what?
A lot of water and nutrients
Elongate
to make longer or relax
Asthma
A lung disease characterized by inflamed, narrowed airways and difficulty breathing
Memory Cell
A lymphocyte that responds to an antigen upon reintroduction
Bolus
A mass of food that has been chewed and swallowed; Propelled forward by peristalsis
Pleura
A membrane around the lungs and inside the chest cavity
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction a major neurotransmitter in the nervous system
Antecedents
A noun that existed before a pronoun
Lateral
to the side and is opposite of medial
Rheumatoid Arthritis
A progressive disease that causes joint inflammation and pain
Organ
A self-contained part of an organism that performs a specific function
Peristalsis
A series of muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract
Pineal Gland
A small gland near the center of the brain that secretes melatonin
Nucleus
A small structure that contains the chromosomes, and regulates the DNA of a cell. The nucleus is found in eukaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells all have a nucleus. FUNCTIONS: The Nucleus houses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and contains the NUCLEOLUS. It is known as the "brain" of the cell because it tells the cells what their functions are. The DNA within the nucleus contains genetic information and is what controls the functions of the entire cell.
Organelle
A specialized part of a cell that has a specific function
"Who"
A subject pronoun, in reference to people Performer of the action Tip: Who=He Ex. Who threw the ball
Antimicrobial
A substance that kills or inhibits growth of micro-organisms with minimal damage to the host
Lymphocyte
A subtype of white blood cell found in lymph
Antigen
A toxin that stimulates an immune response in the body
respiratory system
A system of organs, functioning in the process of gas exchange between the body and the environment, consisting especially of the nose, nasal passages, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. It is divided into the upper respiratory system and lower respiratory system. Key words to know: Asthma: a lung disease characterized by inflamed, narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. cystic fibrosis: a genetic disorder that affects lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing, coughing up sputum, lung infections. perfusion: the passage of fluid to an organ or tissue *MORE INFORMATION:* ⦁main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body's cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. External Nares - the visible 'nostrils' that are the entrances into the nasal cavity The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. Alveoli - the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs. ⦁Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. Bronchi - the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch - an indentation for the heart's apex. The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. ⦁Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. ⦁Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. ⦁Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. ⦁Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. ⦁Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. Cystic Fibrosis - A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections.
Apostrophes are used in certain expression of time
A week's vacation
Plasma Cell
A white blood cell that produces a single type of antibody
caudad
toward the tail or posterior (downward) also known as Caudal
Caudad
towards the tail or posterior.
Interneurons
transmit signals between neurons. Ex: they receive transmitted signals between sensory and motor neurons
Sensory
transmit signals to central nervous system from sensory receptors associated with touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste.
Axon
transmits impulses away from the cell body.
The lymphatic system consists of?
transport vessels and lymphoid organs
what is the function of the circulatory system?
transports hormones
Blood
transports oxygen to cells and removes wastes. It also carries hormones and defends against disease
Name the Three Primary Body Planes
transverse plane, sagittal plane, and coronal plane
Cephalic
A.K.A cephalid means toward the head
Area formula: Triangle
A= 1/2 x b × h example: base= 5in, height= 4in A= 1/2 × 5 × 4= 10in²
cell energy
ATP
Mitochondria
ATP Production
Adaptive
Able to change as needed
Superior
Above. Higher on the body, nearer to the head
Villi and Microvilli function?
Absorb polar digested nutrients into blood, lipids into lacteals as chylomicrons, and B12
Small Intestine Function
Absorbs most nutrients; Main absorption organ of the digestive tract
Words end in -cede
Accede, antecede, concede, intercede, recede, retrocede
Cell Membrane
Acting as a *barrier*. Helps keep cytoplasm *in* and substances located outside the cell *out*. -Helps determine what is allowed to *exit and enter*.
What happens when a muscle contracts?
Action Potential reaches muscle fiber, calcium ions are released, bind to myosin and actin.
more about immune system
Active immunity- Vaccination Passive Immunity- Breastfeeding/passed from mother to child Where are blood cells produced? - Bone Marrow What does an increase in white blood cells mean? - Infection Macrophages? - respond to foreign substances T Lymphocytes- attacks viruses B Lymphocytes- attack SPECIFIC Bacteria
What provides energy necessary for the contraction?
Adenosine triphosphate released from glucose
caudad
Adverb meaning towards the tail or posterior. Caudal is an adjective, meaning of the hindquarters
Cephalad
Adverbs meaning towards the head. - Cranial is an adjective, meaning of the skull.
Conjunctive adverbs
Adverbs that act like conjunctions; therefore they connect the information in two clauses or sentences.
Homophones: Affect and Effect
Affect (verb): To have an effect on Effect (noun): Something that is brought about by a cause
Prefix: re
Again: Readjust
Respiratory Directions
Air -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Lungs -> Alveoli
Duodenum receives what from gall bladder?
Alkaline bile juices.
Homophones: All ready and Already
All ready (adjective): Everyone or everything is ready Already (adverb): By this time
Homophones: All together and Altogether
All together (adjective): Everyone in a group Altogether (adverb): Entirely, completely
Sentence: Description
Allen is malcontent
Constant of Proportionality
Also known as *Rate of Change* Ratio between two quantities ~Y=k*x (k is constant, y and X are direct proportion) ~One variable is always the product of the other and a constant, the two are said to be directly proportional.
Large Intestine
Also known as the colon; Where vitamins (esp. K) and water are absorbed before feces is stored prior to elimination
Homophones: Altar and Alter
Altar (noun): A structure used in worship Alter (verb): To change
Where do oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange?
Alveoli in the lungs
To be verbs
Am, is, are
Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas
Amongst the *groupings of exocrine cells* are groups of endocrine cells, called *islets of Langerhans*. -Islets of Langerhans are made up of *insulin-producing beta cells (50-80% total) and *glucagon-releasing alpha cells*. -Major hormones produce: *Insulin and Glucagon* -*Insulin* affects *fat metabolism and can change livers ability to release stored fat*. ~Body uses insulin to *control carbohydrate metabolism* by lowering the amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. -*Glucagon* has opposite effect of insulin. Body uses it to *increase* blood sugar levels. ~Body uses glucagon to *control carbohydrate metabolism*. Level of Insulin and Glucagon are *balanced to maintain the optimum level of blood sugar throughout the day.
Tidal Volume
Amount of air breathed *in and out* of lungs
tidal volume
Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath
More about blood
An adult human has about 5 quarts of blood blood has red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma PLASMA makes up about half of the blood volume. Remember that red blood cells transport oxygen to cells, they form in bone marrow and can live for about two months. iron deficiency anemia occurs when your body doesn't have enough iron to produce hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the part of red blood cells that gives blood its red color and enables the red blood cells to carry oxygenated blood throughout your body. Blood carries oxygen to the tissues of the body. Blood carries carbon dioxide from the tissues of the body. White blood cells defend the body against infection. Remember that the technical term for WBC is leukocyte.
Immunoglobulin
An antibody
Parathyroid
An endocrine gland in the neck that produces parathyroid hormone
Renin
An enzyme that regulates arterial blood pressure
Reflex
An involuntary movement in reaction to a stimulus
"Whom"
An object pronoun, in reference to people. The receiver of the action. Tip: Whom=Him Ex. Jim threw the ball to whom?
Gland
An organ that secretes a substance
Epithelial Connective Cartilage Blood Bone Muscle Nervous
Animal tissues may be divided into 7 categories..?
Dendritic Cell
Antigen-presenting cells that process antigen material and present it to T-cells
How do you show omission of letters or numbers as in contractions or dates
Apostrophe Ex. '05; can't
How do you pluralize letters, numbers, and words
Apostrophe Ex. Dot your i's and cross your t's; 4's; no if's and's or but's about it
What do you add to a noun or indefinite pronoun (that doesn't end in "s") to form a possessive case
Apostrophe Ex. The boy's cat was stuck in the tree.
How do you form a possessive case of a plural noun that ends in an "s"
Apostrophe Ex. The tree's look beautiful
Cilia
Appendages extending *from the surface* of the cell. -*Moves* the cell and results in fluid being moved by the cell.
Cilia
Appendages extending from the surface of the cell, the movement of which causes the cell to move - Can also result in fluid being moved by the cell
Chemoreceptors
Are located in the nasal cavity and respond to airborne chemicals.
Homophones: Ascent and Assent
Ascent (noun): A slope that angles upwards Assent (noun): Agreement
Pancreas Function
Assists in the digestion of foods by secreting enzymes that help to break down many foods (esp. fats and proteins); Also secretes a large amount of sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the stomach acid that reaches the small intestine
Which heart contraction fills the ventricles?
Atrial contraction
NOTE: Repetition
Authors often use repetition to reinforce an idea. PAY ATTENTION to any repeated words, phrases or images -then ask why the author might have repeated them
More about the cardiovascular system:
Atrioventricular Valves ⦁ Separate an atrium from a ventricle. ⦁ Prevent backflow into the atrium Tricuspid Valve - separates right atrium from right ventricle Bicuspid Valve - separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve. Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the "pacemaker" whose cells generate the sinus rhythm. Heart Sounds- the "lub" and "dub" ⦁ Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid valves) ⦁ Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves. Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood "contraction" Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood "relaxation" Cardiac Cells ⦁ Large amount of mitochondria for endurance ⦁ Generate electrical impulses. ⦁ Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison. Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Blood ⦁ Connective tissue ⦁ pH- 7.35-7.45 ⦁ Volume- 4-6L Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection. Plasma - liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein solutes. Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Leukocytes- white blood cells Thrombocytes- platelets Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume. ⦁ Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains ⦁ Heme- pigment portion with a central iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain) Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow. Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune responses. T-cells - target virally infected cells. B-cells- make antibodies. Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions: ⦁ Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues. ⦁ Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning. Lymphatic vessels - the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a unidirectional flow. Lymphoid cells ⦁ Lymphocytes - the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens. ⦁ Plasma cells - specialized B cells that produce antibodies. ⦁ Macrophages - phagocytize any foreign cells or debris. ⦁ Dendritic cells - specialized phagocytes with cellular projections. ⦁ Reticular cells - produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the lymphoid cells. Lymph - the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels. Lacteals - specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high in fat content, called chyle. Lymph nodes - the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels, and clustered in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions ⦁Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes ⦁Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes
Distal
Away from center of body/point of attachment
Lateral
Away from midline
Inferior
Away from the head
Lateral
Away from the midline @ anatomical position, thumb is lateral to the little finger
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body
The skeletal system is divided into 2 parts. What are they?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
B Lymphocytes
B cells - produce antibodies
Interphase (Mitosis)
BEFORE MITOSIS ACTUALLY BEGINS In interphase, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope are distinct. The chromosomes are in the form of a thread-like chromatin. G1 phase: during G1 phase, also called the first gap phase, the cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and makes the molecular building blocks it will need in later steps. S phase: In S phase, the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase. G2 phase: the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis. G1, S, G2 phases all together are known as interphase. The prefix inter- means between, reflecting that interphase takes place between one mitotic (M) phase and the next.
Posterior
Back
lymph nodes
Bean-shaped filters that cluster along the lymphatic vessels of the body. They function as a cleanser of lymph as wells as a site of T and B cell activation each node contains lymphocytes and plasma cells
Homophones: Bear and Bare
Bear (verb): To carry or support Bare: (verb): To expose
Suffix: ism
Belief in: activism
Chyme neutralized by?
Bicarbonate in pancreatic secretions
Liver Enzymes
Bile (stored in gallbladder)
veins
Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart
Vein
Blood vessels that carry blood to the heart
Arteries
Blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body
Direct object
Bob and Mitch played soccer last night. 1. Find the action verb= played 2. Find the subject= Bob and Mitch 3. Who/What (Direct object)= soccer
Osteocytes
Bone cells
How is meiosis similar to mitosis?
Both occur in humans, animals, and plants
Which law says, "for a given mass and constant temperature, an inverse relationship exists between the volume and pressure of gas?"
Boyle's Law. PV= c, where c = constant
Lysosomes
Break down/digest molecules
Mouth Function
Breaks food down, and begins chemical digestion (specifically digestion of carbohydrates/starches)
Small Intestine Enzymes
Brush border enzymes (Proteases, lactase, disaccharides)
Rational Numbers can be represented by?
By *fractions* Includes: Whole Numbers, Positives/Negatives, Zero, and all decimals that either terminate or repeat. ~Irrational numbers will not concern us at this point
How are messages sent across *Plasma Membrane*?
By Action Potential
Endoplasmic reticulum
tubular network that consists of the transport system of a cell
Blood vessels
tubules of different sizes that transport blood
The left lung has?
two lobes and leaving room for the heart on the left side of the body.
intercostal muscles
two sets of muscles between the ribs that contract to pull the ribs up and out during inhalation or down and in during forceful exhalation.
Which characteristic is part of a person's genotype? Black hair that grows rapidly, being fast runner, CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis, or brown eyes that appear hazel in the sunlight?
CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis
Homophones: Capital and Capitol
Capital (noun): A leading or governing city Capitol (noun): A building that houses the states lawmakers
Which muscle tissues are involuntary?
Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues
cartilage tissue
Cartilage is made of collagen and elastic fibers, which create a dense connective tissue that fills the spaces between bones and acts as a cushion when we move. The nose and ears also have cartilage.
Interphase
Cell *prepares* for division by *replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material.* -Further divided into G1, S, G2 (Meiosis)
Independent variable
variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment. Are also variables that the experimenter changes to test their dependent variable.
Vesicles
vehicle that helps move materials within a cell.
fibrous cartilage
very tough form of cartilage found in the intervertebral disks of the spine and at the junctions where tendons attach to bone also found in the pelvis and skull.
Keratin
waxy protein that helps to waterproof the skin
Degrees Celsius -
zero is freezing ❄, 10 is not, 20 is warm and 30 is hot 🔥
Process is controlled by the genes of each cell among a group of cells called a
zygote
The 8 Major Endocrine Glands + Functions:
• Adrenal cortex • Adrenal medulla • Thyroid gland • Parathyroid • Pancreas islets • Thymus gland • Pineal gland • Pituitary gland
The 8 Major Endocrine Glands + Functions:
• Adrenal cortex - Monitors blood sugar levels, helps in lipid and protein metabolism • Adrenal medulla - Controls cardiac function, raises blood sugar, and controls the size of blood vessels • Thyroid gland - Helps regulate metabolism and functions in growth and development. • Parathyroid - Regulates calcium levels in the blood • Pancreas islets - Raises and lowers blood sugar, active in carbohydrate metabolism • Thymus gland - Plays a role in immune responses • Pineal gland - Has an influence on daily biorhythms (such as sleep) and sexual activity • Pituitary gland - plays an important role in growth and development
Where is the spleen?
• Behind the stomach and below the diaphragm • Upper left of the abdomen
Meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms Ea cell goes through a second cell divison (of IPMATC II) - The result is 4 daughter cells w/ different sets of chromosomes. - The daughter cells are haploid, which means they contain HALF the genetic material of the parent cell.
Interphase
Cell prepares for division by replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material, can be further divided into G1, S, and G2
Cytoskeleton
Cell shape, support, and movement (includes microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments)
tissues organs systems organism
Cells are grouped together in ___, tissues are grouped together in ___, organs are grouped together in ____ A ___ is a complete individual
Epithelial Tissue
Cells are joined together *tightly* -Example: Skin Tissue
Nervous tissue
Cells called neurons form a network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses
Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas
• Cells called islets or Langerhans made up of insulin- producing beta cells (50 to 80%) and glucagon - releasing alpha cells • Produces insulin and glucagon
Functions of the large intestine
• Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material • Attaches to rectum • Nervous system triggers muscles to poop • Speed for waste removal is influenced by volume of fiber and undigested material present
Osteoblasts
Cells that make bone
B-Cell
Cells that mature in bone marrow and make antibodies in response to antigens
Osteoclasts
Cells that remove bone
Compact bone
• Consists of tightly packed cells • Strong, dense, and rigid • Haversian canals runs vertically through compact bone. They're surrounded by lamellae (concentric circles on bone tissue) - the spaces between are called lacunae
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone:
• Consists of trabeculae • Lightweight and porous which helps reduce the bone's overall weight • Red blood marrow manufactures red and white blood cells • In long bones, the diaphysis consists of compact bone surrounding the marrow cavity and spongy bone containing red marrow in the epiphyses.
Somatic Nervous System
• Controls 5 senses and voluntary movement of skeletal muscle • Efferent - motor reactions • Afferent - sensory (senses) Together afferent and efferent help operate sense and movement of skeletal muscle
Name the 3 types of circulation
• Coronary circulation • Pulmonary circulation • Systemic circulation
Metaphase(2)
Centromeres contain *two kinetochores* (pulls the chromosomes to the poles) that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles.
Which part of the brain interprets sensory information?
Cerebrum
Protein Hormones
Change the activity of *existing enzymes* in target cells.
Haversian Canal
Channels in bone that contain blood vessels and nerves
Haversian canal
Channels in bone that contain blood vessels and nerves
Volkmann Canal
Channels in bone that transmit blood vessels and communicate with Haversian canals
From lowest to high, give the levels of organization.
Chemical (molecular), cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism
Important to know
Chest cavity: the thoracic cavity (or chest cavity) is the chamber of the body of vertebrates that is protected by the thoracic wall (rib cage and associated skin, muscle, and fascia). The central compartment of the thoracic cavity is the mediastinum Lungs in high compliance means your tissues are damaged which causes emphysema. Caused by smoking and air pollutants. The name of the process in the lungs by which oxygen is transported from the air to the blood is called diffusion. oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange by diffusion down concentration gradient.
Name the 5 ligaments the liver is secured by:
• Falciform - forms a membrane-like barrier between the right and left lobes • Coronary • Right triangular • Left triangular • Round ligaments
Functions of the respiratory system
• Filters air • Vital in cough production • Functions in sense of smell • Chemoreceptors that is located in the nasal cavity respond to airborne chemicals. • The respiratory system also helps the body maintain acid-base homeostasis • Hyperventilation can increase blood pH during acidosis (low pH) • Slowing breathing during alkalosis (high pH) helps to lower blood pH
What are the 10 responsibilities of the liver?
• Production of bile • Production of certain blood plasma proteins • Production of cholesterol • Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen (that can be converted back to glucose when needed) • Regulation of amino acids • Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) • Conversion of ammonia • Purification of blood (clears out drugs and other toxins) • Regulation of blood clotting • Controlling infections by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria
Functions of Integumentary System
• Protection - against bacteria, viruses, chemicals from entering the body • Secretion - sebum (oil) that waterproofs the skin and sweat for thermoregulation. Sweat glands also serve as excretory organs and help rid the body of metabolic wastes • Communication - sensory receptors inform brain regarding pain, touch, pressure, and temperature • Manufactures Vitamin D and absorbs certain chemicals and specific medications
Plasma contains
• Proteins • Ions • Glucose • Amino acids • Hormones • Dissolved gas
Integumentary System
• Refers to skin • Includes sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails
Long bones
• Relatively long and slender • Examples: various bones of the limbs • Femur (long bone of the thigh) is the largest and heaviest bone in the body
Name the 3 layers of the kidneys
• Renal cortex • Renal medulla • Renal pelvis
Function of lymph vascular system
• Return of excess fluid to the blood • Return of protein from the capillaries • Transport of fats from the digestive tract • Disposal of debris and cellular waste
Short bones
• Small and boxy • Examples: bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankles (tarsals)
Small Intestine Hormones
Cholecystokinin; Somatostatin; Secretin; Motilin
Prophase
Chromatic thickens into chromosomes and nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
Chromatin
Chromatin consists of DNA and protein that make up chromosomes. The FUNCTION of chromatin is to efficiently package DNA into a small volume to fit into the nucleus of a cell and protect the DNA structure and sequence. Packaging DNA into chromatin allows for mitosis and meiosis.
metaphase 2 (meiosis)
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate.
Homophones: Cite and Site
Cite (verb): To use as an example, to quote Site (noun): A location
Lymph
Clear fluid that moves throughout the lymphatic system to fight disease
Proximal
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
What do tissues do?
Collected into organs, carry out a single task, such as oxygenating blood (lungs) or filtering out wastes (kidneys)
Solve Equations in One Variable
Collecting all variable terms to *one* side of the equal sign and all the constants on the other side, using addition or subtraction. Once all like terms are combined, last step is to divide. Could also be multiplication by the reciprocal ( One divided by original number).
Root: chrom
Color: monochrome
Homophones: Complement and Compliment
Complement (noun): An element that completes Compliment (noun): A remark of appreciation
urinary, excretory, genitourinary system
Components of the Urinary system: ● Kidneys - where urine is formed; major regulation functions: H20 volume and solute concentrations, ion concentration, acid-base balance, excretion of waste/toxins, produces erythropoietin & renin, vitamin D activation, gluconeogenesis during fasting ● Ureters - paired tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder ● Urinary bladder - storage reservoir for urine ● Urethra - tube that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body 1. ureters, renal blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves all join each kidney at the hilum and occupy the sinus 2. atop of each kidney is the adrenal gland
Large Intestine Function
Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material; Absorbs water, ions, and vitamins; Produces some B vitamins and vitamin K
Appendicular Skeleton
Consist of *126* Bones and includes the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and appendages. -*Pectoral Girdle*: Consist of scapular (shoulders) and clavicles (collar bone). -*Pelvic Girdle*: Consists of 2 pelvic (hip) bones, which attach to the sacrum. -*Upper Appendages*: *Arms* include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. -*Lower Appendages*: *Legs* includes femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.
Nucleus
Controls structure, produces ribosomes, and directs cell
Sympathetic Nervous System
Controls the body's reaction to extreme, stressful, and emergency situations; "Fight or Flight"
Root: ortho
Correct: unorthodox
Homophones: Council and Counsel
Council (noun): A body of people assembled for advice Counsel (noun): Advice
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Counteracts the effects of the sympathetic nervous system; "rest and digest" system
Centriole
Cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus that're involved in cellular d. Ea cylinder consists of 9 groups of three microtubules. Occur in pairs. a minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division.
Centriole
Cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus. -Involved in *Cellular Division* -Each cylinder consist of *9 Groups of 3 Microtubules*. Occurs in pairs.
Osteons
Cylindrical structures that comprise compact bone
Cytokinesis 2 (meiosis)
Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.
Cytonkinesis
Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and finishes shortly after telophase. In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse with a drawstring. The "drawstring" is a band of filaments made of a protein called actin, and the pinch crease is known as the cleavage furrow. Plant cells can't be divided like this because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure called the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter cells separated by a new wall. Divides into two identical daughter cells.
What process should the DNA within a cell undergo before cell replication?
DNA should replicate so that daughter cells have the same amount of DNA material after cell division
All cells contain 3 things. These three things are?
DNA, RNA, and synthesize proteins
What forms when thin/thick microfilaments overlap?
Dark bands (striations) forms
halploid cells
Daughter cells that contain half the genetic material of the parent cells.
What is the function of white blood cells?
Defend the body against infection and remove various waste
CM/Pm
Defines the cell by acting as a barrier. Helps keeps cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. Also determines what is allowed to enter and exit the cell.
Osteoarthritis
Degenerative joint disease
Proteasome
Degrades bad proteins
Homophones: Descent and Dissent
Descent (noun): A slope that angels downward Dissent (noun): Disagreement
Mouth
Digestion begins in the mouth with the chewing and mixing of nutrients with saliva. The salivary glands are stimulated and secrete saliva which contains important enzymes that begin the breakdown of starch and carbohydrates in digestion. Once the food is swallowed it goes down the pharynx into the esophagus which then goes to the stomach. The Mouth and Associated Organs A. The Mouth - aka oral cavity/buccal cavity; involved in ingestion, the beginning of propulsion as the food is swallowed 1. lips & cheeks - help keep food between the teeth 2. the palate - forms the roof of the mouth a. hard palate - lies anteriorly in the oral cavity and underneath the palatine bone. Provides a rigid, corrugated surface that the tongue can press food against. b. soft palate - closes off the nasopharynx when we swallow. The uvula projects downward from the edge of the soft palate. 3. the tongue - mixes food with saliva forming it into a bolus and then pushes it posteriorly; a. intrinsic muscles - are not attached to bone; allow the tongue to become thicker, thinner, longer, or shorter as needed for speech or swallowing b. extrinsic muscles - alters the tongue's position by protruding, retracting, or moving side to side. c. lingual frenulum - secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth d. taste buds - are found on fungiform, vallate, and foliate papillae. e. lingual lipase - is a fat-digesting enzyme that operates in the stomach and is secreted by serous cells located beneath the foliate and vallated papillae
Lysosomes
Digests proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, also transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed. Involved in cell cleanup. Lyso- is a prefix meaning dissolving, breaking down.
Prophase(2)
Disappearance of the *nucleoli and the nuclear envelope* again as well as the *shortening and thickening* of the chromatids. Centrosomes *move to the polar regions* and *arrange spindle fibers* for the second meiotic division.
Active Immunity
Distinguishes protection through its active production by the body; Ex: Vaccination
Passive Immunity
Distinguishes protection through passive introduction of antibodies; Ex: Rapid treatment for snakebite
Convert percent to decimal by
Divide by 100 then move decimal two places to the left.
Fraction Convert to Decimal
Divide numerator by denominator
Sagital plane
Divides the body, or any body part, vertically into right and left sections. The __ plane runes PARALLEL to the midline of the body.
Small intestines include what structure in the order of digestion?
Duodenum->jejunum->ileum
Ex of cell differentiation
During gastrulation, the cells are organized into 3 primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm. Then, the cells in these layer differentiate into special tissues and organs. - For ex: the nerv sys develops from the ecoderm, muscular sys develops from mesoderm, digestive sys develops from endoderm
Homophones: Dying and Dyeing
Dying (verb): Ceasing to live Dyeing (verb): Coloring a fabric
Root: geo
Earth: geode
Root: terra
Earth: terrace
Nerv sys from ECTODERM Muscular sys from MESODERM Digestive sys from ENDODERM
Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm develop what systems ea?
Excretion
Elimination of waste from the body
Words ending in -ceed
Emceed, exceed, proceed, succeed
Sentence: Contrast
Emphasizes the differences rather than the similarities.
*(Ext.)* Labia Major/Minor
Enclose and Protect the vagina.
Nuclear Envelope
Encloses the structures of the nucleus. - Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Nuclear envelope
Encloses the structures of the nucleus. Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids
Protein
Enzyme: Pepsin > produced by the chief cells in the gastric gland > released by the stomach Enzyme: Trypsin > produced by the Pancreas > released by the small intestine Enzyme: Peptidases > produced by the small intestine > released by the small intestine
Carbs
Enzyme: Salivary amylase > produced by the salivary glands > released by the mouth Enzyme: Pancreatic amylase > produced by the pancreas > released by the small intestine Enzyme: Maltase > produced by the small intestine > released by the small intestine
nucelic acids
Enzymes: Nuclease and Nucleosidase > both produced by the pancreas > released by the small intestine
Layers of skin
Epidermis (outer layer) Dermis (middle layer) Hypodermis/Subcutaneous (inner layer)
Which of the following does not contain blood vessels: Hypodermis Hyperdermis Dermis Epidermis
Epidermis - first layer of skin
What are the 4 broad (main) categories of tissues
Epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue, and nerve tissue
What are the 7 Categories of Tissues?
Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous, blood, bone, and cartilage
=
Equal, equal to, is, was, were, will be, yields, becomes
Mitosis
Events that occur: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.
cells vs tissues
Ex of __ : phagocytic white blood cells: they function autonomously. other cells work in tandem w/ similarly specialized cells in structures called ___ to perform specific functions - ex: nerve tissues
Parenthetical expressions
Expressions that are not really part of the main idea of the sentence, or that interrupt the main sentence. Ex. The tortoise, as far as we know, likes eating lettuce
Smooth ER
Fatty acid and steroid (lipid) synthesis
Estrogen
Female sex hormones
What is the major function of the spleen?
Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old red blood cells) and help fight infections
Lining Cells
Flattened bone cells that come from osteoblasts
lining cells
Flattened bone cells that come from osteoblasts
Blood Pressure
Fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle. *Arterial*: Functions by transporting oxygen-poor blood into the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the body tissues. -Arteries branch into smaller arterioles which *contract and expand* based on signals from the body. -Arterioles are where *adjustments are made* in blood delivery to specific areas based on complex communication from body systems. *Capillary Beds*: Diffusion sites for exchanges between *blood and interstitial fluid.* *Capillary*: Has thinnest wall of any vein, consisting of single cell endothelial cells. *Merge into venues which in turn merge with larger diameter tubules called veins.* -Veins *transport* blood *from* body tissues *back* to the hearts. Thin and contain smooth muscle and function as blood volume reserves. -Valves inside the veins facilitate this transport.
What are the 2 male reproductive hormones?
Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone
Bolus
Food packaged into small parcels Then swallowed
3 Types of White Blood Cells
Form the foundation of the body's immune system. *Macrophages*: Phagocytes that alert T-Cells to the presence of foreign substances. *T Lymphocytes*: Directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria. *B Lymphocytes*: Cells target specific bacteria for destruction. *Others that contribute to body's defense*: -Memory cells, Suppressor T-Cells, Helper T-Cells
Root: morph
Form: morphine
Centrosome
Forms mitotic spindle (cell division); Builds microtubules (non dividing cells)
Homophones: Forth and Fourth
Forth (adverb): Forward in place or time Fourth (noun): The element in a series that is after the 3rd
Macrophages
Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream.
Anterior
Front
Brains 4 Lobes
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and Temporal Lobe
Immune System continued
Function: Protects the body against invading pathogens including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists. Lymphatic System: Lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, lymph nodes. ⦁Skeletal muscle contractions move the lymph one way through the lymphatic system to lymphatic ducts which dump back into venous supply via lymph nodes ⦁ Red marrow- produces blood cells ⦁ Leukocytes- WBC Lymph Nodes: located in neck, armpit, and groin ⦁Small swellings in the lymphatic system where lymph is filtered and lymphocytes are formed Lymph Tissue: Tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, peyer's patches ⦁ Tonsils: Located in pharynx, Protect against pathogens entering via mouth or throat ⦁ Thymus: Maturation chamber for immune T Cells formed in bone marrow ⦁ Spleen: Cleans blood of dead cells and pathogens ⦁ Peyer's Patches: Located in ileum of small Intestine, Protects GI tract from pathogens General Immune Defenses ⦁ Skin: Primary barrier against bacteria ⦁ Ciliated Mucous Membranes: Cilia sweep pathogens out of respiratory system ⦁ Glandular Secretions: Exocrine- secretions from exocrine glands destroy bacteria ⦁ Gastric Secretions: Gastric Acid destroys pathogens ⦁ Normal Bacterial Populations: Compete with pathogens in gut and vagina 3 Types of WBC ⦁ Macrophage: Phagocytes that alert T-Cells to the presence of foreign substances, Largest, longest living phagocyte, Engulf and destroy pathogens, Found in lymph, T Lymphocytes: Directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria ⦁ B Lymphocytes: Target specific bacteria for destruction ⦁ Plasma Cells: Antibody production. Other Immune Cells ⦁ Helper T-Cells: Activate B-Cells to make Antibodies and other chemicals ⦁ Suppressor T-Cells: Stop other T-Cells when the battle is over ⦁ Memory T-Cells: Remain in blood on alert incase invader attacks again ⦁ Killer/Cytotoxic T-Cells: Destroy Cells infected with a pathogen, virus, or tumor Leukocytes: WBC- Produced in Red Marrow -Monocyte -Macrophage -Dendritic Cell: Present antigens to T Cell -Granulocyte -Neutrophil: Short living phagocyte; responds quick to invaders -Basophil: Alerts body of invasion -Eosinophil: Large, long living phagocyte; Defend against multicellular invaders -T Lymphocyte -B Lymphocyte -Natural Killer Cell Antibody Mediated Response: Response is to an antigen Cellular Mediated Response: Response is to an already infected cell Antigen: Foreign particle that stimulates the immune system, Typically a protein on the surface of bacteria, virus, or fungi Antibody: A blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen Steps of Immune System ⦁Macrophage engulfs antigen and presents fragments of antigen on its surface ⦁A Helper T Cell joins the Macrophage ⦁Killer/Cytotoxic T Cells and B Cells are activated ⦁Killer/Cytotoxic T Cells search and destroy cells presenting the same antigen ⦁B Cells differentiate into Plasma Cells and Memory Cells Innate Immune System Innate Defenses I. Surface Barriers: Skin and Mucosae A. skin - is heavily keratinized, resists most weak acids & bases, bacterial enzymes, and toxins. B. mucous membranes - line all body cavities that open to the exterior; provides a similar physical barrier. 1. mucous coated hairs trap inhaled particles and cilia on the mucosa sweep dust and bacteria toward the mouth C. Protective chemicals produced by skin and mucous membranes 1. acid - secreted by the stomach, skin, and vagina; inhibit bacterial growth 2. enzymes - lysozymes found in saliva, respiratory mucus and lacrimal fluid of the eyes-destroy bacteria 3. mucin - will form mucus when dissolved in water that will trap microorganisms; found in digestive and respiratory pathways 4. defensins - are the antimicrobial peptides that help control bacteria and fungi 5. other chemicals - lipids in sebum and dermcidin in sweat are toxic to bacteria II. Internal Innate Defenses: Cells and Chemicals A. Phagocytes - reside in the connective tissue underneath the skin or mucosae. Includes: neutrophils and macrophages which are derived from monocytes. 1. neutrophils-the most abundant type of WBC; they become phagocytic upon encountering infectious material 2. free macrophages - wander throughout the tissue spaces looking for pathogens and cellular debris 3. fixed macrophages - are permanent residents of particular organs. Ex. stellate macrophages reside in the liver. Adaptive Immune System ⦁ Responds to specific antigens ⦁ Vaccinations or previous encounters ⦁ Reaction: Cytotoxic T Cells kill pathogen ⦁ Prevention: B Cells produce Antibodies ⦁ Activated by Antigen and Helper T Cells ⦁ Helper T Cells activated by Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: Exposure to pathogen without immunization Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: Occurs during pregnancy and during breast feeding ⦁ Antibodies are passed from mother to child ⦁ Provides protection from infancy to childhood Artificially Acquired Active Immunity: Build immunity via Vaccination Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: Immunization given during an outbreak or emergency -Quick, short lived protection -Antibodies come from another person or animal
Conjunctive adverbs
Furthermore, accordingly, indeed, nonetheless
Interphase can be further divided into?
G1, S, and G2
Stomach Enzymes
Gastric Lipase; Pepsin(ogen); HCL
Stomach Hormones
Gastrin; Ghrelin
Cytoplasm
General term that refers to cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found w/in the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus.
Proteins in cell membrane
Give the cell shape and help it communicate with the external environment. Proteins are also how water move through the cell!
What organelle transports energy that comes from food?
Golgi apparatus
>, _>_
Greater than, IS more than Greater than or equal to, is at least, is no less than
Organs
Group of tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
Organ systems
Groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions. - in mammals, 11 major systems - integumentary, respiratory, cardiovascular, etc..
Organs
Groups of tissues that work together 2 perform specific functions.
Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses
Groups of words that don't contain information that is necessary to interpreting the meaning of the sentence Should be offset by commas Ex. Jack Smith, who studied drama in New York City, was ideal.
Bone
Hard, calcified material that makes up the skeleton
Pathologies (Health Issues)
Heart attack, stroke, aneurysms, atherosclerosis, arrhythmia and hypertension.
Root: therma
Heat: exothermal
Functions of cell membrane
Helps keep cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. Determines what is allowed to enter and exit.
Colon Rules
Herald something that is to immediatly follow an independent clause: this usually comes in the form of a list ...
Chromosomes
Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA A cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins
Chromosomes
Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA. *DNA* is genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal.
Mitochondria (Mitochondrion)
Highly involved in energy production. Produces ATP (energy) Involved in cell growth and death. They contain their own DNA separate from that contained in the nucleus. They mainly supply the cell with energy. Some cells have more mitochondria than others. Your fat cells have many mitochondria because they store a lot of energy. Muscle cells have many mitochondria, which allows them to respond quickly to the need for doing work. Aerobic respiration occurs within the mitochondria.
Divide % by 100
How do you convert a percent into a decimal?
Pie x r squared
How do you find the area of a circle?
Add all the sides
How do you find the perimeter of a shape?
Common endocrine system diseases
Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body's needs. Without enough thyroid hormone, many of the body's functions slow down. Thyroid Cancer Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin to change, grow uncontrollably, and eventually form a tumor. There are two types of tumors: benign (noncancerous) and malignant (cancerous, meaning that it can spread to other parts of the body). Hypoclycemia Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood glucose drops below normal levels. Glucose, an important source of energy for the body, comes from food. Carbohydrates are the main dietary source of glucose. In adults and children older than 10 years, hypoglycemia is uncommon except as a side effect of diabetes treatment.
Pronoun: Nominative
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Suffixes for words ending in "C"
If a word ends in "c" and the suffix is a "e", "i", or "y", then the letter "k" should be inserted Ex. colic+y= colicky; mimic+ed= mimicked
Suffixes for words ending in a consonant-vowel-consanant pattern (CVC)
If a word ends with a CVC then double the final consanant: Bag+age = Baggage If a word has more than one syllable, and the accent is on the last syllable, double the final consanant before adding the suffix: allot+ed = allotted
Words ending in -cian
If a word names a person then it should end in -cian Physician, technician, musician
When should a period be added in the parenthesis
If the material in the parenthesis is a complete sentence that is not located within another sentence
Words ending in -able
If the root word is a complete word add the suffix -able. Ex. avail+able= available If the root word ends in "e" drop the "e" before adding -able Ex. love+able= lovable
Words ending in -ible
If the root word isn't a complete word ad -ible Ex. aud+ible= audible
Words ending in -ance, -ancy, -ant
If the suffix is proceeded by a hard "c" or "g" then add the suffix Ex. Extravagant, elegance, vacancy
Words ending in -ence, -ency, -ent
If the suffix is proceeded by a soft "c" or "g" then add the suffix Absence, agency, emergent
Words ending in -tion and -sion
If the word ends in "t" -tion can be added If the word ends in "s" -sion can be added Distraction, regression
Suffixed for words ending in "y"
If word ends with a "y" preceded by a vowel, keep the "y" when adding the suffix: Annoy+ance=annoyance If a word ends with a "y" precede by a consonant drop the y when adding a suffix: Carry+ed=carried
immune system
Immune System - a "functional system" consisting of many dispersed cells and molecules that target pathogens, disease-causing microbes. Innate defenses (nonspecific) - inborn immunity that constantly prevents infection of any target. Adaptive defenses (specific) - form slower responses to specific targets, improves through life. Innate defenses: Surface barriers - skin and ciliated mucous membranes that act as first line of defense. ⦁acidity and toxins of skin secretions prevent bacterial growth. ⦁acidic secretions in stomach kill microbes. ⦁enzymes in saliva and tears kill bacteria. ⦁mucous in digestive and respiratory tracts trap microbes. Innate defenses Internal defenses - cells and molecules that act as second line of defense. ⦁Phagocytes - cells that engulf foreign cells and debris. ⦁Fever - prevents bacterial growth and encourages healing. ⦁Natural killer cells - patrol tissues and kill cells. ⦁Antimicrobial proteins - kill bacteria and prevent spread of viruses. ⦁Inflammation - complex tissue response to injury or infection. Phagocytes - include macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and eosinophils. Steps of phagocytosis: ⦁Phagocyte attaches to and engulfs microbe, forming a phagosome. ⦁The phagosome fuses with an enzyme-filled lysosome, forming a phagolysosome. ⦁The microbe is digested and waste is removed. Adaptive defenses - the slow but highly specific method of targeting pathogens, mainly via lymphocytes ⦁Specific - certain cells targeting particular pathogens ⦁Systemic - full body, not one infection site ⦁Memory - forms cells to prepare for future encounters ⦁Humoral Immunity (antibody-mediated) - uses antibodies in body fluids to target specific pathogens, primarily bacteria ⦁Cellular immunity (cell-mediated) - uses whole cells to target specific pathogens, primarily cancerous cells and virally or parasitically infected cells B lymphocytes - oversee humoral immunity T lymphocytes - oversee cellular immunity Plasma cells - the B cell clones that specialize in antibody production and secretion, only a 4-5day lifespan Memory cells - a lymphocyte that responds to an antigen upon reintroduction Active humoral immunity - a humoral immune response involving a B cell challenge, producing immunological memory ⦁Naturally - bacterial or viral infection ⦁Artificially - vaccine injection of dead or weakened pathogen Passive humoral immunity - a humoral immune response not involving a B cell challenge, and not memory ⦁Naturally - antibodies from mother to child via placenta or breast milk ⦁Artificially - antibody injections, as in rabies shots and antivenom Antibodies (immunoglobulins) - proteins secreted by B cells that bind to specific pathogens, a single y-shaped protein is called a monomer ⦁Heavy and light chains - inner and outer peptide chains, lengths vary ⦁Variable regions - unique area with antigen-specific binding sites ⦁Constant regions - large region that determines the 'class' of the antibody Cellular immune response - a cell-mediated response triggered by the antigen challenge of a T cell, where this antigen must be presented. Their primary targets are cancerous cells or cells infected by virus or parasite CD4 cells - called "Helper T cells", can only receive antigens presented by MHC class 2 CD8 cells - called "Cytotoxic T cells" because they can kill cells directly, can only receive antigens presented by MHC class 1 Autoimmunity - any condition where the body's immune system uses antibodies and Cytotoxic T cells to target self tissues ⦁Multiple Sclerosis - targets white matter of the CNS ⦁Rheumatoid arthritis - targets joints tissues ⦁Myasthenia gravis - targets ACh receptors at neuromuscular junctions. Hypersensitivities (allergic reactions) - when the immune system responds to a non-pathogenic substance, now called an allergen ⦁Sensitization - first encounter with allergen leads to the production of many, specific IgE antibodies ⦁Secondary response - future encounters activate the antibodies, triggering mast cells and basophils to release histamine. Histamine release causes vasodilation, mucus secretion, bronchial constriction, etc. Anaphylactic shock - when an allergic reaction becomes systemic, can be fatal due to throat swelling and bronchial constriction
Fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
Sentence: Definition
In his wood working he used a type of file known as a rasp
Innate
Inborn
Length
Inches, feet, yard, miles, centimeters, meter, and kilometers are all units of?
T Lymphocytes (T Cells)
Include: *Helper T cells, Killer T cells, Suppressor T cells, and Memory T cells. -*Helper T cells*: Help the body fight infections by *producing antibodies and other chemicals*. -*Killer T cells*: *Destroy cells that are infected* with a virus or pathogen and tumor cells. -*Suppressor T cell*: Stop or "suppress" the *other T cells* when the battle is over. -*Memory T cells*: Remain in the blood *on alert* in case the invader attacks again.
upper respiratory system
Includes the nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx, larynx Humidifies, cleans, and filters air before it reaches the lungs.
lower respiratory system
Includes the trachea, lungs and brochial tree. Exchange the gasses oxygen and CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Erroneous
Incorrect
Extraneous
Incorrect Story that is interesting containing details that aren't necessary to tell you what happened.
Hyperventilation
Increase blood pH during *Acidosis* (low pH) Slow breathing during *Alkalosis* (high pH) -Lowers blood pH
Phagocytosis
Ingestion of particles by a cell or phagocyte
Cell Structures
Inside the cell. Contain: Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Vacuoles, Vesicles, Cytoskeleton, Microtubules, Cytosol, Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria
External and Internal Sphincters
Internal sphincter: contracts closed to prevent leaking, relaxes to void involuntary smooth muscle; controlled by ans reflex; external and internal sphincters must relax for bladder to empty into urethra. external urethral sphincter: voluntary skeletal muscle; controlled by somatic motor reflex; external and internal sphincters must relax for bladder to empty into urethr
What is the circulatory system is responsible for?
Internal transport for substances to and from the cells
Circulatory System
Internal transport of substances *to and from* the cells. -3 Parts: Blood, Blood Vessels, and Heart. -Open or Closed.
Events of Mitosis in order
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis. Main events in order: PMAT or "Pink" MAT Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Reflex Arc
Involuntary movements. -Simplest Nerve Pathway, which bypasses the brain and is *controlled by the spinal cord* -*Stimulus*: Detected by sensory receptors, and a message is send long the *afferent (sensory)* neuron *to one o more interneurons* in the spinal cord. ~Interneurons *transmit* this messages to a *efferent (motor)* neuron, which carries the message to the correct effector (muscle)
Nuclear Pores
Involved in *exchange of material between nucleus and the cytoplasm.*
Golgi Apparatus
Involved in *synthesizing materials* like *proteins* that are transported *out* of the cell. ~*Modifies and Packages proteins* secreted from the cell. -Located near the nucleus and has layers of membranes.
Primary function of the spleen
It filters microorganisms and other foreign substances from the blood
How is a zygote formed?
It is a eukaryotic cell formed by fertilization between two gametes.
External structures of female reproductive system:
Labia major, labia minor, bartholin's glands, and clitoris
Diaphragm
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing. dome-shaped sheet of muscle and tendon that serves as the main muscle of respiration and plays a vital role in the breathing process. It separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Lamellae
Layers of bone, tissue, or cell walls
Which heart chamber is the most muscular?
Left ventricle
<, _<_
Less than, IS fewer than Less than or equal to, is at most, is no more than
Root: bio
Life: biochemistry
Lipids (fats)
Lipase > produced by the Pancreas > released by the small intestine Bile salt > produced by the liver and gallbladder > released by the small intestine *Bile is technically not an enzyme but it is a salt that emulsifies lipid into fatty droplets.
Nucleoplasm
Liquid *within* the membrane and is *similar* to cytoplasm.
Cytosol
Liquid material in cell. mostly water, but also contains some floating materials
Cytosol
Liquid material in the cell. Part of the cytoplasm. Mostly water, a viscous semi-transparent fluid where the organelles are suspended.
Urine
Liquid waste matter excreted by the kidneys
Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands located?
Located in neck just below the larynx
Inferior
Lower on the body, farther from the head
Name the 5 types of white blood cells
Lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Liver Function
Main function is to filter and process blood
Autonomic Nervous System
Maintains homeostasis within the body by controlling the body functions not consciously directed; divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
Telophase(2) and Cytokinesis(2)
Marked by *decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes* and the *disassembly of the spindle*. *Nuclear envelopes reform* and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually *produces a total of four daughter cells*, each with a *haploid set* of chromosomes.
Connective Tissue
May be *dense, loose, or fatty.* -It *protects* and *binds* body parts.
What other cells also contribute to the body's defense with macrophages, T cells, and B cells?
Memory cells, suppressor T cells, and helper T cells
Canaliculi
Microscopic canals in ossified bone
Anaphase(1)
Microtubules shorten, and homologous pairs of chromatids are separated and travel to different poles.
Cellular level
Molecules combined to form cells, which are the basic unit of an organism composed of chemicals
hyaline cartilage
Most common type of cartilage; it is found on the ends of long bones, ribs, and nose
Structure of Digestive System
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus.
Digestive pathway
Mouth/pharynx does the mechanical breakdown of food by chewing and chemical breakdown through saliva. Esophagus moves food toward stomach by peristalsis. Stomach does mainly the chemical breakdown of food Pyloric sphincter- The pyloric sphincter controls the flow of food that has been digested by the stomach into the duodenum. From there is goes on to the small intestine, where the process of chemical digestion continues. The pyloric sphincter itself is a muscle. Small intestine- digestion of starches and absorption of nutrients. CCK- a digestive hormone released with secretin when food from the stomach reaches the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). Large intestine- absorption of water and salt, concentration of feces. Appendix-It creates the healthy bacteria for your digestive system Rectum- temporary storage of waste before expulsion. Anus- waste leaves the body and the digestive system.
Peristalsis
Moves *bolus* down to stomach through gastric sphincter (prevents back flow into esophagus)
Convert decimal to percent by
Multiplying by 100 then move decimal two places to the right.
Disorders that Disrupt Signals and Responses
Muscle Strain, Sprains, Muscular Dystrophy
What kind of tissue is the heart?
Muscle tissue or cardiac muscle tissue
heart disease
Myocardial Infarction: Heart attack; Death of the heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply Stroke: "Brain Attack." Damage to the brain due to inadequate blood supply Aneurysm: Localized abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall that causes an outward bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon. Hemorrhage occurs when it bursts. Atherosclerosis: Narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on artery walls Anemia: Not enough healthy RBC Arrhythmia: Abnormal heart rhythm ⦁ Tachycardia: Too fast ⦁ Bradycardia: Too slow Hypertension: High blood pressure. Systole is over 140 mmHg; Diastole is over 90 mmHg
Which layer of the heart contains striated muscle fibers for contraction of the heart?
Myocardium
Common Noun
Name general people, animals, places, and things Ex. Firefighter, City, Mountain
Proper Nouns
Name specific People, animals, places, and things. They always begin with a capital letter. Ex. John, New York, Mt. Rushmore
An atom has 5 protons, 5 neutrons, and 6 electrons. What is the electric charge of this atom?
Negative. Because the atoms has MORE electrons than protons, the atom has a negative charge.
Axon
Nerve fiber
nervous tissue
Nerve tissue is located in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. Cells called neurons form a network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses. Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells: 1. Neurons- transmit nerve impulses. 2. Neuroglial cells (glial cells) - are non-conducting "support cells" of nervous tissue. Examples include astrocytes, attached to the outside of a capillary blood vessel in the brain, phagocytic microglial cells, and ciliated ependymal cells that form a sheath that usually lines fluid cavities in the brain.
What controls the Digestive System?
Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Framework for Nervous System
Network fans out across the body forming the framework. -The *direction the information* flows *depends* on the specific organizations of nerve *circuits and pathways*.
Nervous Tissue
Neurons form a *network* through the body that control responses to change in the *external and internal* environment. Some send signals to *muscles and glands* to trigger responses. -Located in *brain, spinal cord, and nerves*
Innate Immune System
Nonspecific response; Nonspecific barriers that impede pathogens from entering the body or multiplying; Internal and external barriers
Prefix: in
Not: Invisible
Prefix: dis
Not: disorganized
Prefix: un
Not: unarmed
what does the circulatory system transport?
O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and stem cells
Stimulations
Occur in a *sequence* from the stimulation point of *One* neuron to its *contact* with another neuron.
When do messages occur?
Occur when a *neuron* is *Stimulated* past a necessary thresholds.
Ribosomes
Often attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and found free-floating in the cytoplasm. They synthesize proteins from amino acids. A cell able to make copies of genetic information but cannot produce encoded proteins. Ribosomes are formed by proteins and ribosomal RNA.
Penis
Organ for elimination of urine and sperm from the male body
Ovary
Organ in which eggs are produced for reproduction
Internal structures of female reproductive system:
Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina
Peroxisome
Oxidation and detoxification
Percent Decrease Equation
PD = original amount - new amount/ original amount X 100%
Order of operations
PEMDAS Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally. 1- Parenthesis 2- Exponents 3- Multiplication and Divison (left to right) 4- Addition and Substraction (left to right)
Golgi Apparatus/Complex
Packages and sends proteins; Assists in the transport, but is not the actual transport network
Centrosome
Pair of centrioles located at *right angles to each other* and *surrounded by protein*. -Involved in *Mitosis and Cell Cycle*
Anaphase
Pair of chromosomes, *sisters*, begin to *pull apart* and may bend. When they separate, they are called *daughters*. Grooves then appear in cell membrane.
Metaphase(1)
Pair of homologous chromosomes move along the metaphase plate.
Telophase(1) and Cytokinesis(1)
Pairs arrives at poles and cell is pinched apart, separating into two cells.
Pancreas Enzymes
Pancreatic juices (Bicarbonate, lipase, trypsin(ogen), proteases, and amylase)
What encloses supplementary or explanatory material that interrupts the main sentence?
Parentheses
Comma
Parenthetical expressions should be offset by what?
Microtubules
Part of cytoskeleton and help support cell. Made of protein A hollow rod of the protein tubulin in the cytoplasm of all eukaryote cells that make up cilia, flagella, spindle fibers, and other cytoskeletal structures of cells
Microtubules
Part of cytoskeleton. -Help *support* the cell. -Made of *proteins*
medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.
Glycolipids: help cell recognize other cells of the organisms Proteins: help give the cells shape, special proteins help communicate w/ its eternal envmt, others transport molecules across cell membrane Cholesterol: Adds stiffness and flexibility
Parts in the cell membrane/their functions? - Glycolipids - Proteins - Cholesterol
What is an example of a reflex arc?
Patellar tendon reflex = knee jerk
Solve Real World Problems with Percentage
Percent *LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO* 100% ~(50% -> 50 out of 100%) Percent *MORE THAN* 100% ~(150% is 150 for each 100) -Percent off sales tax, annual percent interest rate at a bank, annual percent gain or loss for a company or business, percent commission for sales person, percent depreciation of assets, percentages of ingredients in a mixture or recipe.
Voluntary
Performed on purpose
Which Nervous System consists of nerves and ganglia throughout the body and includes sympathetic nerves, which trigger "flight or fight" response, and the parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function?
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Sweat
Perspiration excreted by sweat glands through the skin
What mobilizes white blood cells and chemical reactions to stop infection?
Phagocytes and inflammation responses
Medulla Oblongata
Piece of the brain stem that *connects* the spinal cord to the brain. -*Important* role with *autonomous nervous system* in the circulatory and respiratory system.
Semicolon rules
Placed between two related independent clauses Precede conjuctive adverbs: However, therefore When a sentence contains a series of elements that contain one or more commas, the division between the elements should be a semicolon
Reference Planes
Planes dividing the body to describe locations: sagittal, coronal, and transverse
______________ constitutes over half of the blood volume. It is mostly water and serves as a solvent.
Plasma
First person
Point of view: Subjective Singular: I Plural: We
Third person
Point of view: "He, she, or it" Objective
Second person
Point of view: Singular: Mom can you grab the keys Plural: Everyone needs to raise their hand if they have a question
Dendritic Cells
Present *Antigens* (Foreign Particles) to T Cells.
Action Verbs
Present tense Ex. Sheila and Tom are walking in the park
Homophones: Principal and Principle
Principal (noun): Chief or Leader Principle (noun): A belief or rule of conduct
Ventilation
Process of aerating the lungs
cellular respiration
Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
Cellular Functions
Processes that include growth, metabolism, replication, protein synthesis, and movement
B Lymphocytes (B Cells)
Produce antibodies
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Products of the Citric Acid Cycle Two carbon atoms come into the citric acid cycle from each acetyl group, representing four out of the six carbons of one glucose molecule. Two carbon dioxide molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not necessarily contain the most recently added carbon atoms. The two acetyl carbon atoms will eventually be released on later turns of the cycle; thus, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule are eventually incorporated into carbon dioxide. Each turn of the cycle forms three NADH molecules and one FADH2 molecule. These carriers will connect with the last portion of aerobic respiration to produce ATP molecules. One GTP or ATP is also made in each cycle. Several of the intermediate compounds in the citric acid cycle can be used in synthesizing non-essential amino acids; therefore, the cycle is amphibolic (both catabolic and anabolic).
Ribosomes
Protein Synthesis
Happens in thin microfilaments
Protein actin
Happens in thick microfilaments
Protein myosin
Rough ER
Protein synthesis and processing
What is used to enclose chapters, articles, and short stories, songs, plays, etc?
Quotation marks
What is used to enclose technical terms or slang?
Quotation marks
Persuasive Writing Techniques
RHETORICAL STRATEGIES: -assists the author in building an argument -Ethos: an author might explain their credentials or offer concessions to an opposing argument to create a trusted relationship with the reader -Logos -Pathos: appeal to emotion
Proportions
Ratio in fraction form set equal to another ratio in fraction form. ~Example: 50mi/1cm = X/12.6cm (cross multiply) -> 50mi*x*12.6cm/1cm=X*x*12.6cm/12.6cm (cancel out 12.6cm on Num. and Den.) -> 50mi*x*12.6cm/1cm (cancel out cm) = X -> 630mi = X
Cytoplasm
Refers to Cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found *within the plasma membrane*, but *not* within the nucleus.
posterior
Refers to structures behind
anterior
Refers to structures in front
What is the simplest nerve pathway?
Reflex Arc. It passes by the brain and is controlled by the spinal cord.
Relaxation
Release of tension
Anaphase(2)
Remaining centromeric cohesin is cleaved allowing the sister chromatids to *segregate.* The sister chromatids by convention are now called *sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.*
Appositives
Renames a noun in another part of the sentence Ex. Our teacher, Paul, will be online later today
anaerobic respiration
Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid.
Adaptive Immune System
Respond to specific antigens; Responds by remembering signature molecules, called antigens, from pathogens to which the body has previously been exposed
The main function of the lymphatic system is?
Return excess tissue fluid to the blood stream
rough
Ribosomes are in which ER?
Blood Flow
Right Atrium --> Tricuspid Valve --> Right Ventricle --> Pulmonary Semilunar Valve --> Lungs --> Pulmonary Veins --> Left Atrium --> Bicuspid/Mitral Valve --> Left Ventricle -->Aortic Semilunar Valve --> Aorta --> Systemic Arteries --> Body/Systemic Circulation -->Superior/Inferior Vena Cava --> Right Atrium/Beginning
Esophagus Function
Secretes mucus and transports foo into the stomach
Pancreas Hormones
Secretin; Somatostatin; Insulin; Glucagon
What is the endocrine system responsible for?
Secreting the hormones and other molecules that help regulate the entire body in both the short and long term
Words that need to be hyphenated
Self-sufficient Self-esteem
What is placed between two related independent clauses?
Semicolon
sebaceous vs sweat glands (sudoriferous)
Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are both exocrine glands found in the skin. Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to the surface of the skin. *Sebaceous glands* are *holocrine glands*, which secrete sebum: an oily mixture of lipids and proteins; waterproofs skin, protects from pathogens. They are connected to the hair follicles and secrete sebum through the hair pore. -Sebaceous glands are found in most of the skin (except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet). -The sebaceous glands are located in the dermis, the middle layer of the skin, and they develop from the epithelial cells of the hair follicle itself (the external root sheath of the hair follicle). *Sweat Glands* -Can be Eccrine or apocrine glands -Eccrine glands are not connected to hair follicles, they secrete salty solution made of electrolytes and water but also contains, NaCl, KHCO3, Glucose, Antimicrobial Peptides. eccrine gland: The major sweat glands of the human body, found in virtually all skin, produce a clear, odorless substance, consisting primarily of water and NaCl. The most numerous types of sweat glands in our skin, found almost everywhere on the body, are called eccrine glands. These are the true sweat glands in the sense of helping to regulate body temperature. In other words, sweating causes the loss of body heat and thus cools us down on a hot day or when performing strenuous exercise. This is because as the water in sweat evaporates, it takes body heat with it. Found on: Forehead, neck, back *Apocrine glands ⦁Secrete oily solution ⦁Armpits, groin, palms, soles of feet ⦁Activated by stress or anxiety ⦁Body Odor forms from bacteria feeding on apocrine sweat The other kind of sweat glands are known as apocrine glands. The apocrine glands are found in places like the armpits, scrotum, anus, and labia majora. They are typically larger than eccrine glands and their ducts tend to open into hair follicles instead of hairless areas of skin. These glands serve virtually no role in the regulation of body temperature. These are also the glands largely responsible for body smells, as their excretions are converted by skin bacteria into various chemicals we associated with body odor.
When a sentence contains a series of elements that contain one or more commas, what Divides the elements?
Semicolon
Translate Phrases and Sentences into Expressions, Equations, and Inequalities
Sentence Fragments become *Expression* and Full Sentences becomes *Equations and Inequalities*. -Examples: *Expressions:* 3x-5 , , y , 3(2x+7) *Equations:* 3x-5=70 , y=36 , 3(2x+7)=4x-9 *Inequalities:* x-5>70 , y<36 , 3(2x+7)_<_4x-9
Random comma rules
Separate quotations from text: "Yo", dad exclaimed When an independent clause preceeds a dependent clause: Some of us could not spend it more foolishly, If time were gold. Separate city from state: Las Vegas, NV
Stomach Function
Serve as mixing chamber and holding reservoir; Secretes gastric juice (with HCl), pepsin, intrinsic factor, gastric lipase, and gastrin
Contraction
Shortening or elongating a muscle to perform muscle actions
What is used when making a quotation inside of a quotation?
Single quotes
Which muscle tissue is voluntary
Skeletal tissue
Capillary
Small blood vessels that connect arterioles to venules
Vesicles
Small organelle *within* a cell, has a membrane. -Functions: *Moving materials* within a cell.
Vescile
Small organelle w/in a cell. It has a membrane and performs varying functions, like moving materials w/in a cell
Bronchioles
Small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Bronchiole
Small passages that connect the bronchi to the alveoli
somatic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System (SNS) controls the 5 senses & voluntary movement of skeletal muscle, all neurons are connected to sense organs ⦁Efferent nerves -Motor -Efferent muscles bring signals from the CNS to sensory organs & muscles ⦁Afferent nerves -Sensory -Afferent muscles bring signals from sensory organs & the muscles to the CNS ⦁Reflex Arcs: involuntary movements -Simplest nerve pathway -Bypasses the brain & is controlled by the spinal cord When you touch a hot object you automatically pull your hand away without a conscious effort. Such automatic reflex actions are governed by a simple combination of neurons called reflex arcs. Usually there are five (5) parts of a reflex arc: Receptor - sense organ in skin, muscle, or other organ Sensory neuron - carries impulse towards CNS Interneuron - carries impulse within CNS Motor neuron - carries impulse away from CNS Effector - structure by which animal responds (muscle, gland, etc).
Root: audio
Sound: audiovisual
Forms of Sources
Sources may answer specific questions posed in a text, enrich the information provided on a topic by the writer, or support a writer's argument -written documents -audio-visual materials -information found over the Internet -in-person interviews
Telophase
Spindle *disintegrates*, nuclear membranes *reform*, and the chromosome *revert* to chromatin. -Animals Cells: Membrane is *pinched* -Plant Cells: New cell wall begins to form
Telophase
Spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membrane reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin.
Metaphase
Spindle moves to the *center* of the cell and chromosome pairs *align* along the center of the spindle structure.
Anatomical Position
Standard positioning of the body as standing; feet together; arms to the side; with head, eyes, and palms of hands forward
anatomical position
Standard positioning of the body as standing; feet together; arms to the side; with head, eyes, and palms of hands forward. Remember, when looking at a body in anatomical position on paper, your left is the body's right. Your right is the body's left.
Interphase 1)Prophase 2)Metaphase 3)Anaphase 4)Telophase Cytokinesis IPMATC I PACK MY ART TOOLS CRAFTILY
Steps of mitosis?
Nucleolus
Structure contained *within* the nucleus, consists of *proteins.* Small, Round, and does *not* have a membrane. Involved in *protein synthesis, and synthesizes and stores RNA.*
Terms Related to Operations
Sum (+) , Difference (-) , Product (x) , Quotient ( / ) , Per 100 (#% _<_ 100%), Is or Of (#% _>_ 100%)
Words ending in -sede
Supersede
What are the 2 divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
T Lymphocytes
T cells, helper T cells, killer T cells, suppressor T cells, and memory T cells
Skin Thermoregulation/Temperature Homeostasis
TEMPERATURE HOMEOSTASIS - skin is involved in temperature homeostasis through sweat glands -Controlled by negative feedback system consisting of a Receptor, control center and effector *Receptor* ⦁Sensory cells in dermis of skin *Control center* ⦁Hypothalamus *Effectors* ⦁Sweat glands, blood vessels, and muscles (help with shivering) ⦁Perspiration- The body also thermoregulates via the process of sweating (perspiration). As drops of sweat form on and then evaporate from our skin surface, they take body heat away with them. All else held equal, the greater the skin surface area and the higher the sweat rate, the greater the rate of cooling via sweating. ⦁Vasodilation - Vasodilation refers to the process of expanding (-dilation) the size of the blood vessels (vaso-). The now enlarged peripheral vessels of the skin allow for greater amounts of blood to flow near the surface of the skin. This allows for our body to release a lot of body heat through radiation. Arrector Pili Muscles The hairs on the skin lie flat and prevent heat from being trapped by the layer of still air between the hairs. This is caused by tiny muscles under the surface of the skin, called arrector pili muscles. When these muscles relax their attached hair follicles are not erect. These flat hairs increase the flow of air next to the skin and increase heat loss by convection. If the body needs to prevent the loss of excess heat, such as on a cool day, it will end up constricting the blood vessels of our skin. This process is known as vasoconstriction.
Flagella
Tail-like structures on cell that use *whip-like* movements to help move the cell. Longer than Cilia. Only has one or a few flagella.
Flagella
Tail-like structures on cells that use whip- like movements to help the cell move . - usually longer than cilia and not as numerous - a cell usually only has one or a few of these
"That" and "Which"
That= people and things Which= things
Indirect object
The Cook baked the children cookies. 1. Find the action verb= baked 2. Find the subject= The Cook 3. Who/What (Direct object)= cookies 4. To/For whom (Indirect object)= children
Alveoli
The air sacs of the lungs in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. This exchange occurs by diffusion. Diffusion is the net passive movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform throughout. Some major examples of diffusion in biology: • Gas exchange at the alveoli — oxygen from air to blood, carbon dioxide from blood to air. • Gas exchange for respiration — oxygen from blood to tissue cells, carbon dioxide in opposite direction. • Transfer of transmitter substance — acetylcholine from presynaptic to postsynaptic membrane at a synapse. • Osmosis — diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.
amino acid derivative hormones
The amino acid-derived hormones are relatively small molecules derived from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. If a hormone is amino acid-derived, its chemical name will end in "-ine". Examples of amino acid-derived hormones include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are synthesized in the medulla of the adrenal glands, and thyroxine, which is produced by the thyroid gland. The pineal gland in the brain makes and secretes melatonin, which regulates sleep cycles.
Tidal Volume
The amount of air breathed in a normal inhalation or exhalation
Cells
The basic structural unit of an organism from which living things are created
cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle consists of diastole and systole which each have a first and second phase that occur at the same time. 1st diastole phase -> ⦁ blood flows through the superior and inferior vena cava. ⦁ the heart is currently relaxed the blood flows passively from the atrium through the open tricuspid valve, to the right ventricle. ⦁ The SA NODE (pacemaker of the heart) begins to generate electric signals, which are carried by purkinje fibers to the rest of the atrium which stimulates it to Contract & fill right ventricle with blood. ⦁ The Impulse from the SA node is transmitted to ventricle through AV node which then Signals the right ventricle to contract & begin 1st systole phase 1st SYSTOLE PHASE -> ⦁Tricuspid valve closes and Pulmonary semilunar valve opens ⦁Blood is pumped out of the pulmonary arteries to lungs ⦁2nd DIASTOLE PHASE ⦁Blood returning from lungs fills left atrium ⦁SA node triggers mitral valve to open, Blood fills left ventricle ⦁2nd SYSTOLE PHASE ⦁Mitral valve closes and Aortic semilunar valve opens ⦁Left ventricle contracts and blood is pumped out of aorta to rest of body
selective permeability
The cell membrane only allows small molecules to diffuse through it. Oxygen and water molecules are small enough to be allowed to pass through the cell membrane The IONS on the cell surface help to attract or repel other ions. Like charges are repelled, opposite charges are attracted to the cells surface. Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can pass through the cell. (such as steroids, alcohols, and some vitamins, can dissolve in the lipid portion of the membrane, which is how they diffuse into and out of the cell) Many molecules cannot diffuse through the cell membrane and must be moved through by ACTIVE TRANSPORT and VESICLES.
What's the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?
The cells during Meiosis divide twice, and during the second division, interphase does not occur.
Renal Pelvis
The center of the kidney where urine collects before moving to the ureter
Prophase
The chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers begin to form. The mitotic spindle, formed from cytoskeleton parts, moves chromosomes around within the cell. First phase of mitosis in which duplicated chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle fibers begin to form
Telophase 1 (meiosis)
The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In some organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes decondense, although in others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go through another round of division, meiosis II. Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I, forming two haploid daughter cells.
Saliva
The clear liquid found in the mouth, also known as spit
Types of Circulation
The circulatory system includes: Coronary Circulation, Pulmonary circulation, and Systemic circulation *Coronary circulation* is the flow of blood to the heart tissue. (Pathway of blood flow through the heart) Step 1: Blood enters right atrium from superior and inferior venae caveae. Step 2: Blood in the right atrium flows through right atrioventricular(AV) valve into right ventricle. Step 3: Contraction of the right ventricle forces pulmonary valve open. Step 4: Blood flows through pulmonary valve into pulmonary trunk. Step 5: Blood is distributed by right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated. *Pulmonary Circulation* is the flow of blood between the heart and lungs. 1. Deoxygenated blood from your body enters the right atrium of your heart through the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. 2. From the right atrium, the deoxygenated blood drains into the right ventricle through the right AV valve. (When the ventricles contract, the right AV valve closes off the opening between the ventricle and the atrium so blood doesn't flow back into the atrium.) 3. The right ventricle then contracts, forcing the deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve and into the pulmonary artery. (The pulmonary semilunar valve keeps blood from flowing back into the right ventricle after it's in the pulmonary artery.) 4. The pulmonary artery carries the blood that's very low in oxygen to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated. 5. Freshly oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary veins. *Systemic Circulation* is the flow of blood to the heart tissue 1. The pulmonary veins push oxygenated blood into the left atrium. (When the left atrium relaxes, the oxygenated blood drains into the left ventricle through the left AV valve.) 2. As the left ventricle contracts, the oxygenated blood is pumped into the main artery of the body — the aorta. (To get to the aorta, blood passes through the aortic semilunar valve, which serves to keep blood in the aorta from flowing back into the left ventricle.) 3. The aorta branches into other arteries, which then branch into smaller arterioles, carrying oxygenated blood all around your body. (Throughout your body, arterioles meet up with capillaries where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide.) 4. Through capillary exchange, oxygen leaves red blood cells in the bloodstream and enters all the other cells of the body. 5. The deoxygenated blood moves into the smallest veins, called venules, and then into bigger veins until it reaches the vena cava.
Vas Deferens
The duct in which sperm moves from a testicle to the urethra
Ureter
The duct that conducts urine from the kidney to the bladder
Pituitary Gland
The endocrine gland at the base of the brain that controls growth and development
Prostate
The gland in males tat controls the release of urine and secretes a part of semen that enhances motility and fertility of sperm
Thyroid
The gland in the neck that secretes hormones that regulate growth, development, and metabolic rate
Pancreas
The gland of the digestive and endocrine systems that PRODUCES INSULIN and secrete pancreatic juices
Complement
The group of proteins in blood serum and plasma that works with antibodies to destroy particulate antigens
Testosterone
The hormone that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics
Cumulative sentence
The independent clause is at the beginning of a sentence Ex. He dipped his hands in the bichloride solution and shook them--a quick shake, fingers down, like the fingers of a pianist above the keys
nervous system / Neuromuscular system
The human nervous system senses, interprets, and issues commands as a response to conditions in the body's environment. These responses are made possible by a communication grid called neurons. Basic function: Controls voluntary and involuntary movement. Messages are sent across the plasma membrane of neurons through a process called *action potential* Action potential: Occurs when neuron is stimulated past threshold A *chemical synapse* is very important because it is what occurs when two neurons make contact. Key terms and important information to know: autonomic nervous system- the part of the peripheral nervous system which regulates involuntary/unconscious body functions such as breathing and heart rate. axon - a nerve fiber that carries a nerve impulse away from the neuron body cell contraction - the process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in a muscle. Involuntary - without intentional control muscle - fibrous tissue that produces force and motion to move the body or produce movement in parts of the body. nerve - a bundle of nerve fibers that transmits electrical impulses toward and away from the brain and spinal cord. reflex - an INVOLUNTARY reaction to a stimulus. relaxation - release of tension in a muscle. synapse - the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons, muscles and glands. voluntary - with intentional control. What happens if acetylcholinesterase is inhibited at the synapse?- Causes a muscle stimulation What is function of a neuron?- transmit information What is the function of myelin sheath? - Increase speed of electrical signals What causes goosebumps? - Arrector pili motor muscles/ sympathetic response What is function for actin and myosin? - Responsible for muscle movement What is function of a synapse? - Allow neurons to pass signals to neurons and muscles What is the sympathetic response responsible for? - Fight-or-flight What is the parasympathetic response responsible for? - Rest-and-Digest What makes up the central nervous system? - Brain and Spinal cord Cerebellum function? - Process and store information Medulla oblongata function? - Breathing Skeletal Muscle Fiber (cells)- long, multinucleated cells containing many proteins and many mitochondria. Sarcolemma- the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, nuclei just beneath. Sarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber. Glycosomes-compartments that store glycogen, provides glucose during activity. Myofilaments- the protein-based contractile elements whose specific pattern gives the striated appearance. Thick Filaments- composed of a bundle of myosin proteins. Thin Filaments- composed of actin and other proteins. NMJ- where a motor neurons axon meets a skeletal muscle fiber. Action Potential- the electrical current that travels along the neuron, then to the sarcolemma to trigger muscle contraction. Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter used at NMJ's to trigger contractions, released from neuron and crosses synaptic cleft. Afferent Nerves- sensory nerves that send message to the CNS Efferent Nerves- motor nerves that send message to muscles. ANS- autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions including cardiac and smooth muscle, heart, digestion and breathing. Axon- a nerve fiber. Contraction- elongating or shortening of muscle to perform muscle actions. Nerve- a bundle of axons that transmit electrical impulses to peripheral organs. Synapse- the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons.
Renal Medulla
The innermost part of the kidney
integumentary system
The integumentary system consists of the skin, including the sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails. Functions include: Protection - protection from pathogens such as virus, bacteria and chemicals. Secretion - the sebaceous glands secrete sebum which is oil that makes the skin waterproof. Thermoregulation - the sweatglands are associated with keeping homeostasis Ridding the body of waste by sweat glands. Communication - the skin has sensory receptors that send information to the brain regarding touch, pain, pressure and temperature. the skin also sythesizes vitamin D It can also absorb topical ointments (medication that goes on the skin) ⦁Largest organ in this system is the SKIN.
The left ventricle of the heart
The largest and strongest chamber, Receives blood from the left atrium and pumps blood to the aorta via the Aortic Valve. The most muscular.
Rectum
The last section of the large intestine, ending with the anus
Nuceloplasm
The liquid w/in the nucleus, and is similar to cytoplasm
Thymus
The lymphoid organ that produces T-cells
Urea
The main nitrogenous part of urine
Bronchi
The main passageways directly attached to the lungs
Bronchi
The main passageways directly attached to the lungs.
Lungs
The main structures that house the BRONCHI and Bronchial network -Has 5 lobes (2 on the left, 3 on the right) The left only has 2 lobes to leave room for the heart. -Main structure of the respiratory system
Sentence: Example
The menu listed such delicacies as frog legs, snails, etc.
Ventilation
The movement of air in and out of the body via inhalation and exhalation
Heart
The muscle that pumps blood throughout the body
Which system has a close working relationship with the endocrine system?
The nervous system
Muscular System
The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. There are over 600 muscles in the human body. all muscles have 3 properties in common excitability, contraction, elongate All muscles have the ability to contract and shorten (contraction) all muscles have the ability to elongate or relax (elongate) Skeletal muscles: are Voluntary muscles and are composed of muscle fibers that are bound together in parallel bundles. They are known as striated muscle due to their striped appearance. Smooth muscle tissues: are involuntary muscles found in the walls of internal organs such as the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is: involuntary muscle Only skeletal muscle interacts with the skeleton to move the body. Skeletal muscle contration: Myosin: THICK FILAMENT; fibrous protein; forms the contractile filaments of muscle cells Actin: THIN FILAMENT; protein involved in motion; works with myosin Sarcomere: Myofibril containing myosin and actin Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscle, not striated ⦁Stomach, lung, intestine... Striated Muscle: Voluntary muscle; striated ⦁Biceps, triceps, gluteus maximus... Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary muscle; striated ⦁Heart ROLES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: -Voluntary bodily movement with the skeletal muscles -Involuntary actions of the bodily organs with the smooth muscles -Involuntary contractions and relaxation of the heart with the cardiac muscles -The Movement of Muscles -Muscles move with several different movements or motions Disorders affecting muscular system: Strains and sprains Muscular Dystrophy - weakness and loss of muscle mass Multiple Sclerosis - A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves. Muscle Atrophy - Muscle atrophy is when muscles waste away. The main reason for muscle wasting is a lack of physical activity. This can happen when a disease or injury makes it difficult or impossible for you to move an arm or leg. A symptom of atrophied muscles is an arm that appears smaller, but not shorter, than the other arm. Skeletal Muscle Fiber (cells)- long, multinucleated cells containing many proteins and many mitochondria. Sarcolemma- the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, nuclei just beneath. Sarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber. Glycosomes-compartments that store glycogen, provides glucose during activity. Myofilaments- the protein-based contractile elements whose specific pattern gives the striated appearance. Thick Filaments- composed of a bundle of myosin proteins. Thin Filaments- composed of actin and other proteins. NMJ- where a motor neurons axon meets a skeletal muscle fiber. Action Potential- the electrical current that travels along the neuron, then to the sarcolemma to trigger muscle contraction. Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter used at NMJ's to trigger contractions, released from neuron and crosses synaptic cleft. Afferent Nerves- sensory nerves that send message to the CNS Efferent Nerves- motor nerves that send message to muscles. ANS- autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions including cardiac and smooth muscle, heart, digestion and breathing. Axon- a nerve fiber. Contraction- elongating or shortening of muscle to perform muscle actions. Nerve- a bundle of axons that transmit electrical impulses to peripheral organs. Synapse- the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons.
Plants cells
The only cells that have chloroplasts and cell wall.
Anus
The opening of the rectum from which solid waste is expelled
Sentence: Synonym
The ophthalmologist, or eye doctor told me to wear these
Mouth
The oral cavity at the entry to the alimentary canal
Stomach
The organ between the esophagus and small intestine in which the major portion of digestion occurs
Integumentary System
The organ system comprised of the exterior of the body to protect the body from damage
Testicles
The organ that produce sperm; also called testes
Liver
The organ that produces bile, regulates glycogen storage, performs other bodily functions
Gall Bladder
The organ that stores bile
Renal Cortex
The outer layer of the kidney
Epidermis
The outer layer of the skin
Kidneys
The pair of organs that regulate fluid balance and filter waste from the blood
Anaphase
The pairs of chromosomes called sisters, begin to pull apart, and may bend. When they are separated, they are called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell membrane.
Plasma
The pale yellow component of blood that caries red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets throughout the body
Small Intestine
The part of the GI Tract between the stomach and large intestine that includes the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, where digestion and absorption of food occurs
Nephron
The part of the kidney responsible for filtering and excretion
Perfusion
The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue
Cervix
The passage that forms the lower part of the uterus
Systole
The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood
Diastole
The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood
Scrotum
The pouch of skin that contains the testicles
Collagen
The primary structural protein of connective tissue
cellular differentiation
The process by which a cell becomes specialized in order to perform a specific function, as in the case of a liver cell, a blood cell, or a neuron.
cell signaling
The process of cell-to-cell communication mediated by signaling molecules and membrane receptors.
Hemoglobin
The protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
Acid-Base Homeostasis
The respiratory system helps to maintain homeostasis in the body. Hyperventilation can increase blood pH during acidosis (Low pH) When the level of acidity in the blood is too low you will begin to hyperventilate to increase it. When alkalosis (high pH) is occuring in the body you begin to breathe slowly to help lower the blood pH.
About Sebum
The sebum produced by these glands plays numerous important roles: Sebum is a lubricant and inasmuch it helps to moisturize the skin. It does so by preventing the excess evaporation of water from the skin. Sebum serves to keep us healthy by keeping in check the growth of certain bacteria on our skin. That's because sebum contains chemicals that kill bacteria. This helps ensure bacteria don't invade into deeper layer of our skin. It helps to condition the hair. Meaning, it ensures our hair doesn't become too dry and brittle. Sebaceous glands are involved in numerous conditions. During puberty, various hormones cause them to produce a lot of sebum and this therefore contributes to oily skin. If a duct of a sebaceous gland is clogged with sebum, a whitehead results. If this material is allowed to dry and oxidize, it will become darker, forming a blackhead. If a sebaceous gland becomes infected, moderate and severe forms of acne are the result. The glands lining the ear canal that produce earwax (cerumen) are called ceruminous glands. They are modified sebaceous glands.
Chyme
The semifluid mass of partly digested food that moves from the stomach to the small intestine
Dermis
The skin
Telophase
The spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membranes reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin. In animal cells, the membrane is pinched. In plant cells, the new cell wall begins to form. "Final phase of mitosis during which chromosomes uncoil, a nuclear envelope returns around the chromatin, and a nucleolus becomes visible in each separate daughter cell"
Metaphase
The spindle moves to the center of the cell and chromosome pairs (sister chromatids) align along the center of spindle structure.
Turgidity
The state of being turgid or swollen, especially due to high fluid content. Turgidity is essential in plant cells to make them keep standing upright. Plant cells that lose much water have less turgor pressure, and tend to become flaccid.
peptide hormones
The structure of peptide hormones is that of a polypeptide chain (chain of amino acids). The peptide hormones include molecules that are short polypeptide chains, such as antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin produced in the brain and released into the blood in the posterior pituitary gland. This class also includes small proteins, such as growth hormones produced by the pituitary, and large glycoproteins, such as follicle-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary.
Synapse
The structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons
Urinary Bladder
The structure that stores urine in the body until elimination
Suffix: ology
The study of: archeology
Cardiovascular System
The system comprised of the heart and blood vessels
Skin
The thin layer of tissue that covers the body
What secretes hormones and is the major site of lymphocyte production?
The thymus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The transport network that is responsible for the transference of proteins throughout a cell; a network of membranes found throughout the cell
Urethra
The tube that connects the bladder to the exterior of the female body
Vagina
The tube that connects the external genitals to the cervix
Renal Arteries
The two branches of the abdominal aorta that supply the kidneys
Lymphocytes
The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Trachea
The windpipe, which connects the larynx to the lungs
Trachea
The windpipe; a passage through which air moves in the respiratory system. connects larynx to lungs
Uterus
The womb
Homophones: Their, They're, and there
Their (adjective): Belonging to them They're: Contraction of "they are" There (adjective): In that place
functional types of neurons
There are three general functional types of neurons: Sensory Neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. 1. Sensory neurons ⦁transmit signals to the central nervous system from the sensory receptors that are associated with touch, pain, temperature, sight, hearing, smell, taste 2. Motor neurons -transmit signals from the CNS (central nervous system) to the rest of the body such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond 3. Interneurons ⦁transmit signals between neurons **Neuron Parts 1. Cell body (soma) ⦁contains nucleus of neuron 2. Axon ⦁transmits impulses away from cell body, is insulated by oligodendrocytes & myelin sheath with gaps (nodes of Ranvier) -terminates at the synapse 3. Dendrites receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons & transmit them toward cell body Neurotransmitter: A chemical substance that is released from the AXON TERMINAL by the arrival of a nerve impulse ⦁Diffuses across the SYNAPSE, ⦁causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure at the DENDRITE of the other cell ⦁ Acetylcholine: NT; causes muscle to contract ⦁ Dopamine: NT; precursor to epinephrine
Chromosomes
These are highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA
Flagella
These are tail-like structures that use whip-like movements to help the cell move.
Indefinite Pronoun
They don't refer to anything or anyone specific (vague). Ex. They
What is the one thing that all cells have in common?
They have a cell membrane
Where are commas used within dates
They separate two textual or two numerical elements Ex. Saturday, January 14, 2031
Chromatin
This consists of the DNA and protein that make up chromosomes
Nuclear Envelope
This encloses the structures of the nucleus. FUNCTION: Regulates what substances enter and exit the cell. The inner and outer membranes are made out of lipids.
Scatter plot
This graph functions with data, finding simple regression. 4 different types: positive, negative, nonlinear exponential, nonlinear quadratic
Stem and leaf plot
This graph outlines groups of data that fall into range (small to large, left=stem, right=leaf)
Golgi apparatus
This is involved in synthesizing materials such as proteins that're transported OUT of the cell. It's located near the nucleus & consists of layers of membranes. A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
Cytokinesis
This is the physical splitting into 2 cels. Some believe it occurs after telophase when cell actually splits, others, anaphase, as the cell begins to furrow
Nucleolus
This structure contained within the nucleus consists of protein. Synthesizes and stores RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Periodic sentence
This type of sentence he meaning of the sentence isn't revealed until the end, usually in the form of an independent clause
How do glands send hormones?
Through the blood to organs.
Alveoli
Tiny air sacs i the lungs where exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
Nuclear pores
Tiny holes in the nuclear envelope. FUNCTION: allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus, mainly for exchange between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Epithelial tissue
Tissue in which cells are joined together tightly. Skin tissue is an example
epithelial tissue
Tissue in which the cells are joined together tightly! Example: Skin tissue Epithelial tissue will always be found covering or lining the outer surfaces of the body, organs and blood vessels as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal organs. The main function is protection. This tissue has glands that secrete products. It has no direct blood supply, no blood vessels. Receives all nutrients through diffusion. Forms protective barrier around organ and body to keep out certain molecules, bacteria, etc.
Epithelial tissue
Tissues in which cells are joined together tightly. Skin tissue is an example
Homophones: To, Too, and Two
To (preposition): Indicates movement or intent Too (adverb): Also Two (adjective): Something that has two units
Constrict
To become narrower
Dilate
To become wider
The main function of the respiratory system is?
To supply the body with oxygen and rid the body of carbon dioxide
Cartilage
Tough, elastic connective tissue found in parts of the body such as the ear
Proximal
Toward center of body/point of attachment
Medial
Toward the midline of the body
Medial
Toward the midline of the body - The little finger is medial to the thumb in anatomical position
Medial
Towards midline
Superior
Towards the head of the body
Interneurons
Transmit signals between neurons
Motor Neurons
Transmit signals from the CNS to the rest of the body
Sensory Neurons
Transmit signals to the CNS from sensory receptors
What is the function of red blood cells?
Transport oxygen to cells
Cardiovascular System Functions
Transporting nutrients, waste, chemical messengers,and immune molecules.
Body Planes and Sections
Transverse/Horizontal Plane: Divides the body into upper and lower halves. Imagine being sliced horizontally across the abdomen. Sagittal Plane: Divides the body or any body part vertically into left and right sections. It runs parallel to the midline of the body. Imagine being sliced in half from tip to bottom. Coronal/frontal plane: Divides the body vertically into front and back halves. Imagine being sliced in half from the side so that you now have your posterior and anterior sides separated.
Hormone Secretion
Triggered by a variety of signals including *hormonal signals, chemical reactions, and environment cues.* -Cells with particular receptors can benefit from *hormonal influence*. ~*"Lock and Key"* model for hormonal action
Steroid Hormones
Triggers *gene activation* and *protein synthesis* in some target cells.
Fallopian Tubes
Tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus
Compound adjectives
Two or more words that are modifying or limiting a noun. Ex. Follow the step-by-step instructions.
Subcutaneous
Under the skin
Sentence: Antonym
Unlike life in the country, henderson was a quaint existence
Which organ in men is in both reproduction and urinary system?
Urethra, it expels sperm and urine.
Vacuoles
Used for storage, waste removal, and digestion. Plant cells have one large vacuole. Animal calls have multiple small vacuoles. Maintains homeostasis within the cell. Vacuoles regulate the turgidity by regulating the amount of water inside the cell. cell has excessive water: vacuole absorbs the water and then diffuses it out of the cell. cell lacks water: water from the vacuole gets passed back into the cell thereby maintaining turgidity.
Ellipses
Used to suggest hesitation, attempt to conceal something, unfinished thought, or difficulty expressing oneself
Mitochondrion
Vary in size and quantity - performs various functions like generating ATP, involved in cell growth and death - contain their own DNA thats separate from that contained in the nucleus
Mitochondria
Vary in terms of *size* and *quantity*. Has various functions. *-Functions:* Production of Cell Energy (ATP) (Main function), Cell Signaling (Communications are carried out), Cell Differentiation (Cell transforms into a cell with more *specialized purpose*), Cell Cycle and Growth Regulation (Growth and Death, Reproduction). -Inner and Outer membrane: ~*Inner:* Encloses the matrix. Contains mtDNA and ribosomes. ~Between the 2 Membranes: Cristae (Folds). Chemical reactions occur here that *release energy, Control Water Levels in cells, and Recycle and Create Proteins and Fats.* *-Aerobic Respiration:* Occurs in Mitochondria.
Volkmann Canals/Perforating Canals
Vascular channels in compact bone.
Which structure has the lowest blood pressure?
Vein
Describe the vein, nerve, and artery found underneath the rib in DESCENDING order.
Vein, Artery, Nerve
Renal Vein
Veins connecting the kidney to the inferior vena cava that drain the kidney and carry blood purified by the kidney
Which contraction empties the ventricles, forcing circulation?
Ventricular contraction
Action verbs Passive verbs Linking verbs
What are the 3 types of verbs?
Double loop system of the heart
We have two loops in our body in which blood circulates. One is oxygenated, meaning oxygen rich, and the other is deoxygenated, which means it has little to no oxygen, but a lot of carbon dioxide. The pulmonary carries DEOXYGENATED blood from right ventricle to Lungs and the systemic carries OXYGENATED blood from left ventricle to the body. The human heart is called a double loop because it consists of two separate loops, the pulmonary loop and systemic loop. The pulmonary loop is the flow of deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. In the lungs, carbon dioxide from the blood is exchanged for oxygen. After this exchange, the blood is directed back to the heart. The second loop is the systemic loop, which starts with the freshly oxygenated blood being pumped by the heart out to all cells in the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients, and to pick up carbon dioxide on its way back to the heart. Blood flow of the heart: If you can't get yourself to remember the blood flow through the heart I would suggest taking a video of yourself explaining the process with a diagram on google! I explain it to myself this way: Deoxygenated blood comes in through the superior and inferior vena cava and fills the right atrium. The SA node generates electric signals carried by purkinje fibers which stimulates the tricuspid valve to contract and open releasing blood into the right ventricle. The pulmonary semilunar valve opens and the blood flows out of the pulmonary artery into the lungs. Once the blood becomes Oxygenated it flows back into the heart through the pulmonary vein and into the left atrium. The sa node generates electric signals again and the mitral valve contracts and opens allowing the blood to flow into the left ventricle. The aortic semilunar valve opens and the blood flows through the valve and into the aorta where it gets released back into the body! Essentially, superior and inferior vena cava > right atrium > tricuspid valve > right ventricle > pulmonary semilunar valve > pulmonary artery > lungs *This is known as pulmonary loop* Pulmonary vein > left atrium > mitral valve > left ventricle > aortic semilunar valve > aorta > body *this is known as systemic loop* Also called the double loop system.
More about Digestive system
What are the digestive enzymes? - Pepsin, Mucus, Hydrochloric What neutralizes stomach acid? - Bile/Sodium bicarbonate What are gastrulation cells? - Germ cells Where is bile stored? - Gallbladder What produces bile? -Liver What does villi do? - Increase surface area absorption Where do you find villi? - Small intestine Enzyme lipase function? - Breakdown lipids Enzyme protease function? - Breakdown proteins Enzyme amylase function? - Breakdown carbs Where are nutrients absorbed? - Small intestine Where is water and vitamin k absorbed? - Large Intestine ⦁Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth. ⦁Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal. ⦁Peristalsis - waves of muscle contraction that propel food. ⦁Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. ⦁Segmentation - contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food. ⦁Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes. ⦁Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph. ⦁Defecation - removal of indigestible materials through the anus. Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes. ⦁ Teeth - bony structures used in mastication. ⦁ Tongue - skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus. ⦁ Palate - roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions. ⦁ Uvula - extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing. Salivary glands - paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity. Saliva - secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens. Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing) ⦁ Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food Deglutition - when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus. Stomach - stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes. Chyme - the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours. Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine Gastric ulcers - erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium. Pyloric sphincter - circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine. Gastric pits/glands - invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the gastric juices. ⦁Chief cells - secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that works best in acidic pH. ⦁Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), to produce acidic environment. ⦁Mucous neck cells - produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the mucosa. -Enteroendocrine cells - secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity. Small intestine - coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine. Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Regions - divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) - regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas into the duodenum. Specializations for absorption: ⦁ Villi- finger-like projections of the mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium. Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption. ⦁ Intestinal crypts - invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion. ⦁ Microvilli - finger-like extensions of the epithelial cell membranes with attached "brush border enzymes," further increasing surface area. Liver - a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile. Bile - a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts. Emulsification - the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. Gall bladder - muscular sac on the posterior surface of the liver that stores and concentrates bile. The gall bladder is drained by the cystic duct. The Pancreas - gland whose acinar cells produces pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, and amylases. Large Intestine (Colon) - transports food from the small intestine to the anus while absorbing water and forming feces. Ileocecal valve - regulates movement of food from the small to the large intestine. Haustra - individual pouches of the large intestine wall. Teniae coli - thin longitudinal muscle layer forming the haustra. Regions: ⦁ Cecum - pouch-like region with the hanging vermiform appendix. ⦁ Ascending colon - transports food up the right side of the abdomen, turning at the hepatic flexure. ⦁ Transverse colon - transports food across the abdomen, turning at the splenic flexure. ⦁ Descending colon - transports food down the left side of the abdomen. ⦁ Sigmoid colon - s-shaped region. Rectum - most distal region of the colon, where feces is stored until defecation. Rectal valves - projections that allow gases to pass around feces. Anus - end of the alimentary canal from which defecation occurs. Internal anal sphincter - smooth muscle regulating anal opening. External anal sphincter - skeletal muscle regulating anal opening.
Length of half a circle
What does this formula cover? C=2 PIE r then multiply by the fraction central angle measure/360
Histogram
What graph is like a bar graph with grouped data that is touching?
Outlier
What is a data point that is distinctly separated from other values and is considered unexpected value? This value "lies outside" (is much smaller or larger than) most of the other values in a set of data
Prefix
What is added to the beginning of the word to modify it?
Area
What is the amount of space inside a 2 dimensional shape
Width
What is the distance from side to side?
A= PIE x R squared
What is the formula for a circle?
A= h x b
What is the formula for a parallelogram?
A= l x w
What is the formula for a rectangle?
A= 1/2 x d1 x d2
What is the formula for a rhombus?
A= l x l
What is the formula for a square?
A= 1/2 x h x (b1 + b2)
What is the formula for a trapezoid?
A= 1/2 x b x h
What is the formula for a triangle?
Simple sentence
What type of sentence contains only one clause, and has complete meaning (independent clause)? Ex. Some students like to study in the mornings. Ex. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
Topic sentence
What type of sentence is usually given at the beginning of the paragraph?
Adjectives
What type of word modifies nouns and pronouns, primarily by describing a particular quality of the word they are modifying?
Adverbs
What type of word or phrase modifies an adjective, verb, or another adverb, expressing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc. (e.g., gently, quite, then, there ).
Mitosis Meiosis
When cells replicate thru "___" the daughter cell is an exact replica of the parent cell, but when they divide thru _____ the daughter cells have diff genetic coding than the parent cell.
Nuclear Cell Parts
When dealing with the "Nuclear" part of the cell, it means we are looking at everything RELATING to the NUCLEUS of the cell.
Anaphase (Continued)
When separated, they're called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell membrane
Direct Dialogue
When you quote, exactly, directly, what a person said.
Length
Which geometric quantity is measured with ruler or tape measure?
Pie Chart
Which graph is a diagram to compare parts as a whole (labeled,legend)?
Bar Graph
Which graph is used to compare data (has scale)?
Line Graph
Which graph is used to show data INCREASE or DECREASE over time (has legend)?
Pictograph
Which graph shows pics or symbols to show data (legend)?
Mode
Which measure of tendency is the number that occurs the most and can be more than one?
Mean
Which measure of tendency is when you add all #, then divide by how many # there are? Also known as the average.
Involuntary
Without intentional control
Suffixed for words ending in "e"
Word ends in silent "e", added suffix begins with vowel, drop the letter "e" when adding the suffix: age+ing=aging Word ends in silent "e", added suffix begins with consonant, keep the letter when adding suffix: awe+some=awesome
what do organs do?
Work together in systems that perform coordinated large scale functions, like nourishing the body (digestive sys) or protecting the body from attack (immune sys) - ex: - the kidney processes blood to remove wastes and to retain electrolytes and water - bone performs several functions like providing a framework of support, protecting vital organs, articulating muscle to provide resistance for movement, location for synthesis of blood cells
Root: graph
Written: biographic
Homophones: Your and You're
Your (adjective): Belonging to you You're: Contraction of you are
Organelles tissues tissues organs organ systems
__ perform tasks including obtaining energy from food n reproduction. __ within the same function are collected into larger groups called ______. ___ are collected into ____, which carry out a single task, such as oxygenating blood (lungs) or filtering out wastes (kidneys). Organs work together in __ __ that perform large scale functions like nourishing the body (digestive sys) or protecting the body from attack (immune sys)
Kilogram- kg (household approximation)
a 5 pound bag of sugar weighs just over 1kg
Bone
a hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs. Its marrow produces red blood cells.
Stomach
a large, flexible, muscular sac that has 3 main functions. -mixing and storing food -dissolving and degrading food via secretions -controlling passage of food into the small instestine Protein digestion begins in the stomach and the acidity of the stomach helps to break down the food and make nutrients available for absorption. Smooth muscle moves the food by peristalsis, it contracts and relaxes to move food along. This keeps happening until the food reaches the small intestine where absorption begins.
Flagella
a long tail-like structure that aids in cell movement. A cell usually has one or few flagella. Sperm cells have a flagella.
Natural Killer Cells
a lymphocyte able to bind to certain tumor cells and virus-infected cells without the stimulation of antigens, and kill them by the insertion of granules containing perforin.
Telophase (Plant cells)
a new cell wall begins to form
Rational number
a number that can be expressed as a fraction
Irrational number
a number that cannot be expressed as terminating or repeating decimals.
Rate of change
a rate that describes how one quantity changes in relation to another.
Rate
a ratio that compares quantities of two units of measure
Endoplasmic Reticulum
a tubular network that comprises the transport system of the cell.
Mitosis
a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth. An exact replica of daughter cells. Each cell has 23 chromosomes so *the result of mitosis is 46 chromosomes total* Mitosis results in *DIPLOID* cells. Diploid cells are cells that contain two sets of chromosomes.
Gene
a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring
Superior
above or closer to the head
Micturition
act of passing urine
Many molecules are not able to diffuse the cell membrane. How can they be moved?
active transport and vesicle
Cholesterol in the cell membrane does what?
adds stiffness and flexibility.
what gland is used to produce hormones
adrenal glands
The categories of the respiratory system are?
airway, lungs, and respiratory muscles
Basophils
alert body of invasion
Selective permeability
allows what goes in and outside of the cell
gastrointestinal system
also known as the digestive system, extends from the mouth to the anus, and responsible for digestion and elimination. Most digestive systems function by the following means: *movement* - movement mixes and passes nutrients through the system and eliminates waste. *Secretion* - Enzymes, hormones, and other substances necessary for digestion are secreted into the digestive tract. *digestion* - includes the chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller units that enter the internal environment *absorption* - the passage of nutrients through plasma membranes into the blood or lymph and then to the body Digestive Processes - the processing of food by the digestive system involves 6 essential activities: ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, digestion, absorption, and defecation 1. ingestion - usually via the mouth, it is the process of taking in food 2. propulsion - move food through the alimentary canal; a. swallowing - is a voluntary action b. peristalsis - is involuntary, the major means of propulsion, some mixing of the food occurs as it is pushed along 3. mechanical breakdown - includes chewing, tongue action, churning in the stomach, prepares the food for chemical digestion by increasing its surface area a. segmentation - is the rhythmic local constriction of the small intestine 4. digestion - enzymes break down food molecules into their chemical building blocks 5. absorption - is the process where the digested end products (nutrients) are passed from the GI tract to the blood or lymph. 6. defecation - is the elimination of indigestible substances in the form of feces
Where does gas exchange occur in the human body?
alveoli
Where does gas exchange occur?
alveoli
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on all of the following except?
amount of mass lost
What carries oxygenated Blood?
an artery moving blood from the heart to a muscle
What is a reflex?
an automatic response without any conscious thought to stimulus via the reflex arc
cell differentiation
an early phase in the embryonic development: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm transforms into: nervous, muscular, and digestive system. this is an example of what?
An infection causes
an increase in white blood cells.
Centrosome
an organelle near the nucleus of a cell that contains the centrioles (in animal cells) and from which the spindle fibers develop in cell division. Involved in mitosis and the cell cycle. *The main purpose of a centrosome is to organize microtubules and provide structure for the cell, as well as work to pull chromatids apart during cell division*
What gland produces TSH?
anterior pituitary or just "Pituitary gland"
Plasma cells produce?
antibodies specific to that pathogen
Key terms for immune system:
antigen presenting cell - a cell that displays foreign antigens with major histocompatibility complexes on their surfaces. antimicrobial - a substance that kills or inhibits growth of micro-organisms with minimal damage to host complement - the group of proteins in a blood serum and plasma that works with antibodies to destroy particular antigens phagocytosis - ingestion of particles by a cell or phagocyte.
Cilia
appendages extending from the surface of the cell, which causes the cell to move. They can also result in fluid being moved by the cell
Key terms for digestive system/More information
anus - the opening of the rectum from which solid waste is expelled. bolus - a mass of food that has been chewed and swallowed. chyme- the semifluid mass of partly digested food that moves from the stomach to the small intestine enzymatic digestion - the break down of food by enzymes for digestion gall bladder - the organ that stores bile large intestine - also known as the colon where vitamins and water are stored prior to elimination liver - the organ that PRODUCES bile, regulates glycogen storage. mouth - oral cavity at the entry to the alimentary canal Pancreas - produces insulin and secretes pancreatic juices Structures of the Digestive Tract: ⦁ Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform various digestive functions ⦁ Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion Functions of the Digestive System: ⦁ Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth. ⦁ Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal. ⦁ Peristalsis - waves of muscle contraction that propel food. ⦁ Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. ⦁ Segmentation - contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food. ⦁ Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes. ⦁ Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph. ⦁ Defecation - removal of indigestible materials through the anus. Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes. ⦁ Teeth - bony structures used in mastication. ⦁ Tongue - skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus. ⦁ Palate - roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions. ⦁ Uvula - extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing. Salivary glands - paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity. Saliva - secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens. Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing) ⦁ Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food Deglutition - when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus. Stomach - stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes. Chyme - the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours. Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine Gastric ulcers - erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium. Pyloric sphincter - circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine. Gastric pits/glands - invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the gastric juices. ⦁ Chief cells - secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that works best in acidic pH. ⦁ Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), to produce acidic environment. ⦁ Mucous neck cells - produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the mucosa. ⦁ Enteroendocrine cells - secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity. Small intestine - coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine. Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Regions - divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) - regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas into the duodenum. Specializations for absorption: ⦁ Villi- finger-like projections of the mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium. Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption. ⦁ Intestinal crypts - invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion. ⦁ Microvilli - finger-like extensions of the epithelial cell membranes with attached "brush border enzymes," further increasing surface area. Liver - a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile. Bile - a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts. Emulsification - the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. Gall bladder - muscular sac on the posterior surface of the liver that stores and concentrates bile. The gall bladder is drained by the cystic duct. The Pancreas - gland whose acinar cells produces pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, and amylases. Large Intestine (Colon) - transports food from the small intestine to the anus while absorbing water and forming feces. Ileocecal valve - regulates movement of food from the small to the large intestine. Haustra - individual pouches of the large intestine wall. Teniae coli - thin longitudinal muscle layer forming the haustra. Regions: ⦁ Cecum - pouch-like region with the hanging vermiform appendix. ⦁ Ascending colon - transports food up the right side of the abdomen, turning at the hepatic flexure. ⦁ Transverse colon - transports food across the abdomen, turning at the splenic flexure. ⦁ Descending colon - transports food down the left side of the abdomen. ⦁ Sigmoid colon - s-shaped region. Rectum - most distal region of the colon, where feces is stored until defecation. Rectal valves - projections that allow gases to pass around feces. Anus - end of the alimentary canal from which defecation occurs. Internal anal sphincter - smooth muscle regulating anal opening. External anal sphincter - skeletal muscle regulating anal opening.
parietal cells
are the epithelial cells that secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor. These cells are located in the gastric glands found in the lining of the fundus and in the cardia of the stomach.
Joints are?
areas of contact adjacent to bones
Where are apocrine glands located?
armpits, groin, palms, and soles of the feet
Key terms for the cardiovascular system:
arteries - blood vessels that deliver blood AWAY FROM the heart to the other parts of the body Capillary - small blood vessels that connect arterioles to venules diastole - the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood systole - the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood heart - muscle that pumps blood throughout the body hemoglobin - the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body leukocyte - white blood cells which protect the body against disease lymph - clear fluid that moves throughout the lymphatic system to fight disease lymphocyte - a subtype of white blood cells found in lypmh. plasma - a pale yellow component of blood that carries red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets throughout the body. vein - Blood vessels that carry blood TO THE HEART
NOTE: To distinguish between a fact and opinion
ask is a statement can be proven. -look for subjectivity by asking if an observation could vary according to the situation or person observing -opinion = narrator's views
Occipital lobe
auditory input, processing and output
Name the 3 basic parts that a neuron consists of:
axon, dendrites, and cell body
Posterior
back
Posterior
back of body
The immune system protects the body against invading pathogens including:
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists
Kidneys
bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm
Where is the pancreas located?
behind the stomach
Inferior
below or closer to the feet
Skeletal muscles include muscles commonly called
biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.
fluid connective tissue
blood and lymph
Smooth muscle tissue provides tension in the
blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis.
Mitosis involves which kind of cells?
body cells
Sympathetic
body's reaction to extreme, stressful, emergency situations
What are the primary components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
brain and spinal cord
hypoventilation
breathing at an abnormally slow rate, resulting in an increased amount of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Efferent
bring signals from CNS to sensory organs and muscles
Where does the exchange of nutrients between blood and tissues occur ?
capillaries
The sequence of contractions is called the
cardiac cycle
Arteries
carry blood away from the heart
Fallopian tubes
carry the mature egg toward the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in these tubes
supporting connective tissue
cartilage and bone
hormone imbalance
causes metabolic diseases such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and gigantism.
What has selective permeability with regard to size, charge, and solubility?
cell membrane or plasma membrane
Organelles
cell parts that function w/in a cell, coordinate w/ other ___ to perform a cells basic functions - groups of complex molecules that help a cell survive, ea. with its own unique membrane that has diff chemical makeup from the cell membrane
Interphase
cell prepares for division by replicating it genetic and cytoplasmic material.
what do tissues do?
cells w/ the same function are collected into larger groups called _____?
What are the 2 major parts of the nervous system?
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
which part of the brain is responsible for balance, movement, coordination?
cerebellum
What connects the vagina to the uterus?
cervix
order of structural organization?
chemical level > cellular level > tissue level > organ level > organ system level > organismal level
What is the cause of emphysema?
chemical pollutants, smoke
Prophase 2 (meiosis)
chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the spindle microtubules begin to capture chromosomes. (Occurs in both cells at the same time)
Ciliated Mucous Membranes
cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract
lymph vascular system
cleans up excess fluids and proteins and returns them to the circulatory system.
lymph ducts
collecting channels that carry lymph from the lymph nodes to the veins A lymph duct is a great lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins. There are two lymph ducts in the body—the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right upper limb, right side of thorax and right halves of head and neck.
Peyer's patches
collections of lymphatic tissue found in the ileum to protect the GI tract from pathogens
What is another name for large intestine?
colon
Normal Bacterial Populations
compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina
Genome
complete set of genes or DNA in an organism
Layers of the heart wall
composed of 3 layers: epicardium, myocardium, endocardium 1. epicardium - is the visceral layer that covers the external heart surface 2. myocardium - is the thick middle layer of the heart wall made mainly of cardiac muscle a. it is the layer that contracts b. is arranged in spiral or circular bundles with connective tissue (cardiac skeleton) that link all parts of the heart together 3. endocardium - inner layer made of squamous epithelium, lines the chambers, covers the valves, and is continuous with the linings of the blood vessels entering and leaving the heart. Myocardium is the most muscular.
organs are composed of..?
composed of lots of types of tissues & perform one or more functions -EXXXX: the brain coordinates input from various sources to provide instructions for the bodys response to stimuli -EXXXX: the kidney processes blood to remove wastes and to retain electrolytes and water - EXXXX: bone performs several functions, including providing a framework of supp, protecting vital organs, articulating muscle to provide resistance for movement, and is a location for synthesis of blood cells.
What kind of tissue is bone?
connective tissue
Myofibrils
contain 2 protein microfilaments that are thick and thin.
Clitoris
contain erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure
Penis
contains urethra, can fill with blood and become erect, enabling the disposition of semen and sperm into the female reproduction during sexual intercourse
Systole
contraction of the ventricles of the heart (expels blood)
Glucagon
control carb metabolism and has opposite effect of insulin by increasing glucose levels (blood sugar levels)
Insulin
control carb metabolism by lowering glucose in blood • Affects fat metabolism and can change liver's ability to release stored fat
Adrenal medulla
controls cardiac function; raises blood sugar and controls size of blood vessels
hypothalamus
controls the hormone secreted by the pituitary gland
chief cells
convert pepsinogen to pepsin
Cartilage
cushions and provides structural support for body parts. It has a jelly-like base and if fibrous
Centriole
cylinder shaped structures near the nucleus that are involved in cellular division.
Centrioles
cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division. each cylinder consists of 9 groups of three microtubules.
The cell is filled with a fluid called?
cytoplasm or cytosol
Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
defines the cell by acting as a barrier.
Osteoporosis
degenerative joint disease
What does DNA stand for?
deoxyribonucleic acid
Killer T cells
destroy infected cells
The respiratory muscles include?
diaphragm and intercostal muscles
How does gas exchange occur?
diffusion
What is the name of the process of the lungs by which oxygen is transported from the air to the blood?
diffusion
Sagittal plane
divides the body, or any body part, vertically into right and left sections. The sagittal plane runs parallel to the midline of the body.
Septum layer
dividing the heart chambers.
Diaphragm
dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
pleural membrane/Pleura
double-layered serous membrane that encloses and protects each lung.
Metaphase 1 (meiosis)
during metaphase I, homologue pairs (also called tetrads) line up at the metaphase plate for separation.
Sweat glands are either _________ or ____________
eccrine glands or apocrine glands
Uterus
egg is implanted in the uterine wall if fertilized
circulatory systems can be:
either open or closed, most animals have closed systems meaning the heart and blood vessels are continually connected. Closed circulatory systems have the blood closed at all times within vessels of different size and wall thickness. In this type of system, blood is pumped by a heart through vessels, and does not normally fill body cavities. The open circulatory system is common to molluscs and arthropods.
Excitability
electric gradient which can reverse when stimulated
Spinal cord
encased bony structure of vertebrae, which supports and protects it.
Labia major and labia minor
enclose and protect vagina
Where does fertilization begin?
end of fallopian tube
What is the most superficial layer of skin?
epidermis
What are the 3 layers of the skin
epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
Internal structures of the Male Reproduction System
epididymis, vans deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.
4 main tissue types
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
cell structure
everything inside the cell including the nucleus A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called *organelles*
What are the 3 common properties of muscles
excitability, contraction, and elongate
Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are what type of glands found in the skin?
exocrine glands
Purpose: Technical Passage
explain specific processes, techniques, or equipment in order for the reader to use that process or equipment to obtain the desired result -LOOK FOR: chronological or spatial organization (being able to create images from an author's words), specialized vocabulary, imperative or directive structures
what tube goes from the ovaries to the uterus
fallopian tubes
Distal
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Ovaries
female gonads, produce ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone
Cartilaginous joints
fill the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Example - between vertebrae
Red blood cells , an important site of red blood cell production ______________________
fills the spongy tissue of many bones.
What is the function of the spleen?
filter blood and help fight infections
function of urinary system
filter blood, form urine (H2O, nitric wastes and excess blood substances), critical in homeostatic regulation of fluid water balance, hormone levels, electrolyte levels, and Ph (acid/base balance)
What is the function of lymph nodes?
filter debris from intracellular spaces
In general, what do the kidneys do? (other main functions)
filter the blood, reabsorb needed materials, and secrete wastes and excess water in urine.
spleen function
filters the blood of red blood cells and macrophages
peritoneal ligaments
folds of peritoneum that connects an organ with another or abdominal wall
Glandular Secretions
from exocrine glands destroy bacteria
Anterior
front
Anterior
front of the body
The four main lobes of the brain are
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe
Coronal plane
frontal plane that divides the body, or any body structure, vertically into front and back (anterior and posterior) sections. Runs
Lobes of the brain
frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal 1. Frontal lobe ⦁ located at the front of the brain ⦁ Responsible for short term & working memory, information processing, decision making, planning, judgment. 2. Parietal lobe ⦁ slightly towards the back of the brain & the top of the head ⦁Responsible for: Sensory input, Spatial positioning of the body 3. Occipital lobe ⦁Located at the back of the head just above the brain stem ⦁Responsible for: Visual input, processing, and output. Specifically nerves from eyes enter directly to this lobe 4. Temporal lobe ⦁Located at the left and right sides of brain Responsible for: Auditory input, processing, and output ⦁4 Lobes ⦁Frontal Lobe: thinking, organizing, emotions, behavior, personality ⦁Parietal Lobe: perception, making sense, arithmetic, spelling ⦁Temporal: memory, understanding, language ⦁Occipital: vision
Arterial blood pressure
functions by transporting oxygen - poor blood into lungs and oxygen - rich blood to body tissues
Gastric Secretions
gastric acid destroys pathogens
Loss of tissue in the stomach is called?
gastritis
Meiosis encourages?
genetic diversity
DNA
genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal
What is not a product or respiration?
glucose
Pineal gland
has influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
has ribosomes, synthesizes proteins for transport outside of the cell.
Fibrous joints
have fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present
Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the
heart
mycardial infarction
heart attack
The three parts that the circulatory system consists of are?
heart, blood, and blood vessels
Helper T cells
help fight infection by producing antibodies and other chemicals
What is the function of the kidney?
helps eliminate water and waste from the body
Thyroid gland
helps regulate metabolism and functions in growth and development
Muscle tissue
helps support and move the body. The three types of muscle tissues are smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.
Caudal
hindquarters
Sebaceous glands are ____________
holocrine glands - which secrete sebum (oily lipids and proteins)
Anaphase 1 (meiosis)
homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell
Transverse plane
horizontal plane divides the patient's body into imaginary upper (superior) and lower (inferior or caudal) halves
thyrotropin
hormone that stimulates the thyroid
Which layer of skin is actually NOT a layer of skin?
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
Where is the interstitial fluid found?
in tissues around the cells
Forebrain
includes cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus
Myelinated levels of thyroxine will do what to the heart?
increase heart rate
What does Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine do?
increase metabolism
peritonitis
inflammation of the peritoneum
Renal medulla
inner layer of kidney
Renal pelvis
innermost portion of kidney
what is the function of the myelin sheath in the neuron?
insulation
Skin
intact epidermis and dermis from a formidable barrier against bacteria
Midbrain
integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals
Metric system
international system of units based on powers of ten
What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?
interphase
Cardiac tissue
involuntary and found in heart - striated
Smooth tissue
involuntary muscles found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestines
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
involved in lipid synthesis such as cholesterol and some steroids.
Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus)
involved in synthesizing materials such as proteins that are transported out of the cell. Transportation of proteins.
Ribosomes
involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. They are numerous making up about one quarter of the cell.
Nuclear pores
involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Animal Cell Structure
irregular round shape multiple small vacuoles centrioles Animal cells do not have a cell wall, they do not have chloroplasts and they do not have LARGE vacuoles. TIP: the prefix Chloro- means green. This is more closely related to plants.
Cerebellum
is responsible for muscle contraction
pulmonary artery
is the blood vessel containing the least oxygenated blood
DNA
is the genetic material that stores info about the plant/animal
Rheumatoid Arthritis
is the most common type of autoimmune arthritis. It is triggered by a faulty immune system and affects the wrist and small joints of the hand, including the knuckles and the middle joints of the fingers.
Chemical level
is the simplest level within the structural hierarchy. The ---- level includes the tiniest building blocks of matter, atoms, which combine to form molecules, like water. In turn, molecules combine to form organelles, the internal organs of a cell.
To build an outline of the text
jot down words and phrases as you read that describe the main idea and underline the important details
Most epidermal cells are ____________?
keratinized
The urinary system consists of?
kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder.
Macromolecules
large and complex, play an important role in cell structure and function.
Eosinophils
large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders
what is responsible for speech?
larynx
Lamellae (compact bone)
layers of bone tissue, or cell walls
electron transport chain
lectron Transport Chain You have just read about two pathways in cellular respiration—glycolysis and the citric acid cycle—that generate ATP. However, most of the ATP generated during the aerobic catabolism of glucose is not generated directly from these pathways. Rather, it is derived from a process that begins with moving electrons through a series of electron transporters that undergo redox reactions: the electron transport chain. This causes hydrogen ions to accumulate within the matrix space. Therefore, a concentration gradient forms in which hydrogen ions diffuse out of the matrix space by passing through ATP synthase. The current of hydrogen ions powers the catalytic action of ATP synthase, which phosphorylates ADP, producing ATP. The electron transport chain (Figure 7) is the last component of aerobic respiration and is the only part of glucose metabolism that uses atmospheric oxygen. Oxygen continuously diffuses into plants; in animals, it enters the body through the respiratory system. Electron transport is a series of redox reactions that resemble a relay race or bucket brigade in that electrons are passed rapidly from one component to the next, to the endpoint of the chain where the electrons reduce molecular oxygen, producing water.
Glycolipid
lipid with carbohydrate attached
Cytosol
liquid material in the cell. Mostly water, but also contains floating molecules
Nucleoplasm
liquid within the nucleus, and is similar to cytoplasm
What is the largest solid organ of the body and the largest gland?
liver
Intercostal muscles
located between the ribs.
Spleen
located in the left side of the abdominal cavity between the stomach and the diaphragm It is made up of lymphoid tissue. lymphoid tissue is a cylinder of loosely organized cells surrounding small arteries Blood vessels are connected to the spleen by splenic sinuses (modified capillaries)
The lymph vascular system consists of? (3)
lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts
The immune system includes
lymphatic systems - lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessel, and lymph nodes as well as the red bone marrow and numerous leukocytes, white blood cells.
3 types of white blood cells form the foundation of the body's immune system are:
macrophages, T cells, and B cells
Testes (testicles)
male gonads which produce sperm and testosterone
The ___________ bean-shaped organ attached to the body near the peritoneum.
mamalian kidney
Connective tissue
may be dense, loose, or fatty. It protects and binds body parts
Pronoun: Objective
me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Cranial
meaning the skull
Cephalad or Cephalic
meaning towards the head.
superior
means above, or closer to the head
inferior
means below, or closer to the feet
Canaliculi
microscopic canals between the lacunae of ossified bone
lymph capillaries
microscopic vessels that draw lymph from tissues to the lymph vessels Lymph capillaries or lymphatic capillaries are tiny, thin-walled microvessels located in the spaces between cells (except in the central nervous system and non-vascular tissues) which serve to drain and process extra-cellular fluid.
Which part of the brain plays an important part of vision and hearing? It also lies above the pons and medulla oblongata.
midbrain
Aerobic respiration occurs in the?
mitochondria
When does the nuclear division of somatic cells take place during cellular reproduction?
mitosis
The centrosome is involved in which cell divisions?
mitosis and cell cycle
What are the two ways that cells can reproduce?
mitosis and meiosis
Adrenal cortex
monitor blood sugar level; helps in lipid and protein metabolism
Ventilation
movement of air in and out of the lungs such as inhalation and exhalation
How do digestive systems function?
movement, secretion, digestion, and absorption
what happens if acetylcholinesterase is inhibited by the synapse?
muscle spasms/contractions
Pronoun: Possessive
my, mine, your, your's, his, her, her's, it's, our, ours, their, theirs
Muscle fibers contain bundle of ____________?
myofibrils
Medial
nearer to the middle of the body. In anatomical position, the little finger is medial to the thumb
what kind of tissue is spinal cord?
nervous
Cell
!! IMPORTANT !! - *Cytology* is the study of cells. The cell is the smallest living organism. The basic organizational unit of life. All cells have a membrane. All *living* cells contain both DNA and Rna (except some cells such as mature red blood cells), while viruses contain either DNA or RNA, but usually not both. Function: The human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the body's hereditary material and can make copies of themselves. Prokaryote vs Eukaryote. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
Chemical Synapse
*"Point of Contact"* -A substance is released that *stimulates or inhabits* the action of the adjoining cell.
Antigen and Typical Immune Response
*Antigens*: Substances that stimulate the immune system. ~Proteins on the surface of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. ~Drugs, toxins, and foreign substances can be antigens. -Body *recognizes* the antigens of its own cells but it *will attack* cells or substances with unfamiliar antigens. -Specific *antibodies* are produced for each antigen that enters the body.
Active Immunity
*Naturally Acquired*: The individual is exposed and builds immunity to a pathogen *without* an immunization. *Artificially Acquired*: The individual is exposed and builds immunity to a pathogen *by a vaccine*. -Pathogens can enter body through *lymph nodes*. Nodes contain *large number of antigen-presenting cells* (APC) that can trigger the adaptive immune system.
Organ vs Organ System
*Organ* - a part of an organism that is typically self-contained and has a specific vital function, such as the heart or liver in humans. *Organ System* - an organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions. Each does a particular job in the body, and is made up of certain tissues.
The 3 Main Secretions of the Stomach
*Pepsinogen* (chief cells), *Mucus* (goblet cells), *hydrochloric acid* (parietal cells)
Cytokinesis
*Physical splitting of the cell into two cells* - Some believe it occurs following telophase, others say it occurs from anaphase, as the cell begins to *furrow*, through telophase, when cell actually splits into two.
*(Int.)* Uterus
*Protects and nourishes the developing embryo/fetus until birth* -Cervix: Opening to uterus
Dendrites
*Receive impulses from* sensory receptors or Interneurons and *transmit them toward* the cell body. -Strands coming off the Cell body
Skeletal Muscle
-*Voluntary* muscles that work in *pairs* to move various parts of the skeleton. -Composed of *muscle fibers (cells)* that are bound together in parallel bundles. -Known as *striated* muscles due to their stripped appearance under the microscope. -Only muscle to help with the movement of the body.
Functions of the respiratory system
-Gas exchange between air and circulating blood, Moving air from the exchange surface of the lungs (ALVEOLI) -Supplies the body with oxygen by the alveoli -Filters air before it reaches the lungs -Protects respiratory surfaces -produces sound/ is used for speech (the air from the lungs passes through the throat, moves through the larynx, which vibrates the vocal cords and produces sound before it enters the trachea) -used for our sense of smell (olfactory sensations) -Transports oxygen (O2) from the atmosphere into the body's cells moving carbon dioxide (CO2) in the other direction.
Surfactant
A fluid secreted by alveoli and found in the lungs
Cytoskeleton
Consist of *microtubules* that help *shape and support* the cell.
Central Nervous System
Consists of brain and spinal cord
Root: ped
Foot: millipede
Suffix: ic, ical, ac
Having to do with: physical, cardiac, endoscopic
Subtract the width and height of the other sides.
How do you find the perimeter of a shape that is missing a side?
connective tissue
Is dense, loose, or fatty. It protects and binds body parts. Has a jelly-like base and is fibrous. Connective tissues are specialized tissues, which provide support and hold the body's tissues together. Connective tissue is made up of a small fraction of cells and a majority of extracellular substance which keeps the cells separated. The two types of cells found in connective tissue include fibrocytes (or fibroblasts) and fat cells, which are fixed cells. Additionally, the extracellular substance separating the cells is made up of three types of fibers, including collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers. Collagen fibers are fibrous proteins and are secreted into the extracellular space and they provide high tensile strength to the matrix. Elastic Fibers Elastic fibers are long, thin fibers that form branching network in the extracellular matrix. They help the connective tissue to stretch and recoil. Reticular Fibers Reticular fibers are short, fine collagenous fibers that can branch extensively to form a delicate network. Fibroblasts make collagens, glycosaminoglycans, reticular and elastic fibers, Growing individuals' fibroblasts are dividing and synthesizing ground substance. Tissue damage stimulates fibrocytes and induces the production of fibroblasts.
Hierarchy of Structures
Lowest Hierarchy level is at *Organelles within a cell*. They obtain energy from food and reproduction. -Cells with the same function are collected into larger groups called *Tissues*. -Tissues are collected into *Organs*, carry out single task, like oxygenated blood (lungs), or filter out waste (kidneys). -Organs work together in systems that perform coordinated large-scale functions, like *nourishing the body* (digestive) or *protecting the body from attacks* (immune).
Mucus
Lubricates the food in the saliva
Name a supplementary system that cleans up excess fluids and proteins and returns them to the circulatory system
Lymph vascular system
Cilia/Flagella
Movement
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Mouth Enzymes
Salivary amilase; Salivary lipase
Blood can be defined as?
composed of water, solutes, and other elements in a fluid connective tissue
How many quarts of blood do adult humans have?
five quarts of blood
blood pressure
fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle (systole and diastole) ⦁Functions by transporting oxygen-poor blood into the lungs & oxygen-rich blood to body tissues ⦁Arteries branch into smaller arterioles which contract & expand based on body signals ⦁Arterioles are where adjustments are made in blood delivery to specific areas based on complex communication from body systems ⦁Capillary beds: diffusion sites for exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid HYPERTENSION - high blood pressure. Systole over 140mmHg; Diastole over 90mmHg
Bones are classified as
long, short, flat, or irregular
The spleen filters blood stores of?
red blood cells and macrophages
Cell Body of Neuron
*"Soma"* - Contains the *nucleus* of the neuron.
peripheral nervous system
**Peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves & ganglia throughout the body & includes sympathetic nerves which trigger the "fight or flight" response, and the parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function
Lysosome
*-Functions:* Digest proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Also *transports* undigested substances to the membrane do they can be *removed*. Shape depends on material being transported.
The Nucleus
*-Nucleus:* Small structure that contains *Chromosomes* and *Regulates the DNA of a cell*. Defining structure of eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for *the passing on of genetic traits between generations.* -Contains: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, and ribosomes.
Cell Parts
*-Organelles:* Cell parts that function within a cell. They coordinate with other organelles to performs a cell's basic function, like energy processing and waste excretion. ~Examples: *Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, The Nucleus.*
3 Primary Body Planes
*-Transverse Plane* (Horizontal): Divides the patient's body into *upper* and *lower* halves. *-Sagittal Plane* (Vertical): Divides the body, or any body part, into *right* and *left* sections. Runs *parallel* to the midline of the body. *-Coronal Plane* (Vertical/Frontal): Divides the body, or any body part, into *front* and *back*. Runs through the body at right angles.
Heart Chambers
*4 Chambers: 2 Ventricles, 2 Atriums* -Halves separated by *AV Valve* (located between ventricle and artery leading away from the heart).
8 Major Endocrine Glands
*Adrenal Glands* Located on *Kidneys* -*Adrenal Cortex:* Monitors blood sugar level, helps in lipid and protein metabolism. -*Adrenal Medulla:* Controls cardiac functions, raises blood sugar, and controls the size of blood vessels. -*Thyroid:* Helps regulate metabolism, functions in growth and development. Located in the *Neck* -*Parathyroid:* Regulates calcium levels in blood. Located in the *Neck* -*Pancreas Islets:* Raises an lowers blood sugars, Activate in carbohydrate metabolism. Located on *Pancreas* -*Thymus:* Plays a role in immune responses. Located in *front of Heart, behind Sternum.* Produces T-Cells. -*Pineal:* Has an influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity. Located in *Brain* -*Pituitary:* Plays an important role in growth and development. Located in *Brain*
What does saliva provide? What initiates it?
*Amylase and Lipase* Initiates *chemical digestion* for starch and lipids.
Joints
*Area of contact adjacent to bones* -*Synovial* Joints: *Most common*, and are freely moveable. May be found at the *shoulders and knees* -*Cartilaginous* Joints: Fills the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Found between *Vertebrae* -*Fibrous* Joints: Has fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present.
Immunity
*Birth*: Innate Immune System *protects* an individual from pathogens. -When an individual encounters infection, or has an *immunization*, the individual *develops an adaptive immunity* that reacts to pathogens. -Active and Passive immunities can be *acquired naturally or artificially*.
Types of Circulation
*Coronary*: Flow of blood to the heart tissue. Blood enters the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta, supplying major arteries, which enter the heart with oxygenated blood. Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium through the cardiac veins which empty into the coronary sinus. *Pulmonary*: Flow of blood between the heart and the lungs. Deoxygenated blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs through pulmonary arteries. Oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. *Systemic*: Flow of blood to the entire body with the exception of coronary and pulmonary. Blood exits the left ventricle through the aorta, which branches into the carotid arteries, subclavian arteries, common iliac arteries, and the renal artery. Blood returns to the heart through the jugular veins, subclavian veins, common iliac veins, and renal veins, which empty into the superior and inferior vena cavae. -*Portal circulation*: Included in Systemic. Flow of blood from the digestive system to the liver and then to the heart and renal circulation, which is the flow of blood between the heart and kidneys.
Skull
*Cranium and Facial Bones* -*Ossicles*:Bones in the middle ear. -*Hyoid*: Provides an attachment point and support for the tongue muscles. ~Only bones in the body *not connected* to other bones, but rather held in place by muscle.
Closed Circulatory System
*Double-loop system* consisting of thick-walled *arteries* that transport blood *away* from the hear, thinner-walled *veins* that transport blood *to* the heart, and capillaries made of a single layer of endothelium that form a network that connects arteries to veins in tissues. *Transports blood* *Double Loops* -*Pulmonary*: Carries deoxygenated blood *from the right* ventricle to the lungs and *returns* oxygenated blood to the *left* atrium. -*Systemic*: Carries oxygenated blood *from left* ventricle to the body, *returning* deoxygenated blood to the *right*
Genitourinary System (*Renal/Urinary System*)
*Eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function. -Structures; *Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra.
Spinal Cord
*Encased in the bony structure of the vertebrae* -*Protect and Supports* the vertebrae. -Nervous tissue functions mainly with the respect to *limb movement* and *internal organ* activity. -Nerve tracts *ascend and descend* from the *spinal cord to the brain*.
Nuclear Envelope
*Encloses* the nucleus. Consists of *inner and outer membranes made of lipids.*
Layers of skin (Superficial to deep)
*Epidermis:* ⦁Most superficial layer of the skin ⦁made of Epithelial cells *Does not contains any blood vessels *Stratum Basale* ⦁Deepest portion ⦁Single layer of cells ⦁Keratinized - waxy protein that waterproofs skin ⦁Creates Skin color (melanin) ⦁Protect against UV rays *dermis:* ⦁Mostly connective tissue ⦁Blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands. ⦁Elastin and collagen fibers *Subcutaneous Layer/ Hypodermis* (not a layer of skin) ⦁Connective tissue ⦁Binds skin to muscle ⦁Fat deposits cushion and insulate body Five types of Skin Layers in the Epidermis: "Come Let's Get Sun Burned" (Top to Bottom) ⦁Stratum Corneum: "Top Layer"- Dead keratinocytes ⦁Stratum Lucidum: "Clear Layer"- Colorless protein eleidin ⦁Stratum Granulosum: "Thin Layer"- granular layer ⦁Stratum Spinosum: "Spiny Layer"- Thickest layer, keratinocytes, immune dendritic cells, sensory cells ⦁Stratum Basale: "Basal Layer"- Bottom layer; contains melanocytes. *The Epidermis* The epidermis is a thin layer of skin. It is the most superficial layer of skin, the layer you see with your eyes when you look at the skin anywhere on your body. Functions of the epidermis include touch sensation and protection against microorganisms. This skin is further divided into five, separate layers. In order from most superficial to deepest, they are the: Stratum Corneum Stratum Lucidum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Spinosum Stratum Basale Stratum Corneum - This layer is composed of the many dead skin cells that you shed into the environment—as a result, these cells are found in dust throughout your home. This layer helps to repel water. Stratum Lucidum - This layer is found only on the palms of the hands, fingertips, and the soles of the feet. Stratum Granulosum - This is the layer where part of keratin production occurs. Keratin is a protein that is the main component of skin. Stratum Spinosum - This layer gives the skin strength as well as flexibility. Stratum Basale - This is where the skin's most important cells, called keratinocytes, are formed before moving up to the surface of the epidermis and being shed into the environment as dead skin cells. This layer also contains melanocytes, the cells that are largely responsible for determining the color of our skin and protecting our skin from the harmful effects of UV radiation. These harmful effects include burns in the short term and cancer in the long run. *The Dermis* Underneath the epidermis lies the dermis. The dermis contains: -Blood vessels that nourish the skin with oxygen and nutrients. The blood vessels also allow immune system cells to come to the skin to fight an infection. These vessels also help carry away waste products. -Nerves that help us relay signals coming from the skin. These signals include touch, temperature, pressure, pain, and itching. Various glands. -Hair follicles. -Collagen, a protein that is responsible for giving skin strength and a bit of elasticity. *The Subcutaneous Tissue* The deepest layer of the skin is called the subcutaneous layer, the subcutis, or the hypodermis. Like the dermis, the layer contains blood vessels and nerves for much the same reasons. Importantly, the subcutis contains a layer of fat. This layer of fat works alongside the blood vessels to maintain an appropriate body temperature. The layer of fat here acts as a cushion against physical trauma to internal organs, muscles, and bones.
Innate Immune System (Nonspecific Response)
*External: Internal:* *-Skin -Antimicrobials* *-Hair -Inflammation* *-Mucus -Interferons* *-Earwax -Complements* *-Secretions (acid, salt, enzymes) -NK Lymphocytes* *-Normal Flora -Phagocytes (APC)*
Spine
*Flexible and Curved Backbone*: Supported by muscles and ligaments. -*Intervertebral Discs*: Stacked one above another and provide cushioning for the backbone. -*Sensitive Spine*: Enclosed in a cavity which is protected by the bones of the vertebrae. *Trauma or shock may cause discs to Herniate and cause pain.
Tissues
*Groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function* -Grouped into 4 broad categories: *Muscle* (Body Movement), *Nerve* (Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves), *Epithelial* (Layers of Skin/Membranes), and *Connective Tissue* (Bone tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, and Lymph). *~Includes:* Epithelial, Connecting, Cartilage, Blood, Bone, Muscle, and Nervous.
More Information on haploid and diploid cells!
*Haploid* cells are cells that contain only one complete set of chromosomes. The most common type of haploid cells is gametes, or sex cells. Haploid cells are produced by meiosis. They are genetically diverse cells that are used in sexual reproduction. When the haploid cells from the parent donors come together and are fertilized, the offspring has a complete set of chromosomes and becomes a diploid cell. A haploid cell will have a haploid number, which is the number of chromosomes found within the nucleus that create one set. In humans, the haploid cells have 23 chromosomes, versus the 46 in the diploid cells.
Respiratory Problems
*High Altitude*: Decrease lung function due to low oxygen levels. *People who live in high altitude, evolve over time to have larger lungs. *Chemicals, Pollen, Smoke*: Damaged cilia causing Emphysema, Allergies, or Inflammation. *Pathogens*: Influenza (corona virus), Tuberculosis (mycobacterium), and Pneumonia (walking - mycoplasma infection) *Mycosis -> Fungus *Cystic Fibrosis (gene mutation), Asthma, Lung Surfactant Insufficiency*: Impedes lung action.
Tissues
*Histology* is the study of tissues. groups of cells that work together to perform a similar function. Tissues have 4 broad categories: Muscle Tissue Nerve Tissue Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue
Integumentary System
*Largest Organ: Skin* -*Layers of Skin*: Epidermis, Dermis, Subcutaneous (Hypodermis) -Contains organs and glands that are vital to *protecting* the body and *regulating* the temperature. -Consist of *Skin, Sebaceous Gland, Sweat Glands, Hair, Nails.* -Variety of functions: *Protect, Secrete, and Communicate* -Skin manufactures *Vitamin D* and can absorb certain chemicals like certain medications.
Prophase(1)
*Longest Phase* -Chromosomes cross over, Genetic material is exchanged, and te trades of four chromatids are formed. Nuclear membrane dissolves/breaks down.
Dermis
*Mostly Connective Tissue* -Contains *Blood Vessels, Sensory Receptors, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, and Sweat Glands. -Also, contains *Elastin and Collagen*
Passive Immunity
*Naturally Acquired*: Happens during *Pregnancy* as antibodies move from the mother's bloodstream to the bloodstream of the fetus. ~Can also be transferred from mother's breast milk. ~During *infancy*, antibodies provide *temporary protection* until childhood. *Artificially Acquired*: Immunization that is *given* in recent outbreaks or emergency situations. Provides quick and short-lived protection to disease by the use of antibodies that can come from another person/animal.
Immune System
*Protects the body against invading pathogens* including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists through the presence of barriers composed of *skin, and secretions such as acid, enzymes, and salt.* -*Includes*: Lymphatic System (Lymph, Lymph Capillaries, Lymph Vessel, and Lymph Nodes) ~Also, Red Bone Marrow, numerous Leukocytes, or White Blood Cells. *Diseases: -*Underactivity/Failure*: *AIDS*-Infects T cells and prevents it from activating Cytotoxic T cells and B cells. Preventing Adaptive Immune System from opening. -*Overactive*: *Allergies*-Target innocuous foreign particles (pollen), causing body to go into overdrive by producing huge amounts of IgE that trigger *histamine* release from mast cells. *Autoimmune Disease*- Mistakenly target a host molecule as a foreign antigen.
Axial Skeleton
*Protects vital organs including the brain, heart, and lungs* Consist of *80* Bones and includes vertebral column (spine), rib cage, sternum, skull, and hyoid bone. -*Spine*: Consist of *33* vertebae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral). -*Rib Cage*: 12 Paired ribs, *10 pairs of true ribs and 2 pairs of floating ribs* and the sternum. -*Sternum*: Consists of the manubrium, corpus sterni, and xiphoid process. -Transfers weight from upper body to the lower appendages.
Functions of Skeletal System
*Providing structural support, Providing movement, Providing Protection, Producing Blood Cells, and Storing substances* (fat and minerals). ~Provides the body with structure and support for the muscles and organs. ~Provides movement with joints and muscular system. ~Provides reservoir to store the minerals calcium and phosphorus. -*Bones*: Provide attachment points for muscles. -*Joints*: Include Hinge, Ball-and-Socket, Pivot, Ellipsoid, Gliding, and Saddle Joints. Each bone is attached to two bones: *The Origin and Insertion*. -*Origin*: Remains immobile. -*Insertion*: Bone that moves as the muscle contracts and relaxes. ~Serves to protect the body. -*Cranium*: Protects the Brain. -*Vertebrae*: Protects spine. -*Rib Cage*: Protects heart and lungs. -*Pelvis*: Protects reproductive organs. -*Red Marrow*: Manufactures *red* and *white* blood cells. ~All bone marrow is *red* at birth, but adults have about *one-half red bone marrow* and *one-half yellow bone marrow* -*Yellow Marrow*: Stores fat
Adaptive Immune System (Respond to Specific Antigen)
*Reaction: Prevention:* *-Cytotoxic T cells -B cells produce* *kill pathogens antibodies* -Activated by antigen and help T cells. -Helper T cells are activated by APC
Communicate
*Sensory Receptors* distributed throughout the skin *send information* to the brain regarding *pain, touch, pressure, an temperature*.
Afferent Nerves
*Sensory* -*Brings signals from* the sensory organs and the muscles *to* the CNS.
Neutrophils
*Short-living phagocytes* that *respond quickly* to invaders
General Immune Defense
*Skin*: Intact epidermis and dermis form a formidable barrier against bacteria. *Ciliated Mucous Membranes*: Cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract. *Glandular Secretions*: Secretions from exocrine glands destroy bacteria. *Gastric Secretions*: Gastric acid destroys pathogens. *Normal Bacterial Populations*: Compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina. -Phagocytes and Inflammation: Responses mobilize WBC and chemical reactions to stop infection. ~Responses include: *Localized redness, tissue repair, and fluid-seeping healing agents.* ~Plasma proteins act as the complement system to repel bacteria and pathogens.
Systole and Diastole (Contraction Cycles)
*Systole*: Contraction of heart muscles *Diastole*: Relaxation of heart muscles *Controlled*: by a "pacemaker" called the *Sinoatrial Node*, which sends out electrical signal.
Percentage Convert to/from Fraction
*TO* - Convert to decimal first (divide by 100) then put into simplest form *FROM* - Convert to decimal (multiply to get 100 in denominator then divide by denominator) then put decimal into %
Percentage Convert to/from Decimal
*TO* - Divide % by 100 then remove % symbol *FROM* - Multiply by 100 then add % symbol
Subcutaneous (Hyperdermis)
*Technically NOT a layer of skin* -Consists of *Connective Tissue* which binds the skin to underlying muscles. -*Fat deposits* here to help *cushion* and *insulate* the body.
3 General Functional Types of Neurons
*The Sensory Neurons, Motor Neurons, and Interneurons.
Cell Cycle
*The process by which a cell reproduces* which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division. -Complex organisms: Use the cell cycle to *replace* cells as they lose their functionality and wear out. -In Animals: Cell Cycle can take 24 hours. -Human Skin Cells: Constantly reproducing. -2 Ways for Cell Reproduction: *Mitosis and Meiosis*
Sensory Neurons
*Transmit Signals to* the Central Nervous System *(CNS)* from the sensory receptors associated with *touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste*.
Interneurons
*Transmits Signals between* neurons. ~Interneurons receive transmitted signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.
Motor Neurons
*Transmits Signals from* CNS *to the rest of the body* such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond.
The Axon
*Transmits the impulses away* from the cell body. -*Insulated* by *oligodendrocytes* and the *Myelin sheath* with gaps knows as *nodes of Ranvier*. -*Terminates* at the synapse. -Impulse transmitted to the next cell using *chemical neurotransmitters* secrets into the synapse from the axon terminals.
Respiratory System Structures
*Upper*: nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx larynx *Lower*: trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree (bronchi, bronchial network)
Prophase
-*Chromatin* thickens into *chromosomes* and the nuclear membrane begins to *disintegrate*. -*Pairs of Centrioles* move to opposite sides and *spindle fibers* begins to form. -*Mitotic Spindle* moves chromosomes around wishing the cell.
Small Intestines
-*Enzymes* from pancreas, liver, and stomach are *transported* here to aid digestion. -Enzymes *act on fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins*. -*Gall Bladder*: stores bile (useful in fat break down) -*Epithelial cells* at the surface of villi (microvilli), to *further increase* the ability of the small intestine to serve as the *main absorption* organ.
*Female* Hormones
-*Estrogen*: From ovaries. Causes the egg to mature in the Graafian follicle and the uterine wall thickens. -*Luteinizing hormone (LH)*: From *Pituitary Gland*. Causes the egg to be released.
Diseases of Bone
-*Excess Withdrawal* of minerals from bone can cause *Osteoporosis* (rigidity of bone lost). -*Arthritis*: Cartilage that articulates between joints is damaged. -*Brittle Bone Disease*: Genetic Defect in the *collagen matrix* and cause bones to break easily.
Innate Immune System Barriers
-*External*: Physical (*skin and mucus*) secretions, Chemical barriers (Low pH, Salt, Enzymes), Cellular barriers of commensal micro-organisms. ~If pathogens *breach* the barriers and enters the blood or tissues, *internal barriers* include Antimicrobial peptides; Interferons that *prevent viral replication*; Complement, which involves the binding of antibodies to the pathogen, inflammation reactions, including fever. NK Lymphocyte cells that engulf and digest extracellular pathogens. -Macrophages and Dendritic cells respond to conserved *pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS)* through *toll-like receptors* and trigger an inflammation or *antigen presentation*.
Hormones in Male Reproductive System
-*Follicle-stimulating hormone:* Stimulates *Spermatogenesis* -*Luteinizing hormone:* Stimulates *testosterone* production. -*Testosterone:*Constantly producing. Responsible for the male sex characteristics (production of mammary glands, axial and facial hair, fat deposition patterns, and muscle growth)
Lymphatic System
-*Function*: To *return* excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream. -Consists of *transport vessels and lymphoid organs.* *Lymph Vascular System*: Consists of lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts. -Function: Return excess fluid to blood, Return of protein from capillaries, Transport of fats from the digestive tract, Disposal of debris and cellular waste.
Peritoneal Ligaments that Support the Spleen
-*Gastrolienal*: Connects the stomach to the spleen -*Lienorenal*: Connects the kidney to the spleen -*Middle Section of the Phrenicolic ligament*: Connects the left colic flex use to the thoracic diaphragm
Pancreas
-*Head*: wider side, *Tail*: Narrower side -Exocrine and endocrine tissue -*Exocrine*: *Secretes digestive enzymes* from a series of ducts that collectively *form the main pancreatic duct*. ~Main pancreatic duct *connects to common bile duct+ near duodenum -*Endocrine*: *Secretes hormones* (insulin) into the bloodstream. -Blood is *supplied* from the splenic artery, gastroduodenal artery, and the superior mesenteric artery.
Cardiac Muscle
-*Involuntary* muscle found in *only the heart* -Cells are *striated*
Smooth Muscle
-*Involuntary* muscles that are found int he *walls of internal organs* like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. -*Non-striated* -Cells are *shorter and wider* than skeletal muscle fibers. -Found in *sphincters or valves* that control various openings throughout the body.
Liver
-*Largest solid* organ in body, largest gland -*4 Lobes*: Right, left, quadrate, and caudate. -Secured to diaphragm and abdominal walls by *5 ligaments* (falciform, coronary, right triangular, left triangular, and round ligaments). -*Lobules*: Blood *enters here* through branches of the *hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery*. Then *flows* through small channels called *sinusoids*. -*Processes all the blood* that passes through digestive system. -*Nutrients are converted* into forms appropriate for the body to use
4 Bone Types
-*Long*: Long compact hollow shafts containing marrow. Ends are usually made of spongy bone with air pockets. ~Humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, and fibula. -*Short*: Wider than they are long. ~Bones of the toes (metatarsals) and collarbone. -*Flat*:Not hollow but contain marrow. ~Scapula, ribs, and sternum. -*Irregular*:Nonsymmetrical shapes ~Bones of the skull, knee, and elbow.
Reproductive System
-*Male and Female* reproductive systems are *complex* and involve physical structures, hormones, an secretions. -Works with the endocrine system to influence many other parts of the body.
Terms of Direction
-*Medial*: Towards the mid-line, Middle, Away from the side. ~Example: The little finger it medial to the thumb. -*Lateral*: Toward the side, Away from the mid-line. ~Example: Anatomical position, Thumb is lateral to little finger. -*Proximal*: Structures *closer* to the center of the body. ~Example: Hip is proximal to the knee. -*Distal*: Structures *further* away from center of the body. ~Example: Knee is distal to the hip. -*Anterior*: Structures in *front*. -*Posterior*: Structures *behind*. -*Cephalad/Cephalic*: Adverbs meaning towards the head. ~Example: Cranial is the adjective, meaning The Skull. -*Caudad*: Adverb meaning towards the tail/posterior. ~Example: Caudal is the adjective, meaning The Hindquarters. -*Superior*: Above, or closer to the head. -*Inferior*: Below, or closer to the feet.
Stomach Functions
-*Mixing and storing* foods -*Dissolving and degrading* good via secretions -*Controlling passage* of food into the small intestines. Protein digestion begins in stomach
Digestive System Functions
-*Movement*: Mixes and passes nutrients through the system and eliminates waste. -*Secretion*: Enzymes, hormones, and other substances necessary for digestion are secreted into the digestive tract. -*Digestion*: Chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller units that enter the internal environment -*Absorption*: Passage of nutrients through plasma membranes into the blood or lymph and then to the body.
*Female* Reproductive System
-*Produce* ova (oocytes, or eggs), *transfer* the over to the fallopian tubes for *fertilization*, *receive* sperm from male, and to *provide* a protective, nourishing environment for the *developing embryo/fetus* -*External Structures:* Labia major/minor, Bartholins glands, and clitoris. -*Internal Structures:* Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes, Uterus, and Vagina.
Liver Function
-*Production* of bile, certain blood plasma proteins, cholesterol -*Storage* of excess glucose in the form of glycogen -*Regulation* of amino acids and blood clotting -*Processing* of hemoglobins -*Conversion* of ammonia -*Purification* of the blood -*Controlling infections* by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria.
Compare and Order Rational Numbers
-*Rational Numbers*: -6 (-6/1), 5 (5/1), 100 (100/1) -*Irrational Numbers*: Square root (any prime number), pi -*Numeric Order*: Least to Greatest, Greatest to Least. Best in decimal form. Line them up vertically. -*Fraction/Fraction Form*: 5 2/7 (put into decimal) Divide 2 by 7 to get .2857 which will equal 5.2857
*(Ext.)* Scrotum
-*Sac* of skin and *smooth muscle* that houses the testes and keeps them at the proper temperature for *spermatogenesis*.
Secrete
-*Sebaceous Gland* secretes *Sebum* (oil) that waterproofs the skin. -*Sweat Glands* secrete sweat. Associated with body's homeostatic relationship with *thermoregulation*. ~Also, serve as *excretory organs* and help rid the body of metabolic wastes. -Exocrine Glands found in skin. Secrete through ducts to the skin
*(Int.)* Epididymis
-*Stores* sperm as it *matures* -Mature sperm moves *through vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct*.
Respiratory Functions
-*Supplies* body with *oxygen* and *Removes* carbon dioxide (occurs in alveoli) -*Filters Air*: passes through nasal passages -> lungs -*Speech*: Air -> throat -> through larynx, causing vibrations and producing sound before heading to trachea -*Cough*: Particles -> nasal passages/airways -> expelled from body -*Smell*: Chemoreceptors (nasal cavity) respond to airborne chemicals
Thermoregulation (Temperature Homeostasis)
-Activated by *Sweat Glands* -Body maintains a stable body temperature as one component of a stable internal environment. -Temperature of the body is *controlled by the Negative Feedback System* consisting of a receptor, control center, and effector.
Immune Response to Antigen
-Can be *anti-body mediated* when the response is *to an antigen*, or *cell-mediated* when the response is *to already infected cells.* ~Responses are *controlled and measured counter-attacks* that recede when the foreign agents are *destroyed*. -Once an invader has attacked the body, if it returns it is immediately *recognized* and a *Secondary Immune Response* occurs. *Secondary Immune Response*: -Rapid and Powerful, much more so than the original response. ~Memory lymphocytes circulate throughout the body for years, alert to a possible new attack.
Large Intestines
-Colon -*Concentrates, mixes, and stores* waste material -Rectal wall is distended by waste material, the nervous system *triggers an impulse* in the body to *expel* the waste from the rectum. -*Muscle sphincter* at the end of the anus is stimulating facilitates the *expelling* of waste matter. -Speed of waste movement through colon is *influenced by volume of fiber* and *other undigested materials* present. -*Lack of Bulk in diet*: Bowel obstructions, constipation.
Renal Cortex
-Composed of about one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of the kidney). ~Nephrons contain a cluster of capillaries called *glomerulus* surrounded by the cup-shaped Bowman's Capsule, which leads to tubule. -Kidneys *receive blood from the renal arteries*, which branch off the aorta. Blood flows from renal arteries into arterioles into the glomerulus, where it's filtered. -Glomerular Filtrate: Enters the proximal convulated tubule where water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. -Substance like *urea and drugs* are removed from the blood in the *distal convoluted tubulue*. ~pH of the blood can be adjusted in the DST by the secretion of *hydrogen ions*.
lymphoid organs
-Consist of lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, adenoids, thymus, tonsils, and small patches of tissue in the small intestines. *Lymph Nodes*: Located at intervals through the lymph vessel system. Contains *lymphocytes and plasma cells.* *Spleen*: Filters blood, stores of RBC and macrophages. *Thymus*: Secrets hormones. Major site of lymphocyte production.
Peripheral Nervous System
-Consists of *nerves and ganglia* throughout then body and *includes sympathetic nerves* which trigger the *"fight or flight"* response, and the *parasympathetic nerves* which *control basic* body function.
*(Ext.)* Penis
-Contains the *Urethra* - Can fill with *blood* and become *erect*, enabling the *deposition* of semen and sperm into the female reproductive tract. during sex.
Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
-Contains the cells contents, regulates what goes in and out of the cell. -Made of lipids and proteins. -It consists of a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic ends. (The hydrophilic region is attracted to aqueous water) -The lipid bilayer is a universal component of all cell membranes. Its role is critical because its structural components provide the barrier that marks the boundaries of a cell. The structure is called a "lipid bilayer" because it is composed of two layers of fat cells organized in two sheets. -Only water and gases can easily pass through the bilayer.
Urine
-Contains: Urea, Water, Salts, and other excess Metabolites. Drained from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until expulsion from the body through the urethra.
Sales Tax Equation
-Convert % to decimal then Multiply % times the Original Number (% x Original Price, Original Price + x = ST)
Lymph
-Essentially plasma with RBCs removed -Large numbers of leukocytes and lymphocytes are enriched in *lymph nodes* -Where they *monitor* and *respond* to foreign molecules washed into the system. -Nodes are enriched in oral, nasal, and genital regions where foreign entities enter the body.
Connective tissue structure:
-Fibers, which provide strength, elasticity, and support -Cells -Ground substance, the gel that surrounds the cells and fibers -Intercellular matrix which is a structural network or solution of non-living intercellular material.
Following Directions
-First, identify the initial conditions laid out by the problem: this might be a spatial relationships between figures or certain number of items (i.e. three red marbles and two green marbles) -Look for markers that indicate sequence (i.e. first, next, then, finally -Relationship between the steps: action carried out in #1 effects #2, make sure each act is completed NOTE: ALWAYS write down the result of each step
Macrophages
-Found traveling in the lymph or fixed in lymphatic tissue are the *largest, long-living phagocytes* that engulf and destroy pathogens.
Protection
-From *pathogens* including bacteria, viruses, and various chemicals from entering the body.
Kidneys
-Functions: filtering blood, creating urine, stabilizing water balance, maintaining blood pressure, and producing the active form of Vitamin D. *Bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm.* *3 Layers*: Renal Cortex, Renal Medulla, and Renal Pelvis. -Cardiovascular System: Pumps blood into the kidneys through the renal artery. Pressure of the blood helps the glomerulus filter out waste and return vital nutrients to the blood through the renal vein. -Produce *renin*: Hormone that regulates blood pressure by retaining or removing water and salt.
Urinary Bladder
-Hollow, muscular organ that holds 500 to 1000mL of liquid. -Has sensors that communicate *with Cardiovascular System*. ~Both, *internal and external sphincters* of the bladder must be released for excretion to occur. -*Urethra*: Tube from bladder to an opening. Urine flows from bladder to opening to be expelled out of body.
Endocrine and Circulatory Relationship
-Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland coordinate to serve as a *neuroendocrine control center*. ~Hypothalamus *sends sends signals to* Pituitary and then *they send releasing hormones it to the specific glands*. - Hormones are *made* at the gland and then released directly into the circulatory system. Received by *target cells* or *organ* by hormone-specific receptors. -Endocrine acts more *slowly* than nervous system and the effects last *longer* than the nervous systems impulses.
Posterior Area
-Known as *Brain Stem* ~*Connected* to the spinal cord. -*3 Parts:* Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata. - *Information* from the body is *sent* to the brain *through* the brain stem, and *information* from the brain is *sent* to the body *through* the brain stem. -*Important part of Respiratory, Digestive, and Circulatory Functions.*
Frontal Lobe
-Located in the front of the brain -*Responsible for a short term/working memory and information processing as well as decision-making, planning, and judgement.*
Parietal Lobe
-Located slightly toward the back of the brain and the top of the head. -*Responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body*.
Pathway of Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide in Lungs How Respiratory System effects Circulatory System
-Lungs are perfumed by blood vessels from the heart to *bring* deoxygenated blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs, where oxygen is *added* and carbon dioxide is *removed* to return oxygenated blood *to the heart* for circulation to the rest of the of the body -*Diffusion*: *Passive transport* mechanism. *Rate of Diffusion* is *directly proportional* to the surface area involved and the concentration gradient, and is *inversely proportional* to the distance between the two. solutions. -Oxygen in the lungs *moves into the blood*, and carbon dioxide in the blood *moves to the lungs*. Lungs then exhale carbon dioxide back out of body.
Skeletal Muscle Contractions
-Muscle Fibers contains a bundles of *myofibrils*. Composed of multiple repeating contractile units called *Sacromeres*. -*Myofibrils*: Contain 2 Protein Microfilaments. ~*Myosin*: Thick Filament ~*Acting*: Thin Filament ~Dark bands (striations) in skeletal muscles are formed when thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments overlap. ~Light bands are from *thin* filaments overlapped. -*Attraction* occurs when *actin* slides over *myosin shortening* the sarcomere. -*Action potential* reaches a muscle fiber, then *calcium ions* are released. ~Calcium Ions *bind* to myosin and actin, which *assist* in the binding of myosin heads of the thick filament to the actin of the thin filaments. -*Adenosine triphosphate*: Released from glucose provides the energy for contraction.
Order of Operations
-PEMDAS (No exponent for TEAS 6) -Parentheses *FIRST* -Multiplication and Division *SECOND* (Left to Right) -Addition and Subtraction *THIRD* (Left to Right)
Cerebellum
-Plays a role in the *processing and storing* of implicit memories. ~Specifically, for those memories developed during classical conditioning learning techniques. ~ Discovered by exploring the memory of individuals with damaged cerebellum so. Were unable to develop stimulus responses when presented via a classical conditioning technique. Researcher found that this was also the case for *automatic responses*
*(Int.)* Seminal Vesicles
-Secretes *Alkaline fluids with proteins and mucus* into the *ejaculatory duct*, also.
*(Int.)* Prostate Gland
-Secretes* milky white fluid with *proteins and enzymes* as part of semen.
Endocrine System
-Set of organs that secrete *hormones* into the circulatory system. They regulate many patterns in the body for short and long term. -Contains: *Adrenal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Pancreas, Thymus, Pineal, Pituitary Glands.
Residual Capacity
-Small amount of stale air. -Remains trapped in alveoli after expiration and mixes with the fresh air brought in by inspiration.
Blood Pressure Monitor
-Systolic mmHg (upper #) Normal = 120 -Diastolic mmHg (lower #) Normal = 80 -Heart rateF
Blood carrying nutrients passes through? Allowing what to happen?
-Through *hepatic portal duct* to the liver - Allowing liver enzymes to *deaminate amino, convert ammonia to urea, metabolize consumed toxins, and to store glucose as glycogen.*
Lymphatic System in the Immune System
-Tissue Fluid enters *Lymph Capillaries* combined they form *Lymph Vessels*. -Skeletal muscle contractions *move the lymph* one way through the lymphatic system to lymphatic ducts, which *dump back into* the venous blood supply into the *Lymph Nodes*, which are situated alone the *Lymph Vessels*, and filter the lymph of pathogens and other matter. -*Lymph Nodes*: Concentrated in the *neck, armpits, and groin areas.* *Outside the Lymphatic Vessel System* -*Lymphatic Tissue* include the tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, and Peyer's patches. -*Tonsils*: Located in the pharynx, *protect against pathogens* entering the body through the *mouth and throat.* -*Thymus*: Maturation chamber for the *immature T-Cells* that are formed in the bone marrow. -*Spleen*: Cleans the blood of dead cells and pathogens. -*Peyer's Patch*: Located in the small intestine, *protect the digestive system from pathogens*
*Male* Reproductive System
-To *produce, maintain, and transfer* sperm and semen into the female reproductive tracts and to *produce and secrete* male hormones. -*External Structures:* Penis, Scrotum, and Testes -*Internal Structures:* Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Duct, Urethra, Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Glands, and Bulbourethral Glands.
Spleen
-Upper left of the abdomen, behind the stomach and below diaphragm. -Lymphoid tissue -Blood vessels are *connected* to the spleen by *splenic sinuses*. -*Function*: Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old RBC) and to help fight infections. -Up to 10% of the population has one or more accessory spleens that tend to form at the hilum of the original spleen.
Renal Medulla
-Urine begins to produce -Unabsorbed materials (salt and water) flow out from the collecting tubule into the collecting duct.
Typical Immune Response
-When a pathogen/foreign substances *enters* the body, it is *engulfed* by a *macrophage*, and the *killer T cells and B cells* are activated. -Killer T cells (cytotoxic T cells) *search out and destroy* cells presenting the same antigens. -B cells *differentiate* into plasma cells and memory cells. -Plasma cells *produce* antibodies specific to that pathogen or foreign substances. -Memory cells remain in the blood stream to *protect* against future infections from the same pathogen.
Signal words or Transitions or Conjuctions
-adds information, provides counterarguments, create organization, or draw conclusion i.e. in particular, in addition, besides, in contrast, therefore, because, or many other similar phrases NOTE: these signal words indicate how an unfamiliar word is related to the overall meaning of the sentence or passage
Metaphor
-an analogy -explaining something unfamiliar with something familiar -i.e. If a person refers to a problem as an "elephant in the room" ELEPHANT works as how big the problem is
NOTE: Connotation of a Word
-ask if the word conveys a positive or a negative association in your mind -adjectives are often used to influence the feelings of the reader, like "an ambitious attempt to achieve..." -i.e. dog and canine have a NEUTRAL CONNOTATION pet and puppy have a POSITIVE CONNOTATION cur and mutt have a NEGATIVE CONNOTATION
REMEMBER THESE SUFFIXES (-blast, -clast, -cyte)
-blast cells are BUILDING cells -clast cells BREAK DOWN -cyte means any kind of cell ex: melano*cytes* in the skin and chondro*cytes* in the cartillage.
amino acid derivative hormones
-derived from 1 or 2 amino acids w/ additional modifications -Include epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine -Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) bind to G protein coupled receptors --> fast onset & short lived -Thyroid hormones bind intracellularly (slower onset & longer duration) -Have names that end in -in or -ine (thyroxine)
Tone
-describes the author's attitude toward the topic -establishes the relationship between the audience and the author
Simile
-directly points to similarities between two things NOTE: Simile uses "like" or "as", but metaphor does not
Evaluating Sources
-education -firsthand experiences -motivation of the author: indicate bias -author's background and expertise -place of publication: academic journals and established newspapers are more reliable unlike blogs and websites
Figures of Speech
-engage a reader's imagination and add emphasis to different aspects of their subject
Theme
-generally a true idea that the reader might derive from a text
Evaluating Website
-intended audience -agenda for selling or promoting something
respiratory mucosa
-lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract. -Respiratory epithelium
Topic Sentence
-makes a general statement usually supported by details later -generally the first sentence or very near
Maps
-meanings of symbols shown in the LEGEND -SCALE: spatial relationship between the features on a map indicated by their position -COMPASS
Topic
-overall subject matter of the passage i.e. ask yourself what you're reading about
SA node (sinoatrial node)
-pacemaker of the heart -sets the heartbeat rate -located in the right atrium -causes atria to contract
Mood
-pervasive (prevalent) feeling or atmosphere in a passage that provokes specific emotions in the reader -influences a reader's emotional state in the piece
hormones
-signaling molecule that travels through the blood to enact a change when bound to its receptor on the target -hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to receptors on their target, triggering a response by the target tissue -2 main classes: peptide and steroid
Context Clues
-sometimes authors may use a difficult word, then say "that is" or "which is" to signal the reader that they are providing a definition OR -the authors may restate the idea in familiar words -i.e. Teachers often prefer teaching students with INTRINSIC motivation; these students have an INTERNAL desire to learn. -The meaning of intrinsic is restated as internal
Persuasive Passage
-supporting details: may use specific facts and data, or it may detail specific reasons for the author's opinion
Positive feedback
-the response to a deviation will lead to a larger response -VERY RARE and often lead to large physiological changes, such as delivery of a baby
Primary Sources
-used if researcher's purpose is to analyze, interpret, or critique a historical event, a creative work, or a natural phenomenon -firsthand experience: letters, emails, autobiographies, diaries, memoris, eyewitness, interviews, questioneers, photographs
NOTE: Considering a character's motivation
-what does the character want to achieve? -what will the character get by accomplishing this? -what does the character seem to value the most?
Main Idea
-what the author wants to say about the topic i.e. ask yourself how the author feels about that topic NOTE: most of the time fiction will have a theme, and nonfiction will have a main idea
Surfactant
A fluid secreted by alveoli and found in the lungs Reduces surface tension prevents the lungs from collapsing.
Chromosomes
A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. Chromosomes are the thread-like structure found in the nuclei of both animal and plant cells. FUNCTION: Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique.
Sagittal/Lateral Plane
A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides; Left/Right division
Coronal/Frontal Plane
A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions; Front/Back division
Area formula: Rhombus
A= 1/2 × d1 × d2 example: diagonal 1= 3cm, diagonal 2 = 4cm A= 1/2 × 3 × 4= 6cm
Area formula: Trapezoid
A= 1/2 × h × (b1 x b2) example: height= 6in, base1= 6in, base2= 9in A= 1/2 × 6 × (9 × 6)= 45in²
Area formula: Square
A= L x L= L² example: Length= 3cm A= 3 x 3= 9cm²
Area formula: Rectangle
A= L × W example: Length = 4in, Width= 3in A= 4 × 3= 12in²
Area formula: Parallelogram
A= h × b example= height= 5cm, base= 7cm A= 5 × 7= 35cm²
Area formula: Circle
A= π × r ² Example: radius= 3in A= π × 3²= 9π= 28.27²
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
ANS maintains homeostasis within the body. Autonomic NS: Involuntary; controls actions involving cardiac and smooth muscle ⦁Sympathetic NS: Arouses body; FIGHT or FLIGHT ⦁Parasympathetic NS: Calms body; Rest and Digest Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) maintains homeostasis within the body (regulate heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, & blood pH) ⦁controls functions of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, & glands, this accomplished through direction of hypothalamus ⦁ the hypothalamus is located above midbrain, controls ANS through the brain stem 2 divisions 1. Sympathetic Nervous System - controls body's reaction to extreme, stressful, & emergency situations, increases heart rate, signals adrenal glands, triggers dilation of pupils, slows digestion 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System - counteracts effects of the sympathetic nervous system. Will decrease heart rate, signals adrenal glands to stop secreting adrenaline, returns digestion, constricts pupils.
Arteries
An artery, as we know, is a blood vessel that carries blood AWAY from the heart. There are many types of arteries. Aorta - the aorta of the heart is a large artery that branches off of the heart to the rest of the body. It is the largest artery in the body. Other types: *Coronary artery* - supplies blood to the heart There is a right and left coronary artery. -The right coronary artery supplies: ~right atrium ~right ventricle ~bottom portion of both ventricles and back of the septum The left coronary artery supplies: ~Circumflex artery - supplies blood to the left atrium, side and back of the left ventricle ~Left Anterior Descending artery (LAD) - supplies the front and bottom of the left ventricle and the front of the septum *Carotid Atery* - The carotid arteries are major blood vessels in the neck that supply blood to the brain, neck, and face. There are two carotid arteries, one on the right and one on the left. In the neck, each carotid artery branches into two divisions: The internal carotid artery supplies blood to the brain. The external carotid artery supplies blood to the face and neck. *Subclavian artery* - There are two subclavian arteries that supply our arms with blood. The subclavian arteries branch to the vertebral arteries. These carry oxygenated blood up to the brain from the base of the neck. *Common iliac artery* - The abdominal aorta divides to form the "common iliac arteries" in the lower abdomen, and these vessels supply blood to the pelvic organs, gluteal region, and legs. Each common iliac artery descends a short distance and divides into an internal and an external branch. *Renal artery* - Your renal artery, then, is a blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood to your kidneys. All of these arteries carry OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM THE HEART TO SUPPLY THE REST OF THE BODY.
Review cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a collection of three unique metabolic pathways: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis is an anaerobic process, while the other two pathways are aerobic. In order to move from glycolysis to the citric acid cycle, pyruvate molecules (the output of glycolysis) must be oxidized in a process called pyruvate oxidation. Glycolysis Glycolysis is the first pathway in cellular respiration. This pathway is anaerobic and takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. This pathway breaks down 1 glucose molecule and produces 2 pyruvate molecules. There are two halves of glycolysis, with five steps in each half. The first half is known as the "energy requiring" steps. This half splits glucose, and uses up 2 ATP. If the concentration of pyruvate kinase is high enough, the second half of glycolysis can proceed. In the second half, the "energy releasing: steps, 4 molecules of ATP and 2 NADH are released. Glycolysis has a net gain of 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH. Some cells (e.g., mature mammalian red blood cells) cannot undergo aerobic respiration, so glycolysis is their only source of ATP. However, most cells undergo pyruvate oxidation and continue to the other pathways of cellular respiration. Pyruvate Oxidation In eukaryotes, pyruvate oxidation takes place in the mitochondria. Pyruvate oxidation can only happen if oxygen is available. In this process, the pyruvate created by glycolysis is oxidized. In this oxidation process, a carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, creating acetyl groups, which compound with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA. This process also releases CO2. Citric Acid Cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) is the second pathway in cellular respiration, and it also takes place in the mitochondria. The rate of the cycle is controlled by ATP concentration. When there is more ATP available, the rate slows down; when there is less ATP the rate increases. This pathway is a closed loop: the final step produces the compound needed for the first step. The citric acid cycle is considered an aerobic pathway because the NADH and FADH2 it produces act as temporary electron storage compounds, transferring their electrons to the next pathway (electron transport chain), which uses atmospheric oxygen. Each turn of the citric acid cycle provides a net gain of CO2, 1 GTP or ATP, and 3 NADH and 1 FADH2. Electron Transport Chain Most ATP from glucose is generated in the electron transport chain. It is the only part of cellular respiration that directly consumes oxygen; however, in some prokaryotes, this is an anaerobic pathway. In eukaryotes, this pathway takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane. In prokaryotes it occurs in the plasma membrane. The electron transport chain is made up of 4 proteins along the membrane and a proton pump. A cofactor shuttles electrons between proteins I-III. If NAD is depleted, skip I: FADH2 starts on II. In chemiosmosis, a proton pump takes hydrogens from inside mitochondria to the outside; this spins the "motor" and the phosphate groups attach to that. The movement changes from ADP to ATP, creating 90% of ATP obtained from aerobic glucose catabolism.
Brain Anatomy
Cerebellum: Balance and coordination Cerebrum: Anterior brain Pons: part of Brainstem that links medulla and thalamus Medulla Oblongata: Control center for heart and lungs Brainstem: Contains the Pons, Medulla Oblongata, Midbrain Midbrain: Develops from the middle of the embryonic brain Thalamus: Relays sensory information; pain perception Hippocampus: Emotion, memory, ANS Amygdala: Emotions Cerebral Cortex: thin layer of gray matter covering cerebrum Brain stem is connected to the spinal cord. The left side of the brain is responsible for controlling the right side of the body. It also performs tasks that have to do with logic, such as in science and mathematics. On the other hand, the right hemisphere coordinates the left side of the body, and performs tasks that have do with creativity and the arts.
Bone
Classified as *long. short, flat, irregular* -*Connective tissue* with a base of pulp containing *collagen and living cells.* -Red Marrow: RBC Production, fills spongy tissue of bones -*Bone Tissue*: Constantly regenerating itself as the mineral composition changes. Allows for special needs during growth period and maintains calcium level for the body. -*Bone Regeneration*: Deteriorate in old age, particularly among women, leading to *Osteoporosis* -Bones are articulated to other bones through *ligaments* and to muscle through *tendons*. -*Hyaline Cartilage*: Covering articulating surfaces of bones. Prevents bones from grinding against each other. -Covered by fibrous sheath called *Periosteum* (contains nerves and blood vessels) -Synthesized in tubular structures (*Osteon- Composed of calcium and phosphate-rich Hydroxyapatite*) embedded in a collagen matrix.
Renal Pelvis
Collecting ducts drain into renal pelvis which opens into the Ureter.
What is placed between two independent clauses, if the latter clause expands on the former clause?
Colon
What should be used to herald something, that is to immediately follow an independent clause?
Colon
What should follow a salutation of an informal letter?
Colon
Pons
Comes between midbrain and medulla. -*Information* is *sent across* the pons *from* the cerebrum to the medulla and the cerebellum.
What is used to separate a quotation from interrupting text?
Comma
What should separate a city from a state?
Comma
Introductory words (yes and no) should be separated by what?
Comma Ex. "Yes, sir"
What should follow the salutation of an informal letter?
Comma Ex. Dear Mom,
More information about Urinary system
Components of the Urinary system: ● Kidneys - where urine is formed; crucial component of the system; 47 gallons of fluid are processed daily; major regulation functions: H20 volume and solute concentrations, ion concentration, acid-base balance, excretion of waste/toxins, produces erythropoietin & renin, vitamin D activation, gluconeogenesis during fasting ● Ureters - paired tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder ● Urinary bladder - storage reservoir for urine ● Urethra - tube that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body External Anatomy: 1.Ureters, renal blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves all join each kidney at the hilum and occupy the sinus 2. atop of each kidney is the adrenal gland Internal Anatomy: the kidney has 3 distinct regions: cortex, medulla, and pelvis 1. renal cortex - is the most superficial region 2. renal medulla - contains the cone-shaped renal pyramids, a. renal pyramids - are formed almost entirely of parallel bundles of urine collecting tubules and capillaries; the apex is called the papilla b. renal columns are extensions of tissue from the cortex that separates the pyramids c. lobes - are each pyramid and its surrounding cortical tissue; there are about 8 lobes in a kidney 3. Renal pelvis - a funnel shaped tube that is continuous with the ureter leaving the hilum a. major calyces are formed from branching of the pelvis b. minor calyces - are formed from subdivisions of the major calyces 4. Urine flow: urine drains from the papilla to the calyces; from the calyces it empties into the renal pelvis; urine flow from the renal pelvis into the ureter which transport urine to the bladder; 5. Smooth muscle - is located in the walls of the calyces, pelvis, and ureters that generate peristaltic wave to propel the urine to the bladder Urinary Bladder - a muscular sac that temporarily store urine
Centrosome
Comprised of the pair of centrioles located @ right angles to ea other and surrounded by protein. - Involved in mitosis (cell divison) and the cell cycle - microtubule-organizing center
Brain
Consist of *Hindbrain (medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons) Midbrain integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals, Forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus) -*Cerebral Cortex*: Thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum. -*2 Hemispheres*: Left and Right. Responsible for multiple functions.
Golgi Complex/Apparatus
Consists of layers of membranes. Sorts and packages proteins to be transported out of the cell. It receives raw materials from the Endoplasmic reticulum in the form of vesicles and prepares them for transport.
Cytoskeleton
Consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell. A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement
Cytoskeleton
Consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell. Also assists in cell movement.
Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of nerves and ganglia
Chromatin
Consists of the *DNA* and *Proteins* that make up chromosomes.
Chromatin
Consists of the DNA and protein that make up BIG chromosomes
Key words for integumentary system
Constrict - to become narrower Dermis - middle layer of skin Dilate - to become wider Epidermis - outer layer of skin excretion - elimination of metabolic waste from body Gland - an organ that secretes a substance skin - thin layer of tissue that covers the body. subcutaneous - under the dermis sweat - perspiration excreted by the sweat glands in the skin.
Peroxisomes
Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals. Removes waste from the liver. Function: oxidation and detoxification
*(Ext.)* Clitoris
Contains *erectile tissue and nerve endings* for sexual pleasure
Layrnx
Contains vocal cords and located between pharynx and trachea (voicebox)
Animal Cell Structure
Contains: Centrosomes, Centriole, Lysosome, Cilia, Flagella
diaphragm and intercostal muscles
Contract to expand the lungs.
Somatic Nervous System
Controls five senses and voluntary movement of skeletal muscle; includes afferent and efferent nerves
small intestine
Digestive organ where most chemical digestion and absorption of food takes place. -Most nutrients are absorbed in small intestine ⦁Bile is a secretion of the liver which is Useful in breaking down fats. Bile is Stored in gall bladder between meals ⦁By the time food reaches the lining of the small intestine it has been reduced to small molecules ⦁Lining of small intestine is Covered with villi which Increase surface area for interaction with chime ⦁Microvilli help increase the ability of the small intestine to serve as the main absorption organ of the digestive tract. A. Small Intestine - is the body's major digestive organ and almost all absorption occurs within it too. It is 20ft long and is divided into: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 1. gross anatomy a. duodenum - receives chyme from the stomach via the pyloric valve; receives bile from the liver and pancreatic juices via the hepatopancreatic ampulla. jejunum and ileum - form most of the 20ft of small intestine. The ileum joins the large intestine at the ileocecal valve. Peyer's patches - prevent bacteria from entering the bloodstream
Lysosome
Digests proteins, lipids, and carbs, and also transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed. The shape of a __ depends on the material being transported. - contain chemicals that break down large food particles into smaller ones.
Lysosome
Digests proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed.
Interphase(1)
Divided into 3 Parts: *-G1 Phase:* Cell synthesizes proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA. *-S Phase:* The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere. *-G2 Phase:* DNA Replication
Coronal/Frontal plane
Divides the body, or any body structure vertically into front and back (anterior/posterior) sections. Runs vertically thru the body at right angles to the midline.
Transverse/horizontal plane
Divides the patient's body into imaginary upper (superior) and lower (inferior/caudal) halves
Sympathetic Nervous System
Division of ANS -*Controls the body's reaction to extreme, stressful, and emergency situations*. ~Example: Sympathetic NS *increases* heart rate, *signals* the adrenal glands to *secrete* adrenaline, *triggers* the dilations of the pupils and *slows* digestions.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Division of ANS -*Counteracts the effects of the Sympathetic NS* ~Example: Parasympathetic NS *decreases* hearts rate, *signals* adrenal glands to *stop secreting* adrenaline, *constricts* pupils, and *returns* the digestions process to normal.
Pericardium
Double-layered membrane surrounding the heart.
reproductive system (female)
Function: Produce ova (oocytes, egg cells), transfer the ova to *fallopian tubes* for fertilization, receive sperm, & provide a protective, nourishing environment for embryo ***External structure ⦁Labia major ?& Labia minor - both enclose and Protect vagina ⦁Bartholin's glands - Secrete lubricating fluid ⦁Clitoris - contains erectile tissue and nerve endings for pleasure ***Internal structure ⦁Ovaries - Female gonads, Produce ova, Secrete estrogen and progesterone ⦁Fallopian tubes - Carry mature egg toward uterus, Fertilization occurs here ⦁Uterus - Fertilized egg travels here & implants in uterine wall, Protects embryo ⦁Vagina: Muscular tube from cervix to outside of body; receives semen, is site of intercourse, and birth canal Hormones ⦁Estrogen: Stimulates egg maturation; female sex characteristics ⦁Progesterone: Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg ⦁FSH: Stimulates oogenesis ⦁LH: Stimulates estrogen production ⦁Oxytocin: Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary gland cells ⦁Prolactin: Stimulates milk production Ovaries- primary sex organ, producing eggs and sex hormones. Estrogen is produced in ovaries. Fallopian tubes- transports an egg from and ovary to uterus Fimbriae- finger-like projections at the opening of the fallopian tube that sweep eggs in. Uterus- hollow, muscular organ that can house and nourish a developing embryo. Females produce estrogen from the ovaries, which causes the egg to mature in the ovary's Graafian follicle and the uterine endometrium to thicken. **A surge of LH, luteinizing hormone, from the pituitary causes the developing egg to be released. The empty Graafian follicle is now called the corpus luteum and produces large amounts of progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the egg.**
skeletal system
Function: Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones and joints. consists of 206 bones. Functions: ⦁ Support - body shape ⦁ Protection - encloses organs ⦁ Movement - muscles use bones as levers ⦁ Storage - calcium reservoir ⦁ Hematopoiesis - blood cell formation in marrow Components: ⦁ Bone - connective tissue giving rigid support ⦁ Cartilage - support with flexibility ⦁ Ligament - dense connective tissue attaching bone to bone ⦁ Tendon - dense connective tissue attaching muscle to bone Cartilage: ⦁ an avascular connective tissue, wrapped in membrane called perichondrium with blood vessels ⦁ Cells called chondrocytes sit in hollow spaces called lacunae ⦁ Fluid matrix filled with collagen fibers Cartilage types: ⦁ Hyaline - firm but flexible, found at bone ends, nose, ribcage ⦁ Elastic - elastic fibers gives flexibility, found in epiglottis and outer ear ⦁ Fibrocartilage - shock absorber, found in intervertebral discs and menisci Bone Classification by Location: ⦁ Axial - in body's axis - skull, ribcage, vertebrae ⦁ Appendicular - of the appendages - limbs and girdles Bone Classification by Shape ⦁ Long - longer than wide ex: humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula ⦁ Short - cube shaped ex: talus, metatarsals, clavicle ⦁ Flat - thin bones ex: sternum, scapula, ribs ⦁ Irregular - complex shape: vertebra, knee, skull. Red Marrow Cavities -red marrow is hematopoietic, forming blood cells. Found in spongy bone. Yellow Marrow Cavities-yellow marrow is fat, not hematopoietic. Found in medullary cavities. Osteon (Haversian system) - functional unit of compact bone. Long cylinder acting as a weight-bearing pillar Lamellae - the rings of bone matrix that form the osteons Bone Cell Types ⦁ Osteogenic cells - bone stem cells, source for other bone cells ⦁ Osteoblasts - bone forming cells, produce fibers and fluids of bone matrix ⦁ Osteocytes - mature bone cell, maintains tissue ⦁ Osteoclasts - bone resorbing cells, breaks down bone tissue to allow remodeling Central Canal (Haversian canal) - hollow center of an osteon containing blood vessels and nerves. Volkmann's canals - spaces that run side-to-side connecting the periosteum and osteons to each other. Lacunae - hollow spaces within the bony matrix that enclose osteocytes Canaliculi - tiny canals that link the lacunae and canals Periosteum - fibrous membrane surrounding diaphysis Endosteum - membrane lining the medullary cavity and spaces of spongy bone Osteoporosis- A disease that causes brittle bones fragile bones. Rheumatoid Arthritis- a progressive joint disease that causes joint inflammation and pain.
dense regular connective tissue
Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction Location: tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses
Organ Systems
Functional groups of organs that work together within the body: Circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular, nervous; 11 total
Endocrine functions of pancreas
Functioning as an endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar levels throughout the day. Both of these diverse functions are vital to the body's survival. The pancreas contains the islets of Langerhans which are made up of insulin-producing beta cells and glucagon-releasing alpha cells. The major hormones produced by the pancreas are insulin and glucagon. Insulin controls carbohydrate metabolism by lowering the amount of glucose in the blood. However, the body also uses glucagon to control carbohydrate metabolism, it has the opposite effect of insulin. Glucagon increases blood sugar levels when they are too low. Both of these together help maintain homeostasis within the body in terms of blood-glucose homeostasis. The endocrine portion of the pancreas controls the homeostasis of glucose in the bloodstream. Blood glucose levels must be maintained within certain limits so that there is a constant supply of glucose to feed the cells of the body but not so much that glucose can damage the kidneys and other organs. The pancreas produces 2 antagonistic hormones to control blood sugar: glucagon and insulin. The alpha cells of the pancreas produce glucagon. Glucagon raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to metabolize glycogen into glucose molecules and to release glucose into the blood. Glucagon also stimulates adipose tissue to metabolize triglycerides into glucose and to release glucose into the blood. Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the pancreas. This hormone lowers blood glucose levels after a meal by stimulating the absorption of glucose by liver, muscle, and adipose tissues. Insulin triggers the formation of glycogen in the muscles and liver and triglycerides in adipose to store the absorbed glucose.
Capitalization
Geographical locations Cardinal directions Historical documents and events Nationalities, races, and religions Monuments, ships, and planes Proper names and titles of rank Showing family relationship (when they stand alone or are followed by a personal name) Main words or titles of books poems, plays, etc. Deities The first word of a quotation Names of seasons if they are personified
Rough ER & Golgi App Mitochondria
Glands that secrete proteins have a large amount of ____, whereas muscle cells have large #s of ____ to provide energy for movement.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. Nearly all living organisms carry out glycolysis as part of their metabolism. The process does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobic (processes that use oxygen are called aerobic). Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. 1.Through secondary active transport in which the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. 2.Through a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These transporters assist in the facilitated diffusion of glucose. Outcomes of glycolysis: Glycolysis starts with glucose and ends with two pyruvate molecules, a total of four ATP molecules and two molecules of NADH. Two ATP molecules were used in the first half of the pathway to prepare the six-carbon ring for cleavage, so the cell has a net gain of two ATP molecules and two NADH molecules for its use. If the cell cannot catabolize the pyruvate molecules further, it will harvest only two ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose. Mature mammalian red blood cells are not capable of aerobic respiration—the process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen—and glycolysis is their sole source of ATP. If glycolysis is interrupted, these cells lose their ability to maintain their sodium-potassium pumps, and eventually, they die. The last step in glycolysis will not occur if pyruvate kinase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of pyruvate, is not available in sufficient quantities. In this situation, the entire glycolysis pathway will proceed, but only two ATP molecules will be made in the second half. Thus, pyruvate kinase is a rate-limiting enzyme for glycolysis.
Tissues
Group of cells that work together to perform a specific function - Can be grouped into 4 categories: Muscle tissue, nerve tissue, epithelial tissue, connective tissue
Organ Systems
Group of organs that work together to perform specific functions. -Includes: *Respiratory, Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, Nervous, Muscular, Integumentary, Reproductive, Endocrine, Renal/Urinary, Immune, and Skeletal.*
Meiosis
Has the same phases as mitosis but they happen twice. The daughter cells in Meiosis will have DIFFERENT genetic coding. Meiosis only happens in gametes. *The result is 26 chromosomes total* !!
Sentence: Explanation
He was awarded a degree posthumously; He died a month before graduation
Muscle Tissue
Helps *support* and *move* the body. -3 Types: *~Smooth:* Provides tension in the blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis. *~Cardiac:* Only found in the *heart* *~Skeletal:* Includes the muscles commonly called *biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.*
muscle tissue
Helps *support* and *move* the body. -3 Types: *~Smooth:* Provides tension in the blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis. Found in digestive tract. (peristalsis-the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wavelike movements that push the contents of the canal forward) *~Cardiac:* Only found in the *heart*, an involuntary muscle. *~Skeletal:* Includes the muscles commonly called *biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.* Voluntary muscles.
Glycolipids in the cell membrane
Helps slightly immobilize the outer surface of the membrane and make it less soluble to very small water-soluble molecules that could otherwise pass through more easily. Without cholesterol, cell membranes would be too fluid, not firm enough, and too permeable to some molecules. The glycolipid helps the cell recognize other cells. Glycolipids and Cholesterol. The cell membranes of eukaryotic cells and some bacterial cells consist of three types of lipids - phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol molecules. Glycolipids are sugar-containing lipid molecules
Key points
Hormones serve as chemical messengers in the body and help maintain homeostasis. Hormones are released into bodily fluids, like blood, which carry them to target cells. Target cells respond to a hormone when they express a specific receptor for that hormone. Hormones also play a role in the regulation of cell death, the immune system, reproductive development, mood swings, and hunger cravings. In the adrenal gland, epinephrine and norepinephrine regulate responses to stress; in the thyroid gland, thyroid hormones regulates metabolic rates. Key Terms target cell: any cell having a specific receptor for a hormone hormone: any substance produced by one tissue and conveyed by the bloodstream to another to affect physiological activity endocrine system: a control system of ductless glands that secrete hormones which circulate via the bloodstream to affect cells within specific organs
C=2 x PIE x r
How is the circumference (distance around a circle) calculated?
5280 ft
How many feet is 1 mi (mile)?
3 feet
How many feet is 1 yd (yard)?
28 grams
How many grams in 1 oz (ounce)
16 oz
How many oz in 1 Ib
8 oz
How many oz in 1 cup
16 oz
How many oz in 1 pint
1 fluid oz
How many oz in 2 tsp
8 fluid oz
How many oz is 1 glass?
2 pints
How many pints in 1 quart
4 quarts
How many quarts in 1 gal (gallon)
Blood
Human has 5 quarts of blood. *Plasma*: Half blood volume. Mostly water, serves as solvent. -*Contains*: plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gases. *RBC (red)*: *Transports* oxygen to cells. Form in bone marrow. Live for 2 Months, constantly replaced. *WBC (white)*: *Defends* body against infection and removes waste. ~Lymphocytes, neutrophil, monocytes, eosinophil, and basophil. *Platelets*: Fragments of stem cells. ~Function: Blood Clotting
If a word does not fit entirely on a line what is place to separate the word?
Hyphen
If compound numbers function as adjective, what separates them?
Hyphen
What is used to join a prefix and a proper adjective or noun?
Hyphen
Adipose tissue is found where?
Hypodermis which essentially means beneath the skin. hypo - beneath dermis - relating to skin
What controls the Autonomic Nervous System through the brain stem?
Hypothalamus
Organs, what hormone they secret, & function (in order)
Hypothalamus - Releasing/Inhibiting hormones - Stimulate Pituitary *Anterior Pituitary (base of brain; controls growth and development - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - Stimulate adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids ~Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Stimulate the Thyroid gland ~Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - Stimulates production of ova (females) and sperm (males) ~Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - Stimulates Ovaries (females) and Testes (males) ~Prolactin - Stimulates milk production ~Growth Hormone (GH) - Stimulates growth (bones) and metabolic functions* *Posterior Pituitary (back of anterior pituitary) - Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - Promotes retention of water by the kidneys ~Oxytocin - Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary gland cells* Pineal Gland (center of brain) - Melatonin - sleep cycles; biorhythms *Thyroid (neck; hormones regulate growth, development, and metabolism) ~Triiodothyronine (T3) - Metabolism ~Thyroxine (T4) - Metabolism and temperature ~Calcitonin - Inhibits release of Calcium from bones* Parathyroid (4 glands on Thyroid) - Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - Stimulates release of calcium from bones, back into blood. Thymus (lymphoid organ that produces T-Cells) - Thymosin - stimulates T-Cell Development *Adrenal Glands (Above Kidneys; regulate HR, BP, and other functions)/Adrenal Cortex (stimulates fight or flight response) ~Cortisol/Glucocorticoids - Stress response; Increase blood glucose, Decrease immune response; metabolism ~Aldosterone - Regulates Na content in blood* *Adrenal Medulla (stimulates fight or flight response) - ~Epinephrine - Fight ~Norepinephrine - Flight* *Ovaries (female gonads) - ~Estrogen - Stimulates egg maturation, controls 2ndary sex characteristics ~Progesterone - Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg* Testes (male gonads) - testosterone - Regulates sperm production and 2ndary sex characteristics Kidneys - ~Erythropoietin - Response to cellular hypoxia ~Renin - Promotes production of Angiotensin Liver - Angiotensin II - Vasoconstriction, Increase BP *Pancreas - ~Glucagon (Alpha Cells) - Increase blood glucose ~Insulin (Beta Cells) - Decrease blood glucose* Stomach Gastrin - Response to food; stimulates production of gastric juices Intestine - ~Secretin - Response to acidity in small intestine; stimulates secretion by liver and pancreas ~Cholecystokinin - Production of Bile Salts Heart - Atrial Natriuretic Peptide(ANP) - Increase renal Na excretion, decrease ECF
Major organs associated with the endocrine system:
Hypothalamus - produces growth hormone, thyrotropin, corticotrophin, gonadotrophin, prolactin inhibitory factor, oxytocin Pituitary gland - also called the "master gland" because it controls all other hormones in the endocrine system Pineal gland - found in the middle of the brain, makes melatonin Thyroid Gland - stores all hormones and controls metabolism, including body weight, rate of energy use, and heart rate. Parathyroid glands - glands in the back of the thyroid that help regulate blood calcium levels Thymus - produces hormones involved in the development of white blood cells Pancreas - produces insulin and glucagon, that raises or lowers blood glucose levels for energy Ovary - female sex organ, located in the pelvis, that produces estrogen and progesterone Adrenal Glands - produces steroid hormone (regulates metabolism of glucose, sodium, and potassium, and maintain fluid balance) and epinephrine Testes - male sex organ, located in the groin, that produces testosterone Placenta - Estrogen, Progesterone & hCG. The placenta is an endocrine gland that is only present during pregnancy
2 Types of Connective Bone Tissue
Include *Spongy and Compact* bone. --Have thin outside layer of *compact bone*, which gives them their characteristic smooth, white appearance. -*Compact*: Tightly packed cells, is *strong, dense, and rigid*. Running vertically throughout compact bone are the *Haversian Canals*, which are surrounded by concentric circles of bone tissue called *Lamellae*. Spaces between lamellae are *lacunae*. Lamellae and canals along with their associated arteries, veins, lymph vessels, and nerve endings are referred to*collectively as the Haversian System*. ~*Haversian System*: Provides a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus for the blood. -*Spongy* (cancellous): Consists of *Trabeculae* which are a network of firders with open spaces fillled with Red Bone Marrow. Light-weight and porous, which helps reduce bones overall weight. Red marrow menufactures RBC/WBC. ~*Long Bones* (Diaphysis): Consist of compact bone surrounding marrow cavity and spongy bone containing red marrow in the *Epiphyses*.
Ribosomes
Involved in *synthesizing proteins from amino acids.* -Make up about a quarter of a cell. -Some are embedded in the *Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)*
Ribosomes
Involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. - numerous - make up quarter of cell - thousands can be found in a cell - some are mobile and embedded in rough ER
Extraneous
Irrelevant
Erroneous
Irrelevant Story might contain *conflicting* accounts of what happened due to having multiple observers.
Nucleolus
It is contained WITHIN the nucleus. Consists of protein. It does not have a membrane. It is involved in protein synthesis (transfer of proteins) It also stores RNA (ribonucleic acid) This is where ribosomes are assembled. This organelle has two major FUNCTIONS: it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division). Only the cells of advanced organisms, known as eukaryotes, have a nucleus/nucleolus.
types of white blood cells
LYMPHOCYTE is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. The B cells produce antibodies that are used to attack invading bacteria, viruses, and toxins. The T cells destroy the body's own cells that have themselves been taken over by viruses or become cancerous. Neutrophils A type of immune cell that is one of the first cell types to travel to the site of an infection. Neutrophils help fight infection by ingesting microorganisms and releasing enzymes that kill the microorganisms. A neutrophil is a type of white blood cell, a type of granulocyte, and a type of phagocyte Monocytes A type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow and travels through the blood to tissues in the body where it becomes a macrophage. Macrophages surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, remove dead cells, and boost immune responses. A monocyte is a type of white blood cell and a type of phagocyte. Eosinophils A type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that are released during infections, allergic reactions, and asthma. An eosinophil is a type of white blood cell and a type of granulocyte. Basophils A type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that are released during allergic reactions and asthma. A basophil is a type of white blood cell and a type of granulocyte. In allergic reactions, the immune system is exposed to an allergen. Basophils release histamine during allergic reactions. Basophils are also thought to play a role in causing the body to produce the antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE).
Endocrine System Regulates Body Functions
Like *Blood production, appetite, reproduction, brain functions, sleep cycle, salt-and-water homeostasis, growth, sexual development, and response to stress and anxiety.* -*Non-polar, Fat-soluable Hormones*: Estrogen and Progesterone. Released in a pattern set by *age* and *development* an their effects are long-lasting. -*Other polar, Water-soluable hormones*: Epinephrine. Released acutely in response to stress, actions are short lived. *Hormone Imbalance can cause Metabolic Diseases like Diabetes, Hyperthyroidism, and Gigantism.*
Looking at a Flyer or Advertisement
Look for: -author -intended audience -rhetorical strategies designed to influence the viewer May use bold, italics, or underlined text
loose connective tissue (areolar)
Loose connective tissue fills the spaces between muscle fibers, surrounds blood and lymph vessels, and is present in the lining membranes of the peritoneal, pleural, and cardiac cavities.
reproductive system (male)
Male Reproductive Functions include: Produce, maintain, and transfer sperm and semen, produce & secrete male hormones ***External structure ⦁ *Penis* contains the *Urethra* the *urethra* is the duct by which urine and semen is conveyed out of the body The penis can fill with blood and become erect. ⦁ *Scrotum* - sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses *testes* and Keeps *testes* at proper temperature for spermatogenesis (production of mature sperm) ⦁ *Testes* - Male gonads which Produce sperm and testosterone ***Internal structure ⦁ *Epididymis* - stores sperm as it matures. Mature sperm moves from the *epididymis* through the *vas deferens* to the *ejaculatory duct.* ⦁ *Seminal vesicles* - secrete alkaline fluids into the ejaculatory duct. ⦁ *Prostate gland* - Secretes milky white fluid with proteins and enzymes as part of semen ⦁ *Bulbourethral gland*, also called *Cowper's glands* - Secrete fluid into urethra to neutralize acidity in the *urethra* Hormones include ⦁ Follicle-stimulating hormone - Stimulates spermatogenesis ⦁ Luteinizing hormone - Stimulates testosterone production ⦁ Testosterone - responsible for Male sex characteristics MALES External Organs: Penis, Scrotum, Testes Internal Organs: Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Ducts, Urethra, Seminal Vesicles, and Male Reproductive Testes- the primary sex organs, producing sperm and sex hormones, Sustain developing sperm, and produce proteins used in sperm production. Scrotum- the sac of skin that contains the testes. ⦁Provides ideal temp for sperm ⦁Dartos Muscle- contracts to fold scrotum wall. ⦁Cremaster Muscle-contracts to elevate testes. Prostate & Seminal Vesicles- produce the fluids necessary for lubricating and nourishing sperm. Penis- the male copulatory system. Testosterone- the hormone that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics. The Duct System ⦁Epididymis- coiled tubules clinging to the testes where sperm mature and gain their ability to swim. ⦁Vas deferens- tubule that transports sperm from the epididymis to the prostate gland, ⦁Urethra- passage that transports semen and urine.
Phospholipid bilayer/double bilayer - the hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing the external envmt - inner layer facing inside of cell - hydrophobic ends facing each other
Parts of cell membrane
Root: arch
Ruler: tetrarch
Anaphase (Mitosis)
SIMPLE: Centromeres separate; duplicate parts of the chromosomes become separated; spindle fibers shorten and pull individual chromosomes toward centrioles. DETAILED: In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell. The protein "glue" that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down, allowing them to separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes of each pair are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell. Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating the poles and making the cell longer. All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines that can "walk" along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.
Prophase (mitosis)
SIMPLE: Chromatin differentiates into chromosomes; centrioles move to opposite sides of cytoplasm, nuclear membranes and nucleolus disppear; microtubules appear and become associated with centrioles and duplicate parts of chromosomes. DETAILED:In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others up, setting the stage for division of the chromosomes. -The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on). -The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of microtubules, strong fibers that are part of the cell's "skeleton." Its job is to organize the chromosomes and move them around during mitosis. The spindle grows between the centrosomes as they move apart. -The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break down. -In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes. -The chromosomes finish condensing, so they are very compact. -The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes. -The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to "capture" chromosomes.
Metaphase (mitosis)
SIMPLE: Chromosomes become arranged midway between the centrioles; spindles fibers from the centrioles become attached to the centromeres of each chromosome. DETAILED: In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the middle of the cell, ready to divide. -All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a physical structure, just a term for the plane where the chromosomes line up). -At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles. -Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules. This is called the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure that the sister chromatids will split evenly between the two daughter cells when they separate in the next step. -If a chromosome is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will halt division until the problem is fixed. Basically, the the chromosomes (each containing TWO chromatids) align at the very center in a vertical line.
Telophase (mitosis)
SIMPLE: Chromosomes elongate and form chromatin threads, nuclear membranes appear around each chromosome set, nucleoli appear, microtubules disappear. DETAILED: In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place. The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks. Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear. The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their "stringy" form.
Vacuoles
Sacs used for *storage, digestion, and waste removal*. -Plant: Has *one large* vacuole -Animal: Has *small, sometimes numerous* vacuoles.
Vacuoles
Sacs used for storage, digestion, waste removal. There is one large ____ in plant cells. Animal cells have small, sometimes numerous of these
Meiosis
Same phased as Mitosis, except it happens *twice* and *different* event occur during some phases. -*First Phase:* Interphase(1), Prophase(1), Metaphase(1), Anaphase(1), Telophase(1), and Cytokinesis(1) -*Second Phase:* Prophase(2), Metaphase(2), Anaphase(2), Telophase(2), and Cytokinesis(2).
microtubules and microfilaments
Small, thin proteins that help support and give structure to a cell. Part of a cells cytoskeleton..
Cells
Smallest living unit of life, some function autonomously in humans The basic unit of an organism from which living things are created
How does absorption begin?
Smooth muscles contractions move nutrients into the small intestine
Muscle
Soft tissue that produces force and motion to move the body; Primary component is protein
Where does Gastrointestinal start and end?
Starts at mouth Ends at Anus
Suffix: ia, y
State or condition: amnesia, democracy
Homophones: Stationary and Stationery
Stationary (adjective): Not moving Stationery (noun): Paper for writing letters
Effector
The *Sweat Glands, Blood Vessels, and Muscles* (shivering). -*Evaporation of sweat* across the surface of the skin *cools* the body to maintain tolerance range. *Vasodilation*: Dilated blood vessels when body is *warm.* Carry blood to the blood vessels near the surface to release heat into the environment. *Constriction*: Constricted blood vessels when body is *cold.* So, that less blood is carried to the surface. *Looks Like: Flushed cheeks.*
Simplified Overview of the Heart Cycle
The *ventricles contract* (ventricular systole), causing the *Atrioventrcular Valves* (including mitral and tricuspid vavles) to close, making a *"lub"* sounds. Subsequently, the empty ventricles are filled with blood pushed out during *Atrial Systole*. Same time, the *Semilunar Valves* in the aorta and pulmonary arteries close, preventing blood from falling back into the ventricles, making a *"dub"* sound, and completing the *"lub-dub"* sound of the heart.
cardiovascular/circulatory system
The cardiovascular/circulatory system is responsible for the internal transport of substances to and from the cells. FUNCTION: Movement of blood and lymph around the body, which permits nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication, and protection. The following 3 parts are what it consists of: 1. *Blood* - Blood is made of water, solutes, and other elements in fluid connective tissue. Red blood cells- transport oxygen to cells and form in the bone marrow. White blood cells- defend against infection. Examples of WBC: Lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils. Platelets also play a role in blood clotting. *Sequence of events leading to blood clotting* -vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, coagulation Plasma makes up half the volume of blood, is mostly water and serves as a solvent, also contains plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones and dissolved gas. 2. *Blood Vessels* - tubules of different sizes that transport blood. Different types of blood vessels are as follows: Artery, Vein, Arteriole, Venule, Capillary the 3 MAIN types are: Artery, vein, capillary (we will go over this more on separate cards) 3. *Heart* - the heart is a muscular pump which provides the pressure necessary to keep blood pumping.
Endocrine system (Hormones)
The endocrine system is responsible for secreting hormones. The nervous system and the endocrine system work closely together. The hypothalamus (part of the brain) and the pituitary gland (The pituitary gland is a tiny organ, the size of a pea, found at the base of the brain.) coordinate with each other to serve as a neuroendocrine control center. Hormone secretion is triggered by a variety of signals, including hormonal signs, chemical reactions, and environmental cues. Only cells with particular receptors (an organ or cell able to respond to light, heat, or other external stimulus and transmit a signal to a sensory nerve.) can benefit from hormonal influence. Steroid hormones trigger gene activation and protein synthesis. Hormones such as insulin work quickly when it is needed. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas by the islets of Langerhans that regulates the amount of glucose in the blood. The lack of insulin causes a form of diabetes.
Heart
The heart is a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle tissue. The heart has 4 chambers: One half of the heart - -The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle. -The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs. Other half of the heart -The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle. -The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the body. These halves are separated by a valve called the AV valve which is located between the ventricle and artery leading away from the heart. Valves are important to prevent backwash into the chambers, so they keep blood moving in one single direction. The heart has it's own circulatory system with the coronary arteries. (The aorta (the main blood supplier to the body) branches off into two main coronary blood vessels (also called arteries). These coronary arteries branch off into smaller arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the entire heart muscle.) The heart functions by contracting and relaxing. These contractions make a sound known as "Lub-dub" The characteristic "lub-dub " sound of the heart is created by the closing of the valves. The "Lub" sound marks the start of the contraction of the ventricles, known as ventricular systole. The sound is caused by the closure of the valves separating each ventricle from its atrium. The two valves are the mitral and tricuspid valves. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle while the mitral valve separates the left atrium from the left ventricle. The second "Dub" sound marks the start of the relaxation of the ventricles known as ventricular diastole. The sound is caused by the closure of the pulmonary and aortic valves. These valves prevent blood from rushing back into the ventricles after contraction has occurred. Atrial contraction fills the ventricles. Ventricular contraction empties them. This sequence begins the CARDIAC CYCLE. Heart ⦁Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. ⦁Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system ⦁Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip. Heart Coverings ⦁Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. Heart Layers ⦁Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium. ⦁Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skeleton. ⦁Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers. 4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited pumping means thin walls. Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls. Sulci - the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats and vessels. Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers. Right Atrium ⦁Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm. ⦁Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm. ⦁Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall. Left Atrium ⦁4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs. Right Ventricle ⦁Receives blood from the right atrium. ⦁Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs. Left Ventricle ⦁Receives blood from the left atrium ⦁Blood exits into the aorta to the body. **Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation.
thyroid and parathyroid glands
The thyroid and parathyroid glands are located in the neck just below the larynx. The basic function of the thyroid gland is to regulate metabolism. The thyroid gland secretes the hormones: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. Thyroxine and triiodothyronine increase metabolism. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium by storing the calcium in bone tissue. the hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone. The thyroid then releases these hormones as needed via Negative feedback mechanism. -Negative feedback mechanism is the process in which a deviation from normal is detected, a response is made, and the response alleviates need for further action to address the deviation -ex: high blood glucose --> stimulates insulin secretion --> lowers blood glucose level --> inhibits insulin --> raises blood glucose level --> starts all over (continuous loop) The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from bone to blood.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
There are two Primary components of the central nervous system: the spinal cord and the brain *Spinal Cord* ⦁encased in the vertebrae which protects & supports the spinal cord. *Brain* (2 hemispheres / 4 main lobes) Consists of: 1. Hindbrain - the hindbrain includes: ⦁medulla oblongata - part of the brain stem, connects the spinal cord to the brain. It is important to the circulatory and respiratory systems. ⦁cerebellum - processing & storing implicit memories/memories developed during classical conditioning learning, also responsible for automatic responses such as blinking when there is a sudden puff of air into the eyes ⦁Pons- also part of the brain stem 2. Midbrain - the third part of the brain stem, above the pons and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is important for vision and hearing. 3. Forebrain -It controls body temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and any display of emotions -includes: Cerebrum: coordination of voluntary activity in the body. Thalamus: acting as a center for pain perception. Hypothalamus:controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
The kidneys
Urinary System - includes the paired kidneys and ureters and the single bladder and urethra. Functions ⦁Excretion - the elimination of wastes and toxins from the body via urine (regulating water and ion balance and blood volume) Kidney Layers ⦁ Renal Cortex - outer, lighter region where majority of filtration occurs. Glomerulus is found in the cortex. ⦁Renal Medulla - inner, darker region of alternating renal pyramids and renal columns. ⦁Renal pyramids - a bundle of collecting ducts that drain urine from the cortex. ⦁Renal column - cortical tissue between pyramids where blood vessels pass to access the cortex. Parts of the renal tubule ⦁Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule - start of the tubule that surrounds the glomerulus to catch its leaked fluids and solutes. ⦁Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) - first coiled area in the cortex. ⦁Loop of Henle - long region that dips into medulla, includes descending and ascending limbs. ⦁Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) - second coiled area in the cortex. Collecting duct - tubule that collects urine from many nephrons for transport through a pyramid to the renal sinus. Urine is formed in 3 steps ⦁Glomerular filtration - plasma and solutes (valuable and waste) leak from the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule, forming filtrate. ⦁Tubular reabsorption - valuable solutes are transported from the filtrate back to the plasma of the peritubular capillaries. ⦁Tubular secretion - additional wastes are added to the filtrate from the plasma of the peritubular capillaries. The filtrate is now changed to urine. Color - ranges from clear to deep yellow. Yellowness is due to the presence of urochrome, a pigment from the breakdown of bilirubin. pH - urine is normally slightly acidic, pH near 6, but diet can shift this toward more acidic or alkaline. Urine Composition ⦁95% water ⦁5% solutes ⦁Urea - from the breakdown of amino acids ⦁Uric acid - from the breakdown of nucleic acids ⦁Creatinine - from the breakdown of creatine phosphate ⦁Ions - sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, calcium, H+ Ureter - tube to transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urinary bladder - muscular organ that stores urine. ⦁Lined with a transitional epithelium to allow stretch. Renal Arteries- the two branches of the abdominal aorta that supply kidneys. Urethra - tube that drains urine from the bladder and transports it out of the body. Much longer in males because it courses through the penis. Internal urethral sphincter - smooth muscle structure surrounding the urethra at the base of the bladder. External urethral sphincter - skeletal muscle structure surrounding the urethra in the urigenital diaphragm. Micturition (voiding) - the act of emptying the bladder Micturition reflex: ⦁When about 200 mL of urine is collected, stretch of the bladder initiates the reflex causing contractions of the detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter ⦁Relaxation of the external urethral sphincter can allow micturition, OR contraction of the external urethral sphincter can temporarily inhibit the reflex ⦁After an additional 200 mL of urine is collected, the reflex restarts.
Words of direct address
Uses the names of the people to whom you are speaking, or it may use other words which take the place of the actual names Ex. Boys, are you ready to go? (boys)
Veins
Veins are blood vessels that carry DEOXYGENATED blood to the heart. All of the veins empty into the VENA CAVA prior to entering the heart. Types of veins: *Jugular vein* - The jugular veins are veins that take deoxygenated blood from the head back to the heart via the superior vena cava. *subclavian vein* - The function of the subclavian vein is to empty blood from the upper extremities and then carry it back to the heart. *Hepatic portal vein* - The portal vein or hepatic portal vein is a blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen to the liver before it goes to the heart. *Common iliac vein* - They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs. *Renal vein* - There are two renal veins, a left and a right. They branch off the inferior vena cava and drain oxygen-depleted blood from the kidneys.
Nucleolus
W/in nucleus, consists of protein - no membrane - involved in protein synthesis of RIBOSOMES - synthesizes and stores RNA
Digestive system questions:
What are the digestive enzymes? - Pepsin, Mucus, Hydrochloric What neutralizes stomach acid? - Bile/Sodium bicarbonate What are gastrulation cells? - Germ cells Where is bile stored? - Gallbladder What produces bile?-Liver What does villi do? - Increase surface area absorption Enzyme lipase function? - Breakdown lipids Enzyme protease function? - Breakdown proteins Enzyme amylase function? - Breakdown carbs Where are nutrients absorbed? - Small intestine Where is water and vitamin k absorbed? - Large Intestine What does amylase do? - break down starch What does lipase do? - break down fat What does bile do? - neutralize stomach acid What do carbohydrates do? - convert starch and glycogen to sugar Water and vitamin k are stored where? - large intestines Nutrients are stored where? - small intestine What organ gets rid of metabolic waste? - large intestine or colon What neutralizes acid chyme in the intestines? - pancreatic secretions Which organ produces insulin? - Pancreas Where is insulin and glucagon released? - Released by islet cells in the pancreas Beta islet cells release - insulin Alpha islet cells release - glucagon When is insulin and glucagon released? - Glucagon forces the liver to release stored glucose, which causes the blood sugar to rise Where is amylase produced? It is produced by the salivary glands but released by the pancreas
More about layers of skin
What are the five layers of the epidermis from the deepest layer to the most superficial? -Stratum basale, Stratum spinosum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum lucidum, Stratum corneum Stratum Basale: : Deepest layer (located near the basement cells) -Attached to the underlying dermis. -Single row of renewing keratinocytes that are getting ready to get pushed up. -10-25% = Melanocytes -Small portion are Markel cells. Stratum Spinosum: Overlies the stratum basale. -Where the cells go once they have pushed up from the stratum basale. -Filaments in the cells that resist tension. -Keratinocytes have a spiny appearance. -Contain Langerhans cells. Stratum granulosum Three to Five layers thick Keratinocytes flatten out & organelles begin to disintegrate Accumulate two types of granules Keratohyaline granules - help form keratin in upper layers Lamellated granules - waterproofing glycolipids Plasma membranes thicken due to cytosol proteins bind the inner surface & the lipids coat the outer surface Cells die as they move further away from the nutrients Stratum Lucidum Visible only in thick skin Few layers thick, dead clear cells Stratum Corneum Broad zone of 20 to 30 cell layers Protective, durable overcoat Waterproof, tough = relatively insensitive to biological, chemical, & physical assault What are the layers of the skin? Epidermis is the top layer of the skin, the part of the skin you see, gives us our skin tone. Dermis is the second layer of skin. It's much thicker and does a lot for your body, includes sweat glands, hair follicles, and connective tissue. Subcutaneous fat (is the bottom layer.) Which layer of the skin is attached to the dermis? Stratum Basale (deepest) Which layer is only visible through thick skin? Stratum Luicidum
More about Integumentary
What are the three skin layers? - Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis What are the epidermis layers? - "Come Let's Get Sun Burned" (TOP to BOTTOM) • Stratum corneum- all dead cells • Stratum lucidum- dead cells in thick skin • Stratum granulosum- mixture of old cells that are alive and dying cells • Stratum spinosum- fairly young and happy cells • Stratum basale- new healthy cells being produced (melanin is in this layer) What are sweat glands? - Eccrine glands, sudoriferous glands What skin layer are sweat glands found? -Dermis What are oil glands? - Sebaceous (Sebum) Where skin layer are oil glands found?-Dermis What is the function of skin? - Thermoregulation/Homeostasis What is keratin? - Hair, nails What skin layer is keratin found? - Dermis Where is adipose/fat tissue located? - Hypodermis/Subcutaneous layer Which of the following are excreted through the skin? Urea, blood, and alcohol What are the three skin layers? - Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis What are the epidermis layers? - "Come Let's Get Sun Burned" (TOP to BOTTOM) • Stratum corneum • Stratum lucidum • Stratum granulosum • Stratum spinosum • Stratum basale - melanin layer also protects from the sun/UV radiation What are sweat glands? - Eccrine glands , sudoriferous glands (body odor) What skin layer are sweat glands found? -Dermis What are oil glands? - Sebaceous (Sebum) Where skin layer are oil/sebaceous glands found?-Dermis What is the function of skin? -Thermoregulation/Homeostasis What is keratin? - is a structural protein that makes up a major part of the skin's outer layers. What skin layer is keratin found?- Dermis Where is adipose/fat tissue located?- Hypodermis/Subcutaneous layer Which of the following are excreted through the skin? Urea, blood, and alcohol
More about Neuromuscular system
What happens if acetylcholinesterase is inhibited at the synapse? - Causes a muscle stimulation What is function of a neuron? - transmit information What is the function of myelin sheath? - Increase speed of electrical signals What causes goosebumps? - Arrector pili motor muscles/ sympathetic response What is function for actin and myosin? - Responsible for muscle movement What is function of a synapse? - Allow neurons to pass signals to neurons and muscles What is the sympathetic response responsible for? - Fight-or-flight What is the parasympathetic response responsible for? - Rest-and-Digest What makes up the central nervous system? - Brain and Spinal cord Cerebellum function? - Process and store information Medulla oblongata function? - Breathing
Phrase
What is a string of two or more words, that do not have a subject and a verb? Ex. because of her glittering smile Ex. broken into thousands of pieces
Clauses
What is a string of two or more words, with a subject and a verb? Ex. When the saints go marching in Ex. Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon.
Suffix
What is added to the end of the word to modify it?
Height
What is measure from top to bottom?
More about skeletal system
What is osteoporosis?- brittle fragile bones What causes osteoporosis? Osteoclast and osteoblast What is osteoblast? -Build bone What is osteoclast? - remove bone What is a long bone? - Femur, tibia What is a short bone? - Tarsals What is a flat bone?- Skull Osteogenic cells are the only bone cells that divide. Osteogenic cells differentiate and develop into osteoblasts which, in turn, are responsible for forming new bones. Osteoblasts synthesize and secrete a collagen matrix and calcium salts. When the area surrounding an osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast becomes trapped and transforms into an osteocyte, the most common and mature type of bone cell. Osteoclasts, the cells that break down and reabsorb bone, stem from monocytes and macrophages rather than osteogenic cells.. There is a continual balance between osteoblasts generating new bone and osteoclasts breaking down bone. Key Terms osteoclast: a large multinuclear cell associated with the resorption of bone osteocyte: a mature bone cell involved with the maintenance of bone osteoprogenitor: a stem cell that is the precursor of an osteoblast canaliculus: any of many small canals or ducts in bone or in some plants periosteum: a membrane surrounding a bone endosteum: a membranous vascular layer of cells which line the medullary cavity of a bone lacuna: a small opening; a small pit or depression; a small blank space; a gap or vacancy; a hiatus osteoblast: a mononucleate cell from which bone develops Key Points Compact bone is the hard external layer of all bones that protects, strengthens, and surrounds the medullary cavity filled with marrow. Cylindrical structures, called osteons, are aligned along lines of the greatest stress to the bone in order to resist bending or fracturing. Spongy or cancellous bone tissue consists of trabeculae that are arranged as rods or plates with red bone marrow in between. Spongy bone is prominent in regions where the bone is less dense and at the ends of long bones where the bone has to be more compressible due to stresses that arrive from many directions. Key Terms trabecula: a small mineralized spicule that forms a network in spongy bone epiphysis: the rounded end of any long bone osteocyte: a mature bone cell involved with the maintenance of bone osteon: any of the central canals and surrounding bony layers found in compact bone
More information about Urinary system
What is the functional unit of the kidney? -Nephron What is the function of the kidney? - filter blood, create urine, and stabilize water What are the kidney's two major regions? - Cortex and medulla What regulates blood pressure?- Renin What transports sperm? - Vas Deferens and Urethra
Length
What is the measurement of something from end to end?
Root word
What is the root meaning of the word?
Nominalization
What is the term for making a noun from a verb, adverb, or adjective?
Perimeter
What is the term for the distance around a 2 dimensional shape?
Data trend
What is the term for the general tendency of numbers in a set?
Conversion factor
What is the term for the number used to multiply or divide to change from one value to another?
Covariance
What is the term that explains the way two variables change together?
Colon
What is used between a title and sub-title of a book?
Subordinating conjunction
What joins two or more clauses? "Because, though, although, as, as if, when, while'
Coordinating conjunctions
What joins two or more words or phrases? 'For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so"
Sentence: Comparison
What kind of sentence explains how two items are similar?
Dependent Variable
What kind of variable depends on at least one other variable?
Independent Variable
What kind of variable determines the value of another variable?
Passive verb
What kind of verb is past tense? Ex. Was cooked. Was seen.
Active verb
What kind of verb shows an action performed by the subject of the sentence? Ex. Sheila and tom take a walk in the park
Base
What measurement is the bottom of the figure?
Information about Endocrine System
What organ needs iodine? - Thyroid Which gland shrinks with age? - Thymus What regulates sleep? - Pineal What secretes melatonin? Pineal What secretes insulin? - Pancreas What secretes alpha and beta cells? - Pancreas What are alpha cells? Glucagon What are beta cells? - Insulin What is the master gland? - Pituitary Pituitary- FSH, TSH, GH Hypothalamus- ADH, Oxytocin . . . Anatomy - scattered glands that produce and release hormones into the blood Function - control of the body, but effects are slow and prolonged (opposite of nervous system) Gland types: ⦁Exocrine - produce non-hormonal secretions through ducts. ⦁Endocrine - ductless glands that produce hormones secreted directly into body fluids. ⦁Mixed glands - perform both endocrine and exocrine functions. Humoral - hormones released in response to changes in body fluids (ions, nutrients, etc.) Neural - hormone release in response to nervous stimulation. Hormonal - hormone release in response to hormones from other endocrine glands. Negative Feedback - rising levels of a hormone causes secretion of that hormone to stop The Pituitary Gland ⦁hangs from the brain's hypothalamus via a stalk called the infundibulum. All pituitary secretions are initiated by the hypothalamus!!! Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - Inhibits urination. prevents changes in water balance by stimulating water reabsorption in the kidney tubules. Thyroid Hormone (TH) - a mix of two hormones made by follicular cells: Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) named for the number of iodine atoms attached Functions: ⦁ control of metabolic rate ⦁ regulates tissue growth and development ⦁ maintains blood pressure Adrenal Glands-Paired glands, located above each kidney. The Pancreas ⦁ Located beneath the stomach ⦁ Mixed gland - acinar cells have exocrine (digestive) function ⦁ Groups of cells called pancreatic islets secrete hormones Hormones ⦁ Glucagon - secreted by alpha cells, used to elevate blood glucose levels ⦁ Insulin - secreted by beta cells, used to lower blood glucose levels The Gonads - the reproductive organs that produce steroidal sex hormones. ⦁ Ovaries - female structure producing estrogen and progesterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulate the menstrual cycle ⦁ Testes - male structure producing testosterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulates sperm production. The Pineal Gland - in the epithalamus of the brain, secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep-wake cycle by causing drowsiness. The Thymus - sits above the heart and diminishes with age, produces a group of hormones that activate T-lymphocytes.
Semi colon
What precedes conjunctive adverbs?
reproductive system key terms/information
Where is sperm produced? - Testes Where does fertilization occur? - Fallopian tubes What connects the vagina to the outside? - Cervix What is the function of the placenta? - Nourish fetus and remove waste Where are gametes produced? - Testes and Ovaries What stage is zygote in gestation? - First What connects the ovaries and uterus? - Fallopian tubes Cervix - The passage that forms the lower part of the uterus Estrogen - Female sex hormones Fallopian tubes - Tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus Ovary - Organ which eggs are produced for reproduction Penis - organ for elimination of urine and sperm from the male body Prostate - the gland in males that controls the release of urine and secretes a part of the semen that enhances motility and fertility of sperm Scrotum - the pouch of skin that contains the testicles Testicles/testes - the organs that produce sperm Urethra - the tube that connects the bladder to the exterior of the body uterus - the womb What is the function of the placenta? - Nourish fetus and remove waste Where are gametes produced? - Testes and Ovaries What stage is zygote in gestation? - First When is zygote formed? Is formed 22-26 hours after fertilization. What connects the ovaries and uterus? - Fallopian tubes
Median
Which measure of tendency is when you put the middle # of ordered (Least to Greatest) list, and if # are even, then the 2 middle # averaged out?
Range
Which measure of tendency is when you subtract the minimum value from maximum value?
Bimodal
Which shape of distribution has TWO clear peaks?
Unimodal
Which shape of distribution has a single clear peak?
Bell Shaped
Which shape of distribution has a single peak at the center?
Skewed Left
Which shape of distribution has fewer observations on the left (towards lower values)?
Skewed Right
Which shape of distribution has fewer observations on the right (towards higher values)?
Uniform distribution
Which shape of distribution has observations in a data set that are spread equally across the range of the distribution?
Symmetry
Which shape of distribution is divided at the center with each side having half the data?
T-Cell
White blood cells that mature in the thymus and participate in immune response
Leukocyte
White blood cells, which protect the body against disease
Homophones: Whose and Who's
Whose (adjective): Belonging to whom Who's: Contraction of "who is"
Selective Permeability
With regard to size, charge, and solubility. *-Size:* Membrane allows small molecules to diffuse through it. Oxygen and Water molecules are small and can pass through the cells membrane. *-Charge:* Ions on a cells surface either *attracts or repels* ions. Ions with *like* charges are *repelled*, and ions with *opposite* charges are *attracted* to the surface. *-Solubility:* Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually pass through the membrane. Many are *not* able to diffuse the membrane, and if anything they'll have to be moved through by *active transport and vesicles.*
Inhalation/Inspiration
breathing in. During inhalation the diaphragm contracts and moves down which increases the size of the chest cavity to hold more air.
exhalation/expiration
breathing out. the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax which then forces air out of the lungs.
Afferent
bring signals from sensory organs and muscles to the CNS
elastic cartilage
cartilage with abundant elastic fibers; more flexible than hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage is found in the epiglottis (part of the larynx) and the pinnae (the external ear flaps of many mammals, including humans).
Centrosome
comprised of the pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surround by protein.
The dermis consists of?
connective tissue - blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. Including collagen fibers and elastin
What does the hypodermis consists of?
connective tissue, which binds the skin to the underlying muscles
Lienorenal ligament
connects kidney to the spleen
lienorenal ligament
connects kidney to the spleen
Phrenicoclic ligament (middle secretion)
connects left colic flexure to the thoracic diaphragm
Phrenicocolic ligament
connects left colic flexure to the thoracic diaphragm
Gastrolienal ligament
connects stomach to spleen
gastrolineal (gastrosplenic) ligament
connects the stomach to the spleen
Brain
consists of hind brain, which includes the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons (parts of brain stem)
Cytoskeleton
consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell
Compact bone is also known as
cortical bone
Parasympathetic
counteracts effects of sympathetic nervous system
myelin sheath
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
The mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane• Between the inner and outer membranes are folds called?
cristae
What does Calcitonin do?
decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue
The renal/urinary system is capable of?
eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function
Muscles and ligaments support the?
flexible and curved backbone
Renal circulation
flow of blood between heart and kidneys
Pulmonary circulation
flow of blood between the heart and lungs
Portal circulation
flow of blood from digestive system to liver
Systemic circulation
flow of blood to the entire body. It also includes portal circulation and renal circulation
Coronary circulation
flow of blood to the heart tissue
bone healing process
inflammation, soft callous, hard callous, remodeling 1. First there is inflammation and clotting. 2. Then fibroblasts secrete matrix forming cartilage for new bone to build off if. 3. Osteoblasts will secrete new bone spindle, where osteocytes will maintain the bone. 4. Clasts will dissolving cartilage and replacing it with bone 1. Hematoma formation: Blood vessels in the broken bone tear and hemorrhage, resulting in the formation of clotted blood, or a hematoma, at the site of the break. The severed blood vessels at the broken ends of the bone are sealed by the clotting process. Bone cells deprived of nutrients begin to die. 2. Bone generation: Within days of the fracture, capillaries grow into the hematoma, while phagocytic cells begin to clear away the dead cells. Though fragments of the blood clot may remain, fibroblasts and osteoblasts enter the area and begin to reform bone. Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that connect the broken bone ends, while osteoblasts start to form spongy bone. The repair tissue between the broken bone ends, the fibrocartilaginous callus, is composed of both hyaline and fibrocartilage. Some bone spicules may also appear at this point. 3. Bony callous formation: The fibrocartilaginous callus is converted into a bony callus of spongy bone. It takes about two months for the broken bone ends to be firmly joined together after the fracture. This is similar to the endochondral formation of bone when cartilage becomes ossified; osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and bone matrix are present. 4. Bone remodeling: The bony callus is then remodelled by osteoclasts and osteoblasts, with excess material on the exterior of the bone and within the medullary cavity being removed. Compact bone is added to create bone tissue that is similar to the original, unbroken bone. This remodeling can take many months; the bone may remain uneven for years.
dense irregular tissue
irregularly arranged collagen fibers with few fibroblasts, withstands pulling in many directions. ex: Skin
Pancreas
is 6-10 inches long and located at the back of the abdomen behind the stomach. The wider right side called the Head is near duodenum, the Tail end is near spleen It is made up of endocrine and Exocrine tissue the exocrine tissue Secretes digestive enzymes from the main pancreatic ducts which connects to the common bile duct near duodenum. The endrocrine tissue secretes hormones such as insulin into the bloodstream. Blood is supplied to the pancreas via the splenic artery, gastroduodenal atery, and the superior mesenteric artery. The pancreas digestive FUNCTION is secreting enzymes which help in the breakdown of foods, but especially fats and proteins. Proteases digest proteins. Proteases secreted by the pancreas: trypsin, carboxypeptidase, and chymotrypsin. -Other pancreatic enzymes: amylase, lipase, and nucleases Regulation of Bile and Pancreatic Secretion and Entry into the Small Intestine 1. secretin - will stimulate the liver to secrete bile; it is released by the intestinal cell when they are exposed to fatty chyme a. secretin can also be released in response to HCl in the intestine; it targets pancreatic duct cells to release sodium bicarbonate. 2. cholecystokinin (CCK) - is the major stimulus that produce gall bladder contractions. CCK is secreted into the blood and also stimulates secretion of pancreatic juices and relaxes the hepatopancreatic sphincter a. meals high in proteins and fats will cause CCK to stimulate the release of enzyme rich pancreatic juices.
The medulla oblongata monitors the?
level of carbon dioxide in the blood and signals the breathing rate to increase when these levels are too high
Determine the Audience
look at the main idea/theme: -who is most likely to care about that idea, benefit from it, or need to know about the topic? -if the text is persuasive who is the author trying to persuade? -if it is explanatory, who would benefit from having this knowledge? look at the language: -Formal = academics or people in a professional setting -Informal = media like commercials
connective tissue proper
loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue. Connective tissue proper encompasses the types of connective tissue that usually show all three of the defining cellular characteristics of connective tissue with the fewest deviations from those characteristics. -Dispersed cells -More extracellular material than cells. -Extensive protein fibers in the extracellular matrix. Some are classified as *dense* connective tissue proper and have a dense arrangement of extracellular protein fibers that give the tissue *strength and toughness*. Tendons connecting muscles to bone and ligaments connecting bone to bone are examples of dense connective tissue proper. Other tissues are classified *loose connective tissue proper* and have fewer extracellular protein fibers and more ground substance (the extracellular material surrounding the protein fibers), making the tissues *spongier but more fragile.* Areolar tissue, found in the hypodermis of the skin and below the epithelial layers of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts, is a loose connective tissue proper, as is adipose tissue, also known as fat. Tendons connect muscle to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone.
Each node contains?
lymphocytes and plasma cells
The spleen is made up of?
lymphoid tissue
The breathing process controlled by the?
medulla oblongata
what controls the breathing process?
medulla oblongata
What process produces gametes?
meiosis A reminder that gametes are sex cells. Female gametes are eggs. Male gametes are the sperm. Gametes are haploid cells. Haploid cells only have a single set of chromosomes. A zygote is a diploid cell and the product of two gametes (sperm and egg) fusing together.
Telophase (Animal cells)
membrane is pinched
Heart
muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flowing
Vagina
muscular tube that extends from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. Receives the semen and sperm during sexual intercourse and provides a birth canal when needed
The temperature of the body is controlled by a
negative feedback system
Trabeculae
network of girders with open spaces filled with red bone marrow.
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland coordinate to serve as a?
neuroendocrine control center
sensory neurons (afferent)
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Eccrine glands
not connected to hair follicles. They're activated by elevated body temperature. They're also located throughout the body and can found on the forehead, neck, and back.
Allele
one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. Ex) determines hair color
Renal cortex
outer layer of kidney that is composed of approximately one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of kidneys)
What is blood composed of?
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
Where are Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are produced?
red bone marrow
Cytoplasm
refers to cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus
Aeorbic Respiration
requires oxygen glucose-->pyruvic acid-->chemcial reactions 36 ATP
3 main functions of the nervous system
sensory input, integration, motor output
Parietal lobe
sensory input, spatial positioning
Name the 3 general functional types of Neurons
sensory, motors, and interneurons
Neutrophils
short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders
Contraction
shorten or contract
Axis Label
shows the units of data being displayed in a graph
Motors
signals from CNS to rest of body such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond
what is the pacemaker of the heart?
sinoatrial node (SA node)
What breaks down the food and make nutrients available for absorption
stomach acidity
Suppressor T cells
stop or "suppress" the other T cells when the battle is over
The deepest portion of the epidermis is the _____________,which is a single layer of cells that continually undergo division.
stratum basale
Proximal
structures closer to the center of the body. The hip is proximal to the knee
distal
structures further away from the center of the body - The knee is __ to the hip
Define an Antigen
substances that stimulate immune system
alimentary canal
the alimentary canal - aka gut and GI tract, is the muscular tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus; involved in digestion and absorption a. organs of the alimentary canal - mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine accessory digestive organs - are the teeth, tongue, gall bladder, salivary glands, liver and pancreas; help in the breakdown of foodstuff
Descriptive
the author describes a topic
Meter- m (household approximation)
the average adult is 1.5-2m tall
Kilometer-km (household approximation)
the average adult walks 1 km in about 15 minutes
What terminates at the synapse?
the axon
active transport
the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy. the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration. REMEMBER: Active transport requires ENERGY AND WORK. Passive transport does not. *Passive transport doesn't require energy (ATP), active transport does require energy. Passive transport moves molecules WITH the concentration gradient (high to low), while active transport moves molecules AGAINST the concentration gradient (Low to High)*
lymph vessels
vessels that receive lymph from the lymph capillaries and circulate it to the lymph nodes lymph vessels are complementary to the cardiovascular system.
Temporal lobe
visual input, processing and output
Skeletal tissue
voluntary muscles that work in pairs to move various parts of the skeleton. Composed of muscle fibers
Ligaments that support the spleen:
• Gastrolienal ligament • Lienorenal ligament • Phrenicocolic ligament (middle secretion)
What are the parts of the cell membranes? (8)
• Glycoprotein • Glycolipid • Peripheral membrane protein • Phospholipid bilayer • Protein channel • Cholesterol • Filaments of cytoskeleton • Integral membrane protein
Functions of spinal cord
• It's nervous tissue give limb movement and internal organ activity • Nerve tracts descend and ascend from spinal cord to brain
Monocytes - macrophages and dendrite cells
• Largest phagocytes = macrophages in lymphocyte tissue - which engulf and destroy pathogen • Dendritic cells present antigen to T cells
About the Pancreas:
• Located behind stomach • Right side is called the head • Left side is called the tail • Head lies near duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and the tail ends near the spleen • Made up of exocrine and endocrine tissues
Lymphoid organs include:
• Lymph nodes • Spleen • Appendix • Adenoids • Thymus • Tonsils • Small patches of tissue in the small intestine
Autonomic Nervous System
• Maintains homeostasis within body • Controls functions of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, and glands
What are the main functions of the stomach?
• Mixing and storing food • Dissolving and degrading food via secretions • Controlling passage of food into the small intestine
Functions of the small intestine
• Most nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine • Enzymes from pancreas, liver, and stomach help with digestion • Bile (stored in gallbladder) breaks down fats • Liming of small intestine covered with villi • Chime - semi-liquid mass of partially digested food
Functions of the Skeletal System
• Movement - action of skeletal muscles on bones moves the body • Mineral storage - bones serve as storage facilities for essential mineral ions • Support - bones act as a framework and support system for the organs • Protection - bones surround and protect key organs in the body • Blood cell protection - red blood cells are produced in the marrow of certain bones
Granulocytes
• Neutrophils - short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders • Basophils - alert body of invasion • Eosinophils - large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders
The upper respiratory system includes?
• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx • Larynx
The airway includes
• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx (throat) • Larynx (voice box) • Trachea (windpipe) • Bronchi • Bronchial network
Prophase (Continued)
• Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell • Spindle fibers begin to form • Mitotic spindle, formed from cytoskeleton parts, moves chromosomes around within the cell
Functions of Male Reproductive System
• Produce • Maintain • Transfer sperm and semen into female reproductive tract and produce and secrete male hormones
Functions of the female reproductive system
• Produce ova • Transfer ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization • Receive sperm • Provide protect and nourishing environment for developing embryo
The major functions of the lymph vascular system are:
• Return of excess fluid to the blood • Return of protein from the capillaries • Transport of fats from the digestive tract • Disposal of debris and cellular waste
About the Nervous System:
• Senses, interprets, and issues commands as a response to conditions in the body's environment • Process is possible by complex communication system organized as grid of neurons • Messages are sent across the plasma membrane of neurons through a process called action potential
The body's general immune defenses include:
• Skin • Ciliated Mucous Membranes • Glandular Secretions • Gastric Secretions • Normal Bacterial Populations
Flat bones
• Thin, roughly parallel surfaces • Examples: cranial bones, sternum, ribs, scapulae • Protect underlying soft tissues • Provide surface area for skeletal muscle attachment
The lower respiratory system includes?
• Trachea • Lungs • Bronchial tree
The heart:
• a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle tissue • It has four chambers; each half contains both an atrium and a ventricle • The halves are separated by a valve, known as AV valve and are located between the ventricle and the artery leading away from the heart. • Valves keep blood moving in a single direction and prevent any backwash into the chambers • The heart has its own circulatory system with its own coronary arteries • The heart functions by contracting and relaxing
Irregular bones
• formed between cranial bones • Number, size, and shape vary
Leukocytes can be classified as
• monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells) • granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils) • T lymphocytes • B-lymphocytes • natural killer cells
Examples of connective tissue
•BONE (spongy and compact) a hard tissue that protects and supports softer tissues and organs. The bone marrow produces red blood cells. •CARTILAGE- Cushions and provides structural support for body parts, lines bones, vertebral discs, and ends of ribs. •Adipose- fat - used for protection and energy storage •BlOOD- Blood transports oxygen to cells and removes waste. It carries hormones and defends against disease. Lymph - the lymphatic tissue includes the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids and the thymus •Loose connective tissue - is the most common type of connective tissue in vertebrates. It holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues. •Dense connective tissue - tendons, ligaments, vocal chords, arteries ----------- Connective tissue is divided into four main categories: -Connective proper -Cartilage -Bone -Blood Connective tissue proper has two subclasses: loose and dense. -Loose connective tissue is divided into 1) areolar, 2) adipose, 3) reticular. -Dense connective tissue is divided into 1) dense regular, 2) dense irregular, 3) elastic. Areolar Connective Tissue These tissues are widely distributed and serve as a universal packing material between other tissues. The functions of areolar connective tissue include the support and binding of other tissues. It also helps in defending against infection. When a body region is inflamed, the areolar tissue in the area soaks up the excess fluid as a sponge and the affected area swells and becomes puffy, a condition called edema. Adipose Tissue or Body Fat Adipose tissue: Yellow adipose tissue in paraffin section with lipids washed out. This is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, referred to as adipose depots. Reticular Connective Tissue This tissue resembles areolar connective tissue, but the only fibers in its matrix are the reticular fibers, which form a delicate network. The reticular tissue is limited to certain sites in the body, such as internal frameworks that can support lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow. Dense Regular Connective Tissue This consists of closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction. These collagen fibers are slightly wavy and can stretch a little bit. With the tensile strength of collagen, this tissue forms tendons, aponeurosis and ligaments. This tissue forms the fascia, which is a fibrous membrane that wraps around the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. Dense Irregular Tissue This has the same structural elements as dense regular tissue, but the bundles of collagen fibers are much thicker and arranged irregularly. This tissue is found in areas where tension is exerted from many different directions. It is part of the skin dermis area and in the joint capsules of the limbs. Elastic Connective Tissue The main fibers that form this tissue are elastic in nature. These fibers allow the tissues to recoil after stretching. This is especially seen in the arterial blood vessels and walls of the bronchial tubes. Cartilage This is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes, and the intervertebral discs. Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called chondroblasts and, unlike other connective tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels. Cartilage is classified in three types: 1) elastic cartilage, 2) hyaline cartilage, and 3) fibrocartilage, which differ in the relative amounts of these three main components. Elastic Cartilage This is similar to hyaline cartilage but is more elastic in nature. Its function is to maintain the shape of the structure while allowing flexibility. It is found in the external ear (known as an auricle) and in the epiglottis. Hyaline Cartilage This is is the most abundant of all cartilage in the body. Its matrix appears transparent or glassy when viewed under a microscope. It provides strong support while providing pads for shock absorption. It is a major part of the embryonic skeleton, the costal cartilages of the ribs, and the cartilage of the nose, trachea, and larynx. Fibrocartilage This is a blend of hyaline cartilage and dense regular connective tissue. Because it is compressible and resists tension well, fibrocartilage is found where strong support and the ability to withstand heavy pressure are required. It is found in the intervertebral discs of the bony vertebrae and knee meniscus. Bone Bone tissue is also called the osseous tissue. The osseous tissue is relatively hard and lightweight in nature. It is mostly formed of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxyapatite, which gives bones their rigidity. It has relatively high compressive strength, but poor tensile strength, and very low shear stress strength. The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due to its minimal gaps and spaces. Its porosity is 5-30%. This tissue gives bones their smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult skeleton. Filling the interior of the bone is the trabecular bone tissue (an open cell porous network also called cancellous or spongy bone), which is composed of a network of rod and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow. Blood This is considered a specialized form of connective tissue. Blood is a bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances, such as nutrients and oxygen, to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. It is an atypical connective tissue since it does not bind, connect, or network with any body cells. It is made up of blood cells and is surrounded by a nonliving fluid called plasma.
large intestine (colon)
⦁Also called the colon ⦁Concentrates, mixes, & stores waste ⦁Secretes enzymes to small intestine that help break down foods ⦁Secretes secretes sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid ⦁Muscle sphincter at end of anus facilitates expelling of waste matter The Large Intestine - extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus. Major digestive functions: absorb the H2O remaining in the indigestible food residues, store the residues, eliminate the residual (feces), and absorb metabolites produced by bacteria Subdivision of the large intestine - includes: cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal (anus) colon - consist of: the ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon rectum - runs just in front of the sacrum, has 3 transverse folds called the rectal valves which prevent feces from being passed along with flatus. anal canal - the last segment of the large intestine; opens to body exterior at the anus; and it has two sphincters. i. internal anal sphincter - is involuntary smooth muscle ii. external anal sphincter - is voluntary skeletal muscle as feces moves into the anal canal, one can decide whether the external anal sphincter should open or remain close delaying defecation. the next mass will initiate the defecation reflex again if the person chose to hold it
liver
⦁FUNCTIONS ⦁Production of bile, blood plasma proteins, cholesterol ⦁Storage of excess glucose in form of glycogen ⦁Regulation of amino acids ⦁Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) ⦁Conversion of ammonia (that is poisonous) to urea ⦁Purification of blood (clears out drugs/ toxins) ⦁Regulation of blood clotting ⦁Control infections by boosting immune factors & removing bacteria the liver's digestive function is to produce bile which breaks down fats. ⦁Largest solid organ/ largest gland (3 pounds) ⦁Below diaphragm on right side of chest ⦁4 lobes called the right and left Quadrate Caudate lobes. ⦁Secured to diaphragm & abdominal walls by 5 ligaments called the falciform (forms a membrane-like barrier between right & left lobes) coronary, right triangular, left triangular, round, Processes all of the blood that passes through digestive system ⦁Nutrient-rich blood is supplied to the liver (via hepatic portal vein) and leaves the liver (via hepatic veins) ⦁Hepatic artery supplies oxygen-rich blood ⦁Functional units: lobules (Made up of layers of liver cells) Blood flows through small channels called sinusoids. microscopic anatomy of the liver - a. liver sinusoids - house stellate macrophages that remove debris: bacteria and old blood cells b. hepatocytes - 1) secrete bile daily, 2) store glycogen, 3) make plasma proteins, store fat-soluble vitamins, 4) detoxify blood by removing ammonia 3. homeostatic imbalances of the liver - -Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver due mostly to viral infections a. hepatitis A - is transmitted via sewage-contaminated food, raw shellfish, water, feces-mouth route. Vaccine for HepA is highly successful b. hepatitis B - is transmitted via blood transfusion, contaminated needles, or sexual contact c. hepatitis C - produces persistent or chronic liver disease; treatment has become more successful
