Atlantic Worlds Quiz 1 (Fall 2022)

Michelangelo

(1475-1564) An Italian sculptor, painter, poet, engineer, and architect. Famous works include the mural on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and the sculpture of the biblical character David.

Nuno Tristão

A 15th-century Portuguese explorer and slave trader, active in the early 1440s, traditionally thought to be the first European to reach the region of Guinea.

Ethiopia

A Christian kingdom that developed in the highlands of eastern Africa under the dynasty of King Lalaibela; retained Christianity in the face of Muslim expansion elsewhere in Africa. Developed in virtual isolation from the rest of the Christian world and fascinated Europeans

Jan Mostaert

A Dutch Renaissance painter who is known mainly for his religious subjects and portraits. One of his most famous creations was the "Landscape with an Episode from the Conquest of America" (c. 1535). This person had never been to America. His painting features a town. Starts to think about value judgments; the Indians may be savages, but they're not necessarily depicted in a negative light (like showing cannibalism). A little bit of the noble is depicted alongside the savage

Piet Heyn

A Dutch admiral and privateer for the Dutch Republic during the Eighty Years' War. He was the first and the last to capture a large part of a Spanish treasure fleet which transported huge amounts of gold and silver from Spanish America to Spain.

René Goulaine de Laudonnière

A French Huguenot explorer and the founder of the French colony of Fort Caroline (La Caroline) in what is now Jacksonville, Florida. Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot, sent Jean Ribault and Laudonnière to explore potential sites in Florida suitable for settlement by the French Protestants. Laudonnière wanted to make bonds of friendship with the natives. Things started well but didn't last

Nicolas de Villegagnon

A French colonizer in Brazil (1500s). Built a fort and settlement. The main problem with this colony is that the men were licentious and immoral. They didn't want to build the fort, just wanted to find Native wives and live with the Tupi. His solution was to write to Calvin (they knew each other from before). He knew Calvin was leading a religious movement in Geneva. Asked Calvin to send a few men, ministers, virtuous young women who could start a better colony and obey him more (one of these people was De Léry). Villegagnon was curious about Protestantism but thought everyone could get along. Wrong; had Protestant ministers drowned in the bay as heretics. Failed experiment in religious habitation

Jean Ribault

A French naval officer, navigator, and a colonizer of what would become the southeastern United States. He was a major figure in the French attempts to colonize Florida. Brought 1,000 people to start a colony in America The Spanish had heard about this colony and wanted to extinguish it. Concern that the French would convert the Natives to Protestantism; the Spanish didn't want to lose converts. Decided to strike back

Michel de Montaigne

A French, humanist scholar who was born in 1533. Catholic. Basically invented the essay as a modern form of writing. One of his most famous essays, On Cannibals, documents his meeting with a leader from Brazil. He was impressed by this native man and rejected the label of barbarism. While writing about cannibals, he was critiquing his own society; in some ways, talking about France more than he was talking about Brazil. Believed that Western culture was too complicated and corrupt. Indians were simpler - lower level of cultural evolution but that's a good thing. Idea of the "noble savage" - Native Americans are not as advanced as us, but who needs advancement anyway? (Called for empirical investigation of the world rather than blind dependence on what classical scholars claimed.) Had a lot of classical references. Used old reference points to interpret the New World Argued: The classics should be studied and are a valuable way to compare new concepts we don't know with old concepts we do know. However, he thinks critically about sources and does not blindly believe classical authors like Plato and Aristotle.

José de Acosta

A Jesuit from Spain who went to the New World. He went to Peru and witnessed the era of conquest in South America. He also published a book about the history of the Indies (about mexico and peru). This book was partly based on his own experiences, partly based on reading what he could about these places. A great student of the classics; looked for validation about what the classic authors wrote, although sometimes his experience contradicted what he read. Argued: The classics should be doubted; you should believe what you experience over what you read

Mayans

A Mesoamerican civilization of Central America and southern Mexico. Achievements include mathematics, architecture, and a 365 day a year calendar. They flourished between the 4th and 12th centuries C.E.. This civilization suffered from the diseases that Europeans brought to the New World.

Toltecs

A Mesoamerican tribe that replaced the influence of Teotihuacan. Set up a larger empire that controlled much of what is now central and southern Mexico.

Ottoman Empire

A Muslim empire based in Turkey that lasted from the 1300's to 1922. Replaced the Mongol Empire and made it difficult for Europeans to get to China and trade in the East

Malintzin (Doña Marina)

A Nahua (indigenous Mexican) woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast who became known for contributing to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. She acted as an interpreter, advisor, and intermediary for the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés.

Tisquantum (Squanto)

A Native American best known for being an early liaison between the Native American population in Southern New England and the Mayflower Pilgrims who made their settlement at the site of Tisquantum's former summer village. In 1614, this person was kidnapped by English slavers who came through his town in New England. He was taken to Spain and sold into slavery there. He eventually made it back to his village only to find that it was abandoned; everyone had either died or moved away. Disease had turned the area into a widowed land - seemed free for the taking because so many people who had lived there died. This person helped the Pilgrims because he had no one to go back to and spoke English that he learned on his journeys. Essentially, disease made it possible for settlers to conquer these areas.

Mississippians

A Native American people who lived in the Mississippi plains. Partly known for the mounds they built.

Diogo Cão

A Portuguese explorer and one of the most notable navigators of the Age of Discovery. He made two voyages sailing along the west coast of Africa in the 1480s, exploring the Congo River and the coasts of the present-day Angola and Namibia.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements.

Diego de Almagro

A Spanish conquistador and a companion and later rival of Francisco Pizarro. He participated in the Spanish conquest of Peru (and is credited as the first European discoverer of Chile).

Bernal Diaz del Castillo

A Spanish conquistador who participated as a soldier in the conquest of the Aztec Empire under Hernán Cortés and late in his life wrote an account of the events.

Hernando de Soto

A Spanish explorer and conquistador who led expeditions that found relatively large, complex civilizations in the Southeast; however, many of these towns and cities faded away and were replaced by smaller settlements. One possible explanation for this is that, when the Spanish came through and left, their germs may have stayed and killed off a large portion of the Southeast

Timbuktu

A West African empire in modern-day Mali. City full of gold and precious metals; Europeans wanted the riches of this city

Leptospirosis

A bacterial disease transmitted through contact with contaminated urine. Likely the disease that decimated the village Squanto was from.

Sycretism

A blending of beliefs and practices from different religions into one faith. The Kingdom of Kongo became Catholic, but some of the old elements of their religion were incorporated into their Christianity. For example, they portrayed Jesus as black; still true to Christianity but had shared qualities with their previous beliefs

São Jorge da Mina (Elmina)

A castle built by the Portuguese. It was the first trading post built on the Gulf of Guinea, and the oldest European building in existence south of the Sahara.

Zacatecas

A city in central Mexico. It's known for being a 16th-century silver mining hub.

Cahokia (Mississippians)

A city in the Mississippi valley (in Illinois) that had about 30,000 people at its height (large). This city was built on agricultural goods like corn (maize). It also had pyramids (earthen pyramids/mounds); the construction of this city copied the Mesoamerican form of wood and earth rather than stone. Led by the Mississippians.

André Thevet

A contemporary of Montaigne. A bookish young man, Franciscan priest, traveled through much of the world; went to the Holy Land then to Brazil (for 4 months). Wrote a book called Universal Cosmography. Wanted it to be a universal description of the whole world based on his own observations along with other people's observations. Did make a lot of it up; some was incorrect. Some things in his Cosmography were new. Suggested that you could only know what's going on if you see things with your own eyes; you shouldn't blindly believe the classics - you should see things for yourself. Some things you see with your own eyes will contradict the classics and we should believe our eyes. The New Worlds, unknown to the ancients, have a lot to say. More on the side of Acosta, less on the side of Montaigne Argued: The classics should mainly be doubted, but you can still learn from them if you study them

Serfdom

A countertype to slavery. Serfs were property attached to particular estates Lords had estates; there were peasants who worked on that estate. These peasants (their labor and everything they produced) belonged to their master. Serfs had some rights. Could work the land as they saw fit but they just owed tribute to their lord. Treatment was better for serfs than it was for outright slaves. People wouldn't be sold from their estates; serfs were attached to estates. Couldn't be taken and sent elsewhere. Similar to the encomienda system that the Spanish put in place in the New World A type of labor commonly used in feudal systems in which the laborers work the land in return for protection but they are bound to the land and are not allowed to leave or to peruse their a new occupation. This was common in early Medieval Europe as well as in Russia until the mid 19th century.

Trans-Saharan slave trade

A fairly small-scale trade that developed in the twelfth century C.E., exporting West African slaves captured in raids across the Sahara for sale mostly as household servants in Islamic North Africa; the difficulty of travel across the desert limited the scope of this trade.

Nicolas de Ovando

A governor that came after Columbus and shaped the future of the Spanish Empire. This person established a permanent base in Hispaniola in 1502. They also took a hard line against the surviving Tainos and established the encomienda system.

Encomienda

A grant of land by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Indian inhabitants of an area. Led to massive exploitation.

Inquisition

A group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Meant to make America more doctrinally pure than Europe; a perfect Catholic place with no Protestants allowed, avoiding Luther's influence

Canary Islands

A group of islands off the coast of northwestern Africa (Spanish archipelago). Easy to get to from Portugal.

Curse of Ham

A justification for slavery. Idea that africans came from a renegade part of the people from the bible Because Ham was the father of black people, and because he and his descendants were cursed to be slaves because of his sin against Noah, some Christians said, "Africans and their descendants are destined to be servants, and should accept their status as slaves in fulfillment of biblical prophecy."

Kingdom of Kongo

A kingdom strategically positioned along the Congo River that was exceptionally rich. Its capital was São Salvador. Had mutually beneficial trading links with Portugal.

John Mandeville

A knight from France who wrote an illustrated book about his travels in the Middle East (the Holy Land, Africa, Asia and China) that became a bestseller. This account was false; wrote about creatures that didn't exist which led to popular thinking about what places outside of Europe would be (Europeans expected to see things like sea monsters, men with wolf heads etc).

Timbuktu

A major slave-trading system was in place here ans was managed by Muslims. Non-Muslims could be legally sold under Muslim law, and were captured then became slaves. Muslim traders could buy slaves because there was a longstanding system of slavery/slave trade in Africa. This was related to the practice of war; when african states went to war, they would capture warriors (and civilians) and those who survived would become slaves to their captors. They would be adopted into their families and treated as (subordinate) members of their society (example of a "society with slavery," not a slave society)

Guillaume Le Testu (Dieppe school)

A mariner/pirate/captain who attacked Spanish ships for several decades. He made an Atlas of the world that combines the real and fantastical. One of the last students to be taught cartography in the famed school of Dieppe. Even if this person did not witness the things he included on his map, it did not matter; certain elements like cannibalism were always mapped on areas like Brazil. Images like this helped to educate Europeans and what they think they should be seeing in the New World when you get there; some people expected to see sea monsters on the way to America

Potosi

A mining center located in upper Peru (modern Bolivia); largest of New World silver mines; produced 80 percent of all Peruvian silver. Name means "the high place"

Prester John

A mythical Christian monarch whose kingdom supposedly had been cut off from Europe by the Muslim conquests; some thought he was Chinggis Khan. Believed to have a Christian kingdom where modern-day Ethiopia/Kenya/Tanzania/Uganda are. Supposedly a descendant of one of the three Magi (kings who visited Jesus).

Isthmus of Panama

A narrow strip of land connecting North and South America. After silver was exported to Callao (a city in Peru), it would be sent here by ship. The Panama Canal did not yet exist here, so the silver was then unloaded and carried over land again through dense and difficult jungles to the Caribbean coast. From here, silver was loaded onto different merchant ships and sent to Havana.

Slave Societies

A place where everything is organized around slavery (the entire economy, society, legal system); system where the enslaved class is doing the vast majority of work in the society. (Different than "societies with slaves"; slaves are more central to slave societies)

Songhai Empire

A powerful West Africa state that replaced the Mali Empire. Important for local and international trade (especially in gold and salt). One of its most important trade posts was Timbuktu.

Teotihuacan

A powerful city-state that replaced the Olmecs. Center of power for the whole region of the Valley of Mexico that was important for religious and economic reasons. Religious center: main street is called the Street of the Dead, goes from the temple to ceremonial buildings. Economic center: trade of obsidian was important. The Americas didn't have iron but used obsidian to make things like knives

Callao

A seaside city in Peru (near Lima) that was an important destination along the route to export silver to Europe by bringing it out of the Andes. Here, pack trains pulled over land by donkeys would unload and the silver would be put on merchant ships that were privately owned by Spanish merchants.

Price Revolution

A series of economic events that occurred between the second half of the 15th century and the first half of the 17th century, and most specifically linked to the high rate of inflation that occurred during this period across Western Europe. Bullion (raw gold and silver) allowed European merchants to buy things they otherwise wouldn't have been able to; this influenced the world economy (and pushes us toward capitalism).

Crusades

A series of holy wars from 1096-1270 AD undertaken by European Christians to free the Holy Land from Muslim rule. These holy ways increased European self-confidence and expansion; they gave Europe an ethos and sense of a mission to spread the true faith/Christianity and the culture of Europe to new lands. This ideology was the dark side of Marco Polo's cosmopolitanism.

Leonardo da Vinci

A well known Italian Renaissance artist, architect, musician, mathemetician, engineer, and scientist. Known for the Mona Lisa.

Plague

A widespread disease

Estevanico

African enslaved person who went on an expedition in search of the seven cities of gold. He signed on to join an expedition with Panfilo de Narvaez (the guy who tried to stop Cortes from going to Mexico). This expedition landed in Florida, looking for the next Tenochtitlan. It failed; they were separated from their ships and lost in Northern Florida. The 4 survivors became slaves to the locals and gained reputations as healers; became virtual celebrities. Estevanico went out and met the Natives in every town, became the voice of the Spanish, was showered with gifts and met by women. Still technically a slave but his lifestyle didn't match that. In 1548, he was a free man and accompanied another expedition. Treated as a celebrity in towns he visited (got used to being gifted with turquoise and women). This went to his head; in one village where he wasn't known, he demanded turquoise and women and was killed. Later on, the institutionalization of slavery became something you couldn't get out of. Estevanico's freedom shows how slavery hadn't developed into what we know of as slavery now. Intensive agriculture and the plantation complex were starting to come into being. Changed the nature of slavery for the worse; a system of domination

Juan Valiente

African man who showed that one could be a slave and encomendero at the same time. African man who became a servant in Mexico. Bored; managed to get a travel pass from his master to essentially hire out his services as a mercenary (must have had a military background). Only condition was that Valiente had to bring back profits from his expeditions. Went all over. Participated in the conquest of Guatemala. Went south to Chile. Lauded as a conquistador. Received an estate and encomienda of his own. His master sent a relative down to check on Valiente; Valiente had died

Juan Garrido

African who showed that there was still some degree of mobility for people of African descent in Americas (even those who arrived as slaves). One of the first Africans in America. Managed to gain his freedom; signed on as a servant for one of Cortes' attendants then for Cortes himself. Became the right-hand man. Made a chapel, got land, became a conquistador himself; led expeditions. Became an owner of enslaved people himself. Became rich Slavery wasn't attached to race yet. If you were of african descent, you didn't have to be enslaved. It was possible to become a free man and an owner of slaves yourself in the 1500s in Spanish America. You could gain a fair amount of status while never becoming technically free "First African-American" who was part of a small group of African freeman who came to the Americas to take part in the Spanish conquest.

Saint Augustine

After the French colony of La Caroline was ended, the Spanish took over and made the colony of Saint Augustine. For Catholics, the New World was supposed to be a place of purity and a place free from heresy For Protestants, the New World was a promise land; a place to build perfect societies away from persecution

The Plantation Complex

Agricultural system based on African slavery that was used in Brazil, the Caribbean, and the southern colonies of North America. The New World turned into these giant societies of large plantations worked by African labor

Precolumbian America

America before Columbus: the world of the Native Americans independent of any European influence

Martin Luther

An Augustinian friar from Germany who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices. The seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutheranism This person was beginning to have doubts about how the Catholic Church was organized. Complaints about corruption in the church became a movement that sought changes in theology (beliefs of the church) and Church structure (how it was organized) This person broke with the Roman Catholic Church and founded the Lutheran Church. Some princes and kings joined the Reformation as well. Europe was divided into two hostile camps: the Catholics and Protestants.

John White

An English colonial governor, explorer, artist, and cartographer. This person was among those who sailed with Richard Grenville in the first attempt to colonize Roanoke Island in 1585, acting as artist and mapmaker to the expedition. Did watercolors on the spot of Native people in modern-day Carolina. Can compare this work to de Bry's; this person's work was used by de Bry to make his own drawings. This person tried to depict what was really happening. De Bry's art was less accurate; people looked more muscly etc

Mita system

An Incan form of labor organization that allowed the Spanish to gain access to local labor in New World mines. When the Inca Empire had very big public works projects and needed to build something like a road or building, they would require people from different towns to work for the government for a certain term

Genoa

An Italian city that was well-positioned to join global trade. Dominated the Western part of the sea and set up trading posts to compete with rivals

Venice

An Italian city that was well-positioned to join global trade. Looks to the East; powerful maritime state

Niccolo Machiavelli

An Italian diplomat, author, philosopher and historian who is known for his political ideas. Wrote philosophical books - famous for writing a political treatise called The Prince

Amerigo Vespucci

An Italian mapmaker and explorer who said that America was a new continent, so America was named after him. Also made an engraving called Mundus Novus (1505); depicts pure savagery, pieces of people hanging up, etc. His depiction became a model that others would use. Cultural relativism: Asked the Tupi in Brazil about why they were cannibals. The Tupi explained that, if they let their enemies go, they might come back and do harm later - better for their society that their enemies are killed

Christopher Columbus

An Italian navigator (from Genoa) who was funded by the Spanish Government (Ferdinand and Isabella) to find a passage to the Far East. He is given credit for discovering the "New World," even though at his death he believed he had made it to India. He made four voyages to the "New World." The first sighting of land was on October 12, 1492, and three other journeys until the time of his death in 1503.

Dante Alighieri

An Italian poet famous for writing the Divine Comedy that describes a journey through hell and purgatory and paradise guided by Virgil and his idealized Beatrice (1265-1321)

Measles

An acute, highly contagious infection that is transmitted by respiratory droplets of the rubeola virus. This infectious viral disease causes fever and a red rash on the skin and typically occurs in childhood. Became a major killer of both children and adults in the Americas.

Influenza

An acute, highly contagious viral respiratory infection that is spread by respiratory droplets and occurs most commonly in epidemics during the colder months. This disease was not bad for Europeans but was devastating for Native Americans.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

An agreement between Portugal and Spain. It declared that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Quipus

An ancient Inca device for recording information, consisting of variously colored threads knotted in different ways. These were carried hundreds of miles; instructed officials on matters of policy, especially in terms of tributes/things they had to pay.

French Florida (La Caroline)

An attempted French colonial settlement in Florida. France was on the verge of a civil war; needed a place for the Protestants to go if things were bad in France (a place where you could evade the eyes of the people who wanted to persecute/kill you). This place was in Florida.

Anasazi

An early Native American people who lived in the American Southwest. These people were very hierarchical. Some people had very large houses, some had small ones. Based on controlling the supply of water - rare/precious in the southwest.

Theodore de Bry

An engraver famous for his depictions of early European expeditions to the Americas. Illustrated the travels of a man named Hans Staden, who was captured by the Tupi for a while (How Tasty is My Little Frenchman partly based on his narrative). Staden went home and wrote a book. This artist depicted Stadens' narrative.

Peasants' Revolt (1525)

An event related to how, more than just a political movement, the Reformation became a popular movement (and ordinary people became attached to it). Peasants' Revolt (1525): The peasants revolted in Germany in 1525 Peasants rose up against some of their landlords and claimed that part of the reason they did so was because of Luther's ideas Luther's ideas brought down authority Luther didn't intend for this to happen - horrified (didn't want people to start undermining princes' authorities too?) Once people started questioning the Catholic Church, they could begin to question other types of authority too Fear that this would lead to total chaos

"La noche triste"

An important event during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, wherein Hernán Cortés, his army of Spanish conquistadors, and their native allies were driven out of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. Spanish for "the night of sorrows." This event occurred after Spanish soldiers slaughtered a group of Aztec men who were partaking in a religious ceremony.

Cuauhtemoc

Aztec ruler following the death of Moctezuma ll who lead the Aztec in the final battle for Tenochtitlan. When the Aztecs lost, this person was kept alive as a puppet ruler.

Louis IX (St. Louis)

Became king of France in 1226 and led French knights in two Crusades. Rewarded with sainthood.

Black Legend

Belief that the Spanish were solely cruel and intolerant in the Americas. Anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic belief; it inspired Protestants to challenge the Spanish. They wanted to save the Reformation at home by taking it to their rivals and spreading Protestantism in the Americas; they also wanted to save the Natives from the Spanish.

Leo Africanus

Born in Grenada in 1488. Made many journeys to the East, which were rich in adventure and observation. He was captured by a Sicilian pirate and taken back to Rome as a gift to Pope Leo X, who baptized him Johannes Leo. While in Rome, he wrote the first trilingual dictionary (Latin, Arabic and Hebrew), as well as his celebrated Description of Africa, for which he is still remembered as Leo Africanus. His writings remained for some 400 years one of Europe's principal sources of information about Islam

Jeffrey Amherst

British commander during the 7 Years' War who became famous because he began to think about using smallpox as a weapon in the war. The English were fighting the French, who had many Native American allies; this person and some of his subordinates considered the idea of infecting blankets with smallpox and distributing them among the French-allied Indians. Might not have happened, but was a possibility. Shows how, as soon as Europeans saw what was going on, they tried to use it to their advantage. Europeans can't claim innocence

Tenochtitlan

Capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco. Its population was about 150,000 on the eve of Spanish conquest. Mexico City was constructed on its ruins. This city was an engineering marvel and considered a "modern" place from the perspective of the 14th century.

Chattel

Chattel slavery means that one person has total ownership of another. There are two basic forms of chattel: domestic chattel (with menial household duties) and productive chattel (working in the fields or mines) In Europe, the prototype for slavery was based on the classical world (greece and rome) These places were organized around slave labor Many people worked in the fields, etc... In law, they were defined as chattel Property; owners had the right to alienate them like other possessions Owners could sell slaves; there was nothing the enslaved person could do about it They could be separated from their families and sent anywhere Slaves were in the power of their masters

Immunities

Defenses against new microbes and diseases; resistance to viruses

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Dominican friar (Catholic) from Spain who (in the early 1500s) criticized the cruelty of Spanish policy toward Indians; denounced Spanish actions for their brutality and insensitivity. His criticism helped end the encomienda system (though he was a former encomendero). He supported peaceful conversion of the Native American population; opposed forced labor and advocated Indian rights. Wrote "Letters and People of the Spanish Indies." Claimed that Natives are good-willed and would make fine Spanish subjects. His book was important because he wrote a critical account of Spanish treatment of Indigenous Peoples when most wouldn't. His publications advertised Spanish cruelty and showed the inhumanity of the Spanish treatment of the Indians Devout Catholic Claimed that these Catholics were ignoring the dictates of the faith; bad Catholics Protestants read Las Casas' work and took a different message Proved Catholics were unnecessarily cruel

Trans-Saharan Trade

During the Trans-Saharan slave trade, slaves were transported across the Sahara desert. Most were moved from Sub-Saharan Africa to North Africa to be sold to Mediterranean and Middle eastern civilizations; a small percentage went the other direction.

Ferdinand and Isabella

During the late 15th century, they became King and Queen of a united Spain after centuries of Islamic (Muslim) domination. Together, they made Spain a strong Christian nation and also provided funding to overseas exploration, notably Christopher Columbus.

Inca Empire

Empire in Peru. Conquered by Pizarro, who began an empire for the Spanish in 1535. ...

Subsaharan Africa

Europeans had interacted with the Muslims in areas in North Africa for a while but this area was more of a mystery to them; previously, they did not have much direct contact beyond the Sahara desert

Gaspard de Coligny

French Protestant leader. From one of France's leading families Became a Protestant convert Thought France should go colonize the Americas Powerful country in Europe; why should Spanish get the wealth? Wanted to bring glory to the king Thought that overseas colonization could help bring Catholics and Protestants together If they had a common goal of colonization, they could put aside their differences and work together

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by John Calvin Protestants believed that they were on the verge of saving France and putting it on a better path; thought the Catholics were dooming the country. Didn't go after individual Catholics but went after Churches. Went into cathedrals and destroyed certain things they didn't think were sanctioned by God. France on the brink of a civil war by the 1550s

Hans Staden

German (Lutheran) explorer who was captured by Tupi Indians while sailing with the Portuguese (mid-16th century). He survived and wrote a famous account about the savages and that they practiced cannibalism

Bullion

Gold or silver in the form of bars or ingots (raw gold/silver)

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. Wrote that some people are "natural slaves" while others are meant to be free. For some people in the 15th century, this definition fit a wide variety of people (Africans, the Irish...) Slavery was a status for outsiders that were considered inferior; hadn't acquired the strong racial connotations that it would in later years.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor who tried to keep Europe religiously united. The Holy Roman Emperor. Closest Europe would get to a universal monarch; ruled territories on the continent and beyond. Intended to use his power to make sure the Reformation wouldn't go any further Inherited Spain, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Austria, and much of the Holy Roman Emperor from his grandparents. He sought to stop Protestantism and increase the power of Catholicism. He allied with the Pope to stamp out heresy and maintain religious unity in Europe. He was preoccupied with struggles with Turkey and France and could not solely focus on the rise of Protestantism in Germany.

Papal Donation (1493)

In 1493 (before Luther; after Columbus) the Pope had donated all of the land in the New World to the Spanish. Essentially, the Pope gave the Catholic monarchs of Portugal and Spain (respectively) the prerogative to explore the Americas.

New Laws (1542)

In 1542, the Spanish passed the New Laws Called for the better treatment of native people, forbid enslavement (las casas' side won) Slavery still existed but was kept under wraps, much less widespread Bartolome de Las Casas convinced the King of Spain to institute these laws, which ended American Indian slavery, ended forced Indian labor, and began the process of ending the encomienda systems. These laws show how most people realized that slavery was morally wrong.

Macchu Picchu

Inca city built in the Andes Mountains (in modern-day Peru). Had impressive systems of roads in the Andes and an impressive communication system. There were centuries every 30 miles along the roads, allowing the Inca to communicate across vast distances; they didn't have writing, but had an elaborate system of messaging.

Johann Gutenberg

Inventor of the printing press (a press with movable type). Meant you could now print books; books could be distributed far more widely and could be printed in different languages.

Chaco Canyon (Anasazi)

Large system of villages in this area (modern-day New Mexico and Arizona). Had trade ties to Mesoamerica. Led by the Anasazi.

St. Peter's Basilica

Largest Christian church in the world. Located in the Vatican City in Italy. The dome was created by Michelangelo. Sometime in the early 1400s, a pope tore down the aging Old St. Peter's Basilica to build a grander Church, St. Peter's Basilica. The project dragged on for decades New pope, Pope Leo X, issued an indulgence to fund this building project

Atahualpa

Last ruling Inca emperor of Peru. He was executed by the Spanish (after he accidentally knocked a bible out of someone's hand).

Justinian's Code

Legal document. System of domination; slaves dominated by their masters A slave could not be a party to a contract nor own property, but he could be given a de facto patrimony, which could be retained if he were freed; if he made a "commitment," it could ultimately be enforced against his master. A manumitted slave became, in most instances, not only free but also a citizen.

Rusticello of Pisa

Marco Polo's fellow P.O.W. who wrote Polo's adventure that covered 20 years & published under the title of Description of the World

Quisqueya/Ayiti/Hispaniola

Names of the island of Hispaniola. ...

The Spanish Conquest: Religion

One explanation for how the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico and the Inca Empire in the Andean mountains. The Aztecs thought Cortes and the Spanish were like gods; therefore, they didn't see the Spanish as a threat.

The Spanish Conquest: Disease

One explanation for how the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico and the Inca Empire in the Andean mountains. The Spanish brought germs to the new world. These germs, microbes, illnesses, and viruses arguably did the most damage and made the most difference in terms of allowing this conquest to happen.

The Spanish Conquest: Technology

One explanation for how the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico and the Inca Empire in the Andean mountains. The Spanish had things the Natives didn't, like guns, steel swords, and horses. Though the guns were pretty demonstrative and didn't do that much damage, the swords made more of a difference. However, the numbers were too great; even if the Spanish had better weapons, they were still outnumbered...

The Spanish Conquest: Alliances

One explanation for how the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico and the Inca Empire in the Andean mountains. The Spanish were able to gain a lot of native allies (starting with the Tlaxcalans). It was these people who did the actual fighting - far more of them than there were Spanish. In regard to the Inca, they were in the middle of a civil war. This internal division allowed the Spanish to eek out their victory over several decades. The Spanish could get oppressed, angered people on their sides and team up with enemies of the people they wanted to conquer.

Mesoamerica

One of the first areas in the Western Hemisphere to depend on agriculture. In turn, a number of civilizations developed here and turned the valley into a very important place; the first of these civilizations was the Olmecs.

The Andean Highlands

One of the two main centers of political and economic power in the Americas. ...

The Valley of Mexico

One of the two main centers of political and economic power in the Americas. ...

Antichrist

One who denies or opposes Christ. The Pope claimed to be the vicar of Christ (Christ's representative on earth) but he was not, according to Luther. Instead, Luther made him seem like the Antichrist

Tupi Indians

People indigenous to Brazil. They were depicted as uncivilized and savage in artwork (by colonizers/Europeans)

Holy Roman Empire

Political entity in Europe - confederation of different European powers led by the Holy Roman Emperor

Dom Henrique (Henry the Navigator)

Portuguese duke who influenced 15th-century European maritime discoveries and maritime expansion. Never traveled himself or left Portugal, but was a champion and funder of wages; spent his ample money on people who were going out and exploring the Atlantic and beyond. A symbol of this move in Portugal towards exploration.

Janissaries

Slave armies that fought on behalf of the Ottoman empire; part of the Sultan's army. Infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826.

Huayras

Smelting ovens that stayed out of the wind and made mining in Potosi possible.

Sola fide, sola gratia, sola scriptura (faith, grace, scripture)

Sola fide: only faith Justification (whether or not you go to heaven) comes not from good works and the things that you do in your life Humans lower than god - can't please him Instead, they come from having faith in god Sola gratia: God's grace is a free gift for Jesus' sacrifice Grace of god comes freely, not from anything you do Sola scriptura: All truth is revealed in the Old and New Testament Everything comes from those 2 books All of the recent pronouncements of the Church are not really canon; not things that you have to obey This threw out things like Saints; had a lot of implications for how the religion was practiced These philosophies undermined the authority of the Church and questioned many of its beliefs

Hernan Cortes

Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the conquest of Aztec Mexico in 1519-1521 for Spain. Instead of listening to his superior, Velazquez, this person wanted rich and glory for himself (not just finding this empire and letting Velazquez have the credit).

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish explorer who led the conquest of the Inca Empire of Peru in 1531-1533. Decided he could become the new Cortes by invading and conquering this massive empire. Picked a good time to do so; the Incan empire was in disarray.

Pedro Menéndez de Avilés

Spanish naval officer who protected Florida from the French in 1565 in a fort called St. Augustine. Also came up with the idea of "Treasure Fleets." The Spanish fought against the French. A hurricane in Florida took french ships out to sea and led them to wreck on sand bars. The Spanish attacked Fort Caroline. Menéndez took La Caroline then looked for the men who shipwrecked. They were in the place now called Matanzas Inlet (Matanzas = Word for slaughter). Asked who were Catholics and Protestants; killed the Protestants. Only spared the musicians and people who said they were Catholics. End of the French colony of La Caroline The Spanish took over and made the colony of Saint Augustine

Winter Counts

Special calendars used to keep track of important events. In these written histories, each image stands for a year and shows a story of the people's existence. One of these histories shows how, around 1781 on the Northern Plains (well before any encounter with Europeans), smallpox had already spread. That winter was named "Smallpox used them up winter" by one chronicler. Shows how diseases spread well before Europeans came through - did at least some damage in advance.

"Dark continent"

Stereotype that Europeans had about Africa; they thought it was a dangerous, savage area

Indulgence system

System created by the Roman Catholic Church where you could pay to get people out of purgatory and up to heaven Martin Luther heard about this and disagreed with indulgences. His 95 Theses argued that indulgences are corrupt. Didn't want to break from the Church yet; intended as academic quibbling. Luther's complaints didn't end in an academic debate; they snowballed and eventually led Luther to a complete break with the Church of Rome and the sundering of the Western Church. Luther's complaints turned into an intellectual, political, and popular movement leading to reform across the continent; touched a nerve of discontent that had been brewing for some time

Encomienda system

System in Spanish America that gave settlers the right to tax local Indians or to demand their labor (in exchange for protecting them and teaching them skills). In the mines in the New World, this kind of labor system was implemented to make the Taino get metals (like gold and silver) out of the ground.

Epidemiological isolation

Term that relates to how the natives did not have the same immunities as the Europeans. Americans lacked many of the immunities that were common to Europeans and Asians; they hadn't experienced them yet so had no resistance or immunities to the viruses

Casa de Contratacion (Seville)

The "House of Trade"; this was set up in 1503 in the port of Seville as a crown agency for the Spanish Empire. Most Treasure Fleets made it to Seville, Spain and went to this place.

Convivencia

The 'coexistence' of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish communities in medieval Spain (specifically in the Iberian peninsula) and, by extension, the cultural interaction and exchange fostered by such proximity.

Manikongo Nzinga a Nkuwu (João I)

The 5th ManiKongo of the Kingdom of Kongo between 1470 and 1509. He voluntarily converted to Roman Catholicism (after contact with Portugal).

Virgil Soils

The Americas were untouched by European diseases. There were lots of things in Europe that killed Europeans earlier on - like the plague - that hadn't yet killed Americans. Americans lacked many of the immunities that were common to Europeans and Asians. They hadn't experienced them yet, had no resistance or immunities to the viruses (epidemiological isolation)

Huitzlipochtli

The Aztec sun and war god. One of the two principal deities of Aztec religion; often represented in art as either a hummingbird or an eagle. The Aztecs made sacrifices to get this Sun God's blessings.

Taino Indians

The Indians that Christopher Columbus met when he traveled to America and reached Hispaniola. These people wore gold jewelry, which led Columbus to believe that there were riches in America.

Vulgate Bible

The Latin translation of the Bible. During the Renaissance, some people turned away from the Vulgate Bible (latin translation from the medieval period) and started producing the first bibles in vernacular language (language we speak - french, italian, english).

Magisterial Reformation

The Magisterial Reformation "denotes the Lutheran, Calvinist [Reformed], and Anglican churches" and how these denominations "related to secular authorities, such as princes, magistrates, or city councils", i.e. "the magistracy". The Reformation partly persisted because Luther quickly found support; gained support from priests and ministers to the higher-ups in society. Magisterial Reformation: support from the upper class. Some were true converts, driven by religious awakening Not bad politics to oppose the pope; some authorities were annoyed with the Pope for overriding their authority Princes chose whether to be Protestant or Catholic The people generally would follow whatever religion their leader chose Some exceptions (ex. Ireland)

Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) formed to take on Protestantism. Sent missionaries all over the world. Missionary programs were important; closely tied to the Reformation. Thought they could make up for their losses at home by bringing New Catholic converts (Natives) into the faith

Panfilo de Narvaez

The Spanish conquistador who Velasquez sent on an expedition to Mexico to force Cortés into submission. More reliable than Cortés. He failed and was captured.

Cuzco

The capital city of the Incan Empire, Located in present-day Peru.

Havana

The capital of Cuba. After silver was transported over the Isthmus of Panama, it was sent to this city. From here, the silver traveled to Seville, Spain.

Smallpox

The deadliest disease during Spain's conquest in the New World. This disease spreads through the air from infected persons and through surfaces; its symptoms start like influenza (headaches, nausea), then small sores start spreading over the body. Extremely contagious and had a high fatality rate.

Dualism

The division of something conceptually into two opposed or contrasted aspects. In most European cultures, white represented purity and black represented pollution. Many Africans were labeled as the biblical Sons of Ham (bad, negative imagery).

Feudalism

The dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.

Petrarch

The father of the Italian Renaissance and humanism. A scholar and poet of early Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited with initiating the 14th-century Italian Renaissance and the founding of Renaissance humanism.

Leif Ericson

The first European to have set foot on continental North America (the New World), approximately half a millennium before Christopher Columbus (in about 1000 AD). Landed in Newfoundland which was called Vinland.

Diego de Velazquez

The first Spanish governor of Cuba. This person wanted to conquer the Valley of Mexico and Tenochtitlan; they outsourced this job to Hernan Cortes.

Gil Eanes

The first explorer to pass Cape Bojador in the effort to get around the coast of Africa to explore places like India and China.

Olmecs

The first people to conquer the Valley of Mexico. They established architectural and cultural habits that remained in the region later on and developed other features we associate with civilization (including calendars, astronomy, mathematics, and a pictographic form of writing). This state rested on religion and war. The leaders were portrayed as godlike and they dignified warriors.

Cosmopolitanism

The idea that all human beings are members of a single community; argues that humans can and should be "world citizens" in a "universal community"

World Island

The landmass of Europe, Asia, and Africa

Moctezuma II

The last Aztec emperor (ruled from 1502 to 1520). Overthrown by the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés; he was taken prisoner and killed during battle with the Spanish army. He was polite according to the dictates of Aztec culture, but Cortes perceived this ruler's actions as a sign of submission.

Jean Calvin

The leader of Calvinism Important figure after Luther Managed to convert around 10-15% of the (French) kingdom to Protestantism French Protestant (16th century) who stressed doctrine of predestination; established center of his group at Swiss canton of Geneva; encouraged ideas of wider access to government, wider public education; Calvinism spread from Switzerland to northern Europe and North America

Treasure Fleet

The name for the fleet of ships that were sent off in convoys with naval oversight rather than traveling alone. These Spanish ships held treasures like silver; everyone had the ambition to capture this treasure and to gain some of the wealth coming out of the Indies (especially from Potosi). Lead to piracy; if pirates could get their hands on it, they'd be set for life.

Tawantinsuyu (Land of Four Quarters)

The name of the Inca Empire. This territory stretched from Ecuador to Chile; it was very vast. There were four roads going off in each direction.

Cuitlahuac

The new emperor of the Aztec empire after Moctezuma. He died quickly from smallpox and left the empire in disarray. To the Aztecs, it looked like their god's representative on earth was struck down by this illness. Not just the emperor - everyone was dying, the empire was very centralized so the disease spread quickly through the city (basically everybody died). Diseased played a huge role in the fall of the Aztecs.

Reconquista (Reconquest)

The recapture of Muslim-held lands in Spain by Christian forces; it was completed in 1492

Matanzas Inlet

The scene of crucial events in Spanish colonial history. The massacre of French soldiers here in 1565 was Spain's opening move in establishing a colony in Florida. Shipwrecked French Protestant soldiers were slaughtered by Spanish Catholic soldiers (led by Menendez de Aviles); ended the French colony of La Caroline.

Cosmography

The science that describes the universe, including astronomy, geography, and geology.

Thupa Inka

The son of Inka Yupanki (Pachakuti); took over the Inca Empire after his father died.

Prince Kasuta (Afonso)

The son of Manikongo Nzinga a Nkuwu (João I). Captured by Portuguese explorers/missionaries and taken to Lisbon to receive religious instruction and take language classes ?

Inka Yupanki (Pachakuti)

The son of an Incan ruler. This person was sent on a successful military expedition against the Chankas. After the son won, he brought their enemies' bodies back so he could perform a ritual for his father of walking over their bodies. However, his father allowed older brothers to do this ritual. This younger brother won a victory but the dad wouldn't respect what he did. Drama between son and father; father ultimately exiled.

Just war theory

The theory of just war allowed people to explain away slavery. If one country attacks another, then morally, those people's lives are forfeit and you can kill them. You can also spare their lives (out of your own mercy, even if morally they deserve to die) and you can enslave them. Since their lives are forfeit, you can do what you want with them. These people are morally bad; since they did a bad thing, they can be enslaved. Europeans used this as a justification for enslaving Africans. Considered them all prisoners of war. Captives in just wars; must have been fighting unjustly. Most people realized that slavery was morally wrong (ex. The New Laws); you don't want to enslave your own people. Most people came to think it was ok as a punishment for people taken in "just wars"

The Great Khan

The title given to the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan); this ruler met the Polo brothers

Silver and gold

The two precious metals that the Europeans especially valued. The extraction of these precious metals was very lucrative and one of the primary ways to make money in the New World

Coastal Route Theory

Theory that people may have first come to the Americas by crossing the arctic waters by boat and traveling southward along the Pacific coast

How the Spanish conquered the New World: Great Man Theory

Theory that the Spanish conquered the New World by sheer force of personality. Men like Columbus and Hernan Cortez were heroic figures who did everything on their own by sheer force of will. Movements now look at Columbus and Cortez as evil figures who brought genocide to America, but who were still very influential. Columbus is considered to be important (whether good or bad).

Bering Strait Theory

Theory that the first Americans traveled across a land bridge (the Bering Land Bridg/Atlantic Strait) created by a drop in the ocean level due to the Ice Age between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago

How the Spanish conquered the New World: Contingency

Theory that the natives weren't prepared (compared to Columbus and the colonists). The natives fell to these new people because maybe their religion, technology, and/or culture had some sort of problem.

Aztecs (Mexica)

These people came from the North and presented themselves as heirs to the Toltecs. Like the Toltecs and previous civilizations, they were good in war; if city-states paid them, they would give their services to go and fight their enemies. They were feared, not popular. Founded the city of Tenochtitlan and formed the Triple Alliance with two nearby city-states. (Note: The Aztec Empire or the Triple Alliance was an alliance of three Nahua city-states: Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan.) Two problems: 1. Their empire was ruled by brute force 2. Pessimism was a part of their religion; led to human sacrifices, which left people fearful and resentful

Low counters (Alfred Kroeber)

This analyst estimated that there were ~8.4 million people in the entire Western Hemisphere before diseases wiped out Native populations.

High counters (Henry Dobyns)

This anthropologist estimated that there were ~112 million people in the entire Western Hemisphere before diseases wiped out Native populations.

Tlaxcala

This city was the home of enemies of the Aztecs who allied with the Spanish during the Conquest of Mexico. The people from this city agreed to send thousands of their warriors to Tenochtitlan with Cortes.

Visual representations: Cannibalism

This was a marker of barbarism and savagery in visual representations. Depicted Native Americans eating people and established barbaric characteristics. Children often included in the artwork too. Meant to shock; far from factual descriptions of what actually happened.

Visual representations: Nudity

This was a sign of barbarism and savagery in visual representations. In art from this time, the natives are not wearing clothes while the Europeans are. Not wearing clothes separates the civilized person from the savage in European conceptions. Some people in tropical regions of the Americas wore far less clothing than the Europeans (like the Tupi Indians in Brazil). This was a practical adaptation to their environment; it was lighter and made them able to escape more easily in battle. Nudity became a stock thing; represented in many depictions of Indians.

Wayna Qhapaq

Took over the Inca Empire after Thupa Inka. The last Inca emperor before the Spanish took over. Consolidated the empire and died of disease (smallpox) in 1528. The death of this god-like figure led to a civil war among the Inca. Smallpox spread throughout their population and killed many people. When Pizarro arrived in Peru, he found it already in disarray. European diseases had arrived ahead of the invaders and had already done a lot of Pizarro's job in advance. Diseases caused political chaos, which made it easier for Pizarro and his men to take over.

Marco Polo

Venetian merchant and traveler. His accounts of his travels to China offered Europeans a firsthand view of Asian lands and stimulated interest in Asian trade.

Quinta royal (royal fifth)

When silver arrived in Spain, Spain would collect this; they took ~20% of the silver

Disease and Conquest

diseases allowed the spanish to conquer the new world