atms final study guide
What are aerosols? Are they natural or man-made? Which are the two most common aerosol types?
Aerosols are tiny particles that scatter light also important in the formation of clouds, they can be both natural and man-made. The two most common aerosol types are dust and sea salt.
Can you name 2 to 3 types of "global" pollution? How is pollution related to climate change?
Air pollution, plastic pollution. Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and the balance of the environment.
What is alkalinity? How is it different from basicity?
Alkalinity has to do with waters ability to resist changes in PH, basicity has to do with how PH affects the base.
How does climate change exacerbate invasive species and diseases?
Climate change favors pioneers species that propagate quickly and become invasive. And climate change permits certain disease vectors, especially mosquitoes to move to higher latitudes.
What forces have resulted in decreased birth rates? How might these forces be related to a climate change solution?
Family planning/birth control, women's education, control by government such as in China. Since population is the primary driver of global change.
What consequences might thermohaline circulation slowdown have on the climate system?
It can affect the flow of warm water and energy around the earth and change the temp of places like Europe, it also means a much thicker mixed layer and less extreme storms.
If we are headed into a sixth mass extinction, why is it different this time?
It is mainly the result of human activity (anthropogenic change).
Which climate has the least temperature variability and the most temperature variability? Why?
Least - Tropics , temperature is stable and high Most - Continental and microthermal, has most distinct seasons
How are climates defined (in general) in the Köppen system? By which parameters?
They are defined by their seasonal precipitation and temperature patterns.
What are the polar climate subtypes?
Tundra (ET) - Warmest month avg. temp b/w 0ºC and 10ºC Ice Cap (EF) - Year-round temperatures below 0ºC
What is virtual water, why is virtual water tracked? Why is water scarcity a global change issue?
Virtual water is the amount of water required to produce and transport the product's components throughout the entire manufacturing and transportation processes.
How does the solubility of salts and gases dissolved in water change as the water is warmed?
Warmer water can't contain as much dissolved gases and salt is more soluble.
Which convention for longitude will we use in this class?
degrees
What is meant by an inventory and a flow of water? Why is it important to track both in the hydrological cycle?
inventories of water are storage areas of water on the earth's surface, such as glaciers and lakes, these are mainly freshwater reserves. flows of water are the pathways that the hydrological cycle uses to transport water around the world, tending toward the ocean normally. abnormalities in either can affect the populations freshwater availability.
Where does downwelling tend to occur? How does downwelling relate to convection? Why does downwelling at the poles drive thermohaline circulation?
near coasts and at the poles critical for deep water formation
what is the current population? what will it be at 2100?
7.7, possibly 11.2 by 2100
What year is the hottest on record? Will 2018 be in the top ten record?
2016 was the hottest year on record. Yes, 2018 is on track to be the 4th hottest year on record `
What is a cold trap, and where are they located? Does the stratosphere have significant amounts of water? Why or why not?
A cold trap is an area of the atmosphere that cools the water vapor and air, and they are located in the tropopause, and there is very little water in the stratopause since it is very cold and dry because very little H20 makes it past the tropopause.
What is a normal distribution? What do the average (or mean) and the standard deviation mean?
A normal distribution is a bell curve where the mean is at the center. 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation. 95% of the data falls within two standard deviations. 99.7% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations.
What is meant by paleoclimate analogs?
A paleoclimate analog is a reference to Earth's past that provides context for the climate change occurring today.
What is meant by the term thermocline?
A steep temperature gradient in the water.
What is a temperature anomaly, how is it calculated and what does it mean?
A temperature anomaly is the deviation from the long term average. This is calculated by finding the long term average over a period of time and then finding the difference between the expected value and what temperature is actually occurring. A positive temperature anomaly represents a current temperature that is warmer than the expected value, while a negative anomaly represents one that is cooler. The magnitude of the difference represents how far the actual temperature is from the expected temperature.
What are worldviews and how do they lead to very different opinions about the world and how the world works?
A worldview is a set of fundamental beliefs that influence one's perceiving, thinking, knowing and doing. Post-Positivist: There is an objective reality but scientists may have influence over observations. Postmodernist View: Reality, reason, and logic are conceptual constructs (there is no truth)
What are invasive species and diseases? Can you name 2 examples of invasive species and diseases?
An invasive species is an organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not native. Ex: Green Crab, Killer Algae, Lionfish, Asian Carp Zebra Mussel. Climate could drive the spread and impact of invasive organisms by increasing range and distribution when the species migrate to their zone of tolerance?
What does the term arctic amplification mean? How do you visualize it in a map of temperature anomaly predictions?
Arctic amplification means that Canada, Greenland, Russia, and Scandinavia will see the greatest increases in temperature. A map of temperature anomaly predictions will show these upper regions having a larger change in average surface temperatures.
Where might you find the polar icecap subtype climate?
Areas near the North and South Poles such as Greenland and Antarctica, and also at extremely high altitudes like Mount Everest.
Why are arid climates defined slightly differently from the other categories?
Arid climates are not primarily defined by their temperature. Arid climates can be either warm or cold. They are defined by the amount of precipitation that they receive.
Why is there a high pressure at the poles? How does it form?
Because the air gets colder and then descends, leading to high pressure at the surface.
What does biodiversity loss mean? When is biodiversity loss normal? Why are some countries more successful at protecting biodiversity loss? (Bonus can you name 1 or 2?)
Biodiversity loss is the decreased variance in the amount of species in a region. It is normal when it does not exceed the background extinction rate. When biodiversity loss exceeds the background extinction rate, it is referred to as a mass extinction. Japan, Indonesia, Camaron, Tanzania, Argentina
In which directions are species migrating, why?
Bird and butterfly migration patterns are shifting northward. Tree species in the Eastern United States are moving westward. Montane species are moving to higher altitudes.
How are sea levels predicted to change by 2100 under RCP8.5 and 2.6? Which areas are worst affected in the US and World?
By 2100, sea levels are expected to rise 0.40 meters for RCP2.6 and 0.63 meters for RCP8.5. Sea level rise will not be uniform, and will impact a greater number of people in Asia, Netherlands, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
Why do the C and D categories have the most subtypes?
C and D categories are often found where there is more land - the Northern Hemisphere. Here there is less ocean to regulate the temperature. Also, the varied topography allows for more climates to occur. Lastly, because there is more land, there is more variable heating.
how do weather and climate relate?
Climate is the long-term average of weather characteristics such as temperature, precipitation, and wind velocities. It can be used to predict weather patterns. Weather is what we experience over the course of hours, days, and weeks. Climate is the average of weather characteristics over years, decades, and longer.
How do the four celestial events - summer solstice, autumnal equinox, winter solstice and vernal equinox relate to earth's axial tilt?
Earth rotates on an angle due to its axial tilt causing the hemispheres to experience seasons due to irregular solar heating (closeness to the Sun does NOT impact/create seasons, N. hem. experiences winter when the Earth is closest to the Sun/at perihelion), summers in the higher latitudes are warmer because more direct sunlight is received- the angle of incidence is higher, in the winter in the upper latitudes the sunlight is more indirect and comes in at a shallow angle causing cooler temperatures, the equinoxes are the only times of year when the angle of sunlight will be 90 degrees/directly overhead for the equator only.
Which types of natural disasters have increased since 1980 according to the data provided from Munich Re? Which countries are most affected by natural disasters and why? `
Earthquakes, floods, storms, and wildfires. Emerging countries are particularly affected due to increased living standards and excessive urbanisation.
Can you explain why egalitarians are the most likely to be concerned with climate change? How could you frame anthropogenic climate change and policies to counter the risks so that an individualist or a hierarchist might take a vested interest in the issues?
Egalitarians believe in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. They see world a as a bottom up system so we must help the weakest to be strong. Because climate change affects certain people more than others egalitarians would be concerned and want to create an environment where everyone has an even opportunity to survive. Climate change would lead to a loss of order because of the potential drastic changes the word would face. People wouldn't know how to react to extreme changes and would create chaos. If we act now and try to mediate the changes of climate change people wouldn't be as affected and therefore can still be controlled.
What are the major causes of biodiversity loss? Why is biodiversity loss complicated by climate change? `
HIPPO: habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, human population, overharvesting Habitat loss and it's over-exploitation for commercialization, accompanied by climate change, are the main causes of biodiversity loss. Climate change brings about further issues like temperature spikes, coral bleaching, increase in CO2 and increase in the intensity of natural events.
What are heating degree days and cooling degree days? What changes are expected to these metrics in general? What do they say about possible changes in fossil fuel consumption?
Heating and cooling degree days are the number of days the temp is higher or lower than 65ºF and if lower you need to heat and if higher then you need to cool, we expect more cooling days and that means more consumption.
What are the five primary climate categories in the Köppen Classification System?
High precipitation levels; stable temperature, warm temps (~18ºC); few subtypes, just two seasons - wet and dry Arid/Desert (B) Primarily defined by precipitation levels (small amount); ~18C, near 30ºN/S Temperate/Mesothermal (C) In the midlatitudes below 40ºN; coldest month is between -3C & 18C; a lot of subtypes because a lot of geographic variability, subtypes are defined by precipitation and summer heat Continental/Microthermal (D) Most temperature variability (hottest month above 10ºC, coldest month below -3ºC); typically in midlatitudes in the interiors of continents, many subtypes, group D has the most subtypes Polar (E) Warmest month is below 10ºC, little precipitation (like desert), few subtypes
How many seasons are typical of a tropical climate? What are they typically called?
How many seasons are typical of a tropical climate? What are they typically called?
What is a scientific worldview? Do scientists always operate from a scientific worldview? What types of procedures do scientists use to verify their findings?
Ideas concerning the nature of the observable world can be tested through empirical observation. However, these observations may be flawed therefore we must remain skeptical and uncertainty should be reported. Everyone having this worldview would lack moral relevance and therefore it's counterproductive to maintain this worldview as we all have a moral compass. Not all scientists apply the scientific worldview in their experiments. Scientific findings undergo peer review (can be flawed).
Why do you think only 48% of U.S. adults believe in anthropogenic climate change? `
Media and political influence can affect belief in climate change for adults. Location can also affect whether or not an individual feels like they're directly impacted by climate change and more inclined to believe in it. Those near a coast are more likely to state that climate change affects their community and them personally. Some also may not want to take responsibility for climate change because working to solve it is so difficult, so they'd rather deny it than do something about it that may cost money or change their current way of life.
Name several sources of carbon dioxide or carbon? `
No. Along with the burning of fossil fuels, the rise in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide is also due to agriculture and land use.
About how much ice mass has been lost in Antarctica? and Greenland? Why do you think this process will take potentially 100s - 1000s of years?
Over 1500 Gigatons of Antarctic ice mass has been lost and over 3000 Gigatons of Greenland ice mass has been lost. This process will take a long time because of the tilt of the Earth's axis, pollution, and the volume of the ice masses. because those areas are surrounded by the ocean (large heat capacity makes it less susceptible to warming).
If there is less ozone in the stratosphere, will the stratosphere warm or cool?
Ozone generates heat in the stratosphere, both by absorbing the sun's ultraviolet radiation and by absorbing upwelling infrared radiation from the lower atmosphere (troposphere).
What factors contribute to sea level rise? How much have sea levels risen since 1880?
Sea levels have risen 24cm since 1880 due to the melting of ice sheets and glaciers, and expansion of seawater as it warms.
what are some examples of global change?
Population changes, anthropogenic climate change, biodiversity loss, invasive species and diseases, pollution, climate change.
What does the term rainfall redistribution mean? How are precipitation patterns in general affected by climate change?
Rainfall redistribution refers to the changes in precipitation patterns that comes with climate change. There is expected to be a non-uniform change in precipitation patterns ("rich get richer").
What are climate change indicators? Name at least four. Why are some climate change indicators better than others?
Rising air surface temperatures, rising lake and ocean temperatures, melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea level rise, droughts, wildfires, floods, and poleward and vertical migration. Some provoke more of an intense emotional response by more powerful visual and physical evidence than others. Some have also been studied for longer periods of time.
What are Shared Socioeconomic Pathways? How do they differ from RCPs? How are the complementary? Which range of RCPs emissions is covered by the SSPs? Which upcoming IPCC assessment report will implement the SSPs?
Shared Socioeconomic Pathways examine how global society, demographics, and economics might alter anthropogenic radiative forcing. They are meant to be complementary to RCPs by offering five different pathways in the form of social narratives planned to be implemented in the next IPCC report due between 2020 and 2021.
How much has the mean temperature shifted in the 21st century as compared to the 20th century average (so far)?
So far, the 21st century mean has shifted 0.67ºC, which is more than two standard deviations.
What are some of the changes predicted by global climate models as represented by RCP2.6 and RCP8.5? What are temperatures like by 2050, by 2100? What is ocean acidity like by 2100? What other changes are predicted in general (you do not need to know the difference in severity based on the RCPs, just what could happen)?
Some of the changes include temperature, sea ice extent, sea level, and ocean pH. By 2050, temperature is expected to change by 1 degree Celsius for RCP2.6 and 2 degrees Celsius for RCP8.5. By 2100, temperature is expected to change by 1 degree Celsius for RCP2.6 and 3.7 degrees Celsius for RCP8.5. Global sea levels are also expected to rise for both, more for RCP8.5. Arctic Sea Ice, Northern Hemisphere Snow Cover, Permafrost, and Global glacier volumes are all expected to decrease, more for RCP8.5. Ocean pH is expected to be 8.05 for RCP2.6 and 7.75 for RCP8.5.
Why is CO2 correlated with temperature? Sure, there is the greenhouse effect, but what else?
Temperature anomalies relate to solar irradiance and carbon dioxide concentrations. Shown in the Keeling Curve, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have increased over time, which correlate to the total solar irradiance and temperature anomalies. The ocean can hold less CO2 when temperature is increased, so the ocean releases more CO2 into the atmosphere when it is warmer. When carbon dioxide concentration goes up, temperature goes up. Carbon dioxide concentration is highly correlated to temperature.
What is temperature? How does temperature relate to heat?
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter. Temperature is a measure of heat. Temperature is independent of the number of particles
If the Sahara Desert transitions into grassland, what might be an outcome of the loss of Saharan dust over the amazon?
The Amazon would not have as much precipitation as it does, due to a lack of dust for cloud formation.
an you explain the cultural theory of risk? (The theory largely stems from the work of Dame Mary Douglas, a British anthropologist.)
The Cultural Theory of Risk asserts that individual worldviews are shaped structures of social organization, and that consequently, individual perceptions tend to reinforce those structures.
What is meant by RCP? What kind of data went into working out the RCPs? What does the appended number mean (8.5,6.0,4.5,2.6)?
The Representative Concentration Pathways eliminated the socio-political narrative and focused on numerical projections using an entire database of calculation to create a range of possibilities for policy makers to consider. An appended number of 8.5 represents the "worst case scenario".
What happens as an air parcel rises? Why is it difficult to tell if a parcel of air will rise based on its humidity and temperature alone? What information do you need?
The air parcel expands as it rises and this expansion, or work, causes the temperature of the air parcel to decrease.
What is the solar constant? Why is it not constant?
The amount of solar energy striking the top of Earth's atmosphere; it is not constant due to the elliptical orbit of the Earth around the Sun. 1362 w/m2
What does the angle of direct incidence mean, and how does it change throughout a year?
The area at which the sun directly hits a specific spot on the earth(the latitudinal variation in the density of light received on earth); it changes due to the axial tilt of the earth along with its yearly rotation around the sun
What are some reasons why it may be counterproductive to argue with someone doubting the science supporting anthropogenic global warming? What is the backfire effect? Can you provide some examples?
The backfire effect is a form of cognitive bias used to protect a worldview. When an individual is presented with information that questions their morality or worldview and elicits an emotional response, the individual will attempt to counter the argument despite the evidence presented to them. The individual will only be more convinced that their perspective is right.
Briefly describe the hydrological cycle. About how much water is in the ocean? How much is freshwater?
The hydrological cycle is when water passes from vapor in the atmosphere through precipitation upon land and water surface and ultimately back into atmosphere. 96.5% of water is in the ocean, 2.5% is in freshwater.
Why is the lapse rate important? Where are lapse rates favorable for the formation of precipitation?
The lapse rate is the rate at which temperature in Earth's atmosphere decreases with an increase in altitude, or increases with the decrease in altitude.
Why will it take potentially thousands of years for the sea level to adjust to warmer climates? `
The oceans have a high heat capacity, and thus, it will take a longer time to adjust to warmer climates. The oceans require more energy to heat up.
What is the ozone layer? Why is the ozone layer important? What types of compounds destroy the ozone layer? We will revisit the ozone layer and learn a bit more about the stratosphere in Module 3 to reinforce these concepts.)
The ozone layer is the layer in earth's stratosphere that is highly concentrated with the gas ozone. Ozone absorbs most of the UV radiation coming from the Sun. This greatly protects from UV radiation damage, which damages DNA in plants and animals. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are used in refrigerants, destroy ozone.
What is a temperature gradient?
The rate of change in the atmosphere, or the change in temperature with distance in the atmosphere. change in temp over area overall, results in difs in air pressure which create winds
What is the second law of thermodynamics? How can the energy of a system be changed?
The second law states that isolated systems gravitate towards thermodynamic equilibrium, also known as a state of maximum entropy, or disorder; it also states that heat energy will flow from an area of low temperature to an area of high temperature.
What are the three major sources of uncertainty in climate models? On what time frame do the different scenarios make the most difference?
The three major sources are scientific uncertainty, scenario uncertainty, and uncertainty due to climate variability (internal variability). In the short term, internal variability has the biggest effect along with scientific uncertainty. In the long term, scenario uncertainty has the biggest effect along with scientific uncertainty.
What is happening to the timing of spring, what are the indicators?
The timing of spring is arriving earlier. One indicator of this is that the date of the arrival of cherry blossoms is getting earlier.
Name the top anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG). Which countries are top GHG emitters? What other sources of GHGs are there?
The top greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, tropospheric ozone, and fluorinated gases. The United States, Europe, and China are top emitters. Other sources include energy use, cement curing, land use change, fossil fuels, transportation, electricity and heat generation, and gas leaks.
Weather is what we experience over the course of hours, days, and weeks. Climate is the average of weather characteristics over years, decades, and longer.
There is some temperature variability each year since there are different highs and lows, along with other factors like energy received and emitted, or from different natural effects like volcanoes and El Niño/La Niña.
Are scientists susceptible to bias in reporting their research findings due to career advancement or an underlying political agenda? Explain.
Yes, it is definitely possible for there to be bias, humans are subject to desire and error. However, research findings must be tested many times by many people to be established as reliable findings. Peer review is very important for obtaining more accurate information
What are some other relevant ways to define seasons from other cultures?,
You can define it by the local "flavor" or nuances, plant/animal life, and agriculture.
How can you distinguish a normal period of cooling from a longer term warming trend????
You have to check the time frame to get a trend, if it is over a long period of time then it is more likely - that is is a longer warming trend .
What are the two primary ways scientists (from Western cultures) use to define seasons? Which convention for defining seasons will we use in class, and why?
astronomical and meteorological We use the meteorological definition in class, which is defined by the Gregorian Calendar and static from year to year.
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low pressure near equator
What is an example of a successful multinational protocol developed to combat a global change issue?
montreal protocol (1987)
How do you define seasons, and does your definition depart from the astronomical or meteorological definitions?
opinion
what drives global change
population, technology, and wealth
What are the types of measurements that climate scientists use to characterize a climatology, or what is a climatology? What is a climate normal, and how is it calculated?
surface temperature, precipitation, humidity, soil moisture •Climate Normals are three-decade averages of climatological variables including temperature and precipitation. It is produced once every 10 years in accordance with WMO protocols.
what is global change?
the way the enviornemt and climate are changing over time. It is only considered global change if it happens over a period of 100 years.
What are the typical timescales of weather events? What are the typical timescales of climate events?
weather: minutes to hours; daily; 3-7 days; months climate: months, yearly, 2-10 years, centuries, 104 - 105 Years, 106+ Years
What is the relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales? How much is 1 degree of change in Celsius in Fahrenheit? Why is the Kelvin scale different from Celsius and Fahrenheit?
ºF = (1.8*ºC) + 32 ºC + (1.8)(ºF - 32) Kelvin starts at absolute zero so it has no negatives
What are heat capacity and specific heat? How are they different?
•Heat capacity (cm) is an extensive property that represents the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of any substance •Specific Heat (C) is the amount of heat (called Q) required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one Kelvin