Behavior science uworld missed answer

D. imitation of a reference group. A reference group is a comparison group. Individuals compare their beliefs and behaviors to those of reference group members and often model the beliefs and behaviors of the reference group. For example, after a well-publicized suicide, others who have already contemplated taking their life may consider modeling the behavior of the individual who committed suicide, notwithstanding that suicide occurs for multiple, complex reasons. Therefore, "suicide clusters" (higher-than-average rates of suicide occurring within a short time frame) may occur as a result of imitation of a reference group (ie, individuals already contemplating suicide modeling the behavior of those who have recently committed suicide).

"Suicide clusters" are greater-than-average rates of suicide occurring within a short time frame. After a well-publicized initial suicide, suicide rates tend to rise, particularly among teenagers and young adults. This phenomenon can also be described as: A. groupthink. B. the mere exposure effect. C. mass hysteria. D. imitation of a reference group.

D. Personality disorder Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that differ markedly from social norms and cause functional impairment. Individuals with personality disorders have pathological personal traits (eg, rigidity, greediness) and maladaptive patterns of relating to others (eg, hostility, superficiality) that are stable over time and across situations. For someone with a pattern of conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships in all settings since late adolescence (ie, stable over time), resulting in a history of sporadic employment and tumultuous romantic relationships (ie, significant impairment), the most likely diagnosis is a personality disorder.

A 34-year-old patient describes a history of conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships. This pattern has been present since late adolescence, occurs across all settings, and has resulted in a history of sporadic employment and tumultuous romantic relationships. The symptoms are not due to a medical condition or the use of a substance. Which psychological diagnosis is most likely in this patient? A. A mood disorder B. An anxiety disorder C. A dissociative disorder D. A personality disorder

C. Somatic symptom disorder The somatic symptom and related disorders (SSRD) are a group of disorders in which bodily (somatic) symptoms or illnesses are associated with psychological factors. SSRD diagnoses include somatic symptom disorder, conversion disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and factitious disorder. Somatic symptom disorder (SSD) is characterized by extreme concern regarding one or more actual physical symptoms (eg, fatigue, pain). Individuals with SSD typically have a high level of anxiety about their health and devote significant time and energy to their symptoms (eg, repeated doctor visits, researching symptoms online). Therefore, a patient who repeatedly presents with extreme distress about his mild health symptoms and who devotes significant time to worrying about his health despite his primary care physician's reassurances would most likely be diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder.

A patient repeatedly presents to his primary care physician with extreme distress about his mild health symptoms, including headaches and fatigue. Although the physician reassures him that these are not symptoms of a severe illness, the patient fears the worst and continues to devote significant time to worrying about his health. Which diagnosis is most likely for this patient? A. A dissociative disorder B. A personality disorder C. Somatic symptom disorder D. Generalized anxiety disorder

C. with several friends who has hep C Social cognitive theory posits that people learn by observing others. Vicarious learning takes place through watching other people behave in a certain way and then get rewarded or punished for it. Depending on the outcome, the observer may or may not choose to behave in the same way as the model. According to social cognitive theory, people would be least susceptible to the self-positivity bias (the belief that they are immune to negative outcomes such as contracting hepatitis C) if they had friends with the disease. People tend to share similar characteristics with and behave in ways similar to those of their friends.

A proponent of social cognitive theory would suggest that the self-positivity bias is unlikely to influence an individual: A. with hepatitis a B. studying with hepatitis C in a liver cell C. with several friends who has hep C D. who has never heard of Hep C

A. Contradict J and L theory As a component of the central nervous system (CNS), the spinal cord contains gray matter (nonmyelinated neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, axons) surrounded by white matter (primarily myelinated axons). Spinal cord white matter is composed of afferent (ascending) axonal tracts that carry sensory information from the body to the brain and efferent (descending) axonal tracts that carry motor commands from the brain to the body. Individuals with cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) do not receive sensory information from the body. According to the James-Lange theory, such individuals are unable to experience emotion because sensory information (eg, increased heart rate) from the body cannot reach the brain; as such, this would predict that only control participants in the present scenario would be able to experience emotion. Therefore, a finding that there is no significant difference between the emotional responses of controls and those with complete SCI contradicts the James-Lange theory by showing that controls and affected individuals display similar emotion.

A researcher recruited 20 individuals with complete spinal cord injuries at cervical vertebrae C3 or C4 (participants had no sensory or motor function below the site of injury) and 20 matched controls. Participants were presented with images designed to evoke positive, negative, or no emotion. If the results indicate no significant difference between participants with spinal cord injuries and control participants in the emotional response to the images, this finding would: A. contradict the James-Lange theory. B. support the Schachter-Singer theory. C. contradict the Cannon-Bard theory. D. support the theory of universal emotions.

A. Extinction If the 20-cm ring (conditioned stimulus) was repeatedly presented in the absence of the electric shock (unconditioned stimulus), this would eventually extinguish the startle (conditioned response). However, if an electric shock were occasionally paired with the 20-cm ring, this would maintain the conditioned fear response, thereby avoiding extinction

A researcher replicates the study but continues to occasionally pair the 20-cm ring with an electric shock in phase 2. Which phenomenon is the researcher most likely trying to avoid? A. Extinction B. Acquisition C. Spontaneous recovery D. Stimulus discrimination

B. Bystander effect; number of onlookers The bystander effect predicts that as the number of onlookers increases, the probability of an onlooker helping someone in need decreases. This can be partly explained by the diffusion of responsibility, whereby onlookers assume action will be taken by someone else. This study was designed to evaluate the bystander effect. The researcher likely hypothesized that a greater number of onlookers present (independent variable) in the train station would result in a longer amount of time until someone attempts to help the confederate (dependent variable).

A social psychologist employs a confederate to pretend to have a heart attack in a crowded train station, then measures how long it takes for the confederate to receive help. The study procedure is repeated over multiple trials throughout the day. This experiment is most likely evaluating which phenomenon and with what independent variable, respectively? A. bystander effect; amount of time until someone attempts to help the confederate B. bystander effect; number of onlookers C. hawthorne effect; amount of time until someone attempts to help the confederate D. Hawthorne effect; number of onlookers

D. a child's leukemia diagnosis impacts interpersonal interactions and roles within families. In symbolic interactionism, the definition of the situation describes how shared expectations for behavior help people understand the roles of everyone involved in an interaction. For example, patients expect doctors to behave professionally and maintain confidentiality. The research topic most consistent with symbolic interactionism is the study investigating how a child's leukemia diagnosis impacts families' interpersonal interactions (eg, parents spend more time with a child diagnosed with leukemia and less time with healthy siblings) and roles (eg, a parent quits work to become the child's caretaker).

A sociologist is interested in investigating leukemia diagnoses in children. Which of the following research topics is most consistent with the sociological paradigm of symbolic interactionism? A study investigating how: A. socioeconomic status is related to leukemia treatment outcomes in children. B. the rights and obligations of the sick role apply to children diagnosed with leukemia. C. stereotypes about women and girls impact social support for girls diagnosed with leukemia. D. a child's leukemia diagnosis impacts interpersonal interactions and roles within families.

A. Intersectionality and racialization Intersectionality describes how multiple, interconnected, marginalized social identities simultaneously impact individual's lives, perspectives, and treatment in society. Racialization is the process by which one group (the dominant group) designates another (a subordinate group) with a racial identity.

A study found that over time, compared to white immigrants, immigrants of color experience poorer health overall. The researchers hypothesized that these immigrants, while living in the United States, are confronted with implicit and explicit negative messages about their outsider status as both a racial "minority" and as "immigrants," which have a cumulative impact on health. This hypothesis is most related to which pair of factors? A. Intersectionality and racialization B. Cultural transmission and racialization C. Intersectionality and stereotype threat D. Cultural transmission and stereotype threat

B. whether personality changes were maintained following the period of intervention Trait theorists attempt to explain personality in terms of observable personality characteristics, or traits, using objective criteria. Traits can be defined as characteristic ways one often perceives situations, feels, or acts. There are several different trait theories, based on a greater or lesser number of traits. The studies in the passage use the "big five" personality factors, also known as the five-factor model (FFM). Trait theories are successful in objectively organizing behaviors into clearly defined groups, such as "introverted," "agreeable," or "conscientious." These theories are also relatively accurate at predicting an individual's average behavior over time. For example, someone who reliably falls into the "introvert" category will also demonstrate predictable behaviors, such as generally avoiding parties (average behavior). However, trait theories are not very successful at predicting specific behaviors because they do not account for the impact of situational factors on behavior. For example, an introvert who generally avoids parties would be more likely to attend his wife's retirement party (specific behavior). Furthermore, trait theories fail to explain why and how traits develop. Trait theorists would argue that personality traits are unlikely to change in a relatively short time frame. Therefore, they would most likely question whether the findings reflected transient alterations in personality during intervention or permanent changes in innate personality traits.

A trait theorist would most likely challenge the study findings described in the passage by asserting that researchers failed to assess: A. which interventions were most effective in eliciting changes in personality. B. whether personality changes were maintained following the period of intervention. C. the influence of human interactions in enabling changes in personality. D. each participant's reason for the specific personality trait chosen.

C. accept her doctor's diagnosis while maintaining her own opposition to medical intervention. According to cognitive dissonance theory, cognitive dissonance (mental conflict) results from beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that are contradictory or incompatible. Cognitive dissonance causes a state of discomfort that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviors. A woman who wants a baby but does not believe in medical intervention to conceive should experience cognitive dissonance if her doctor says she cannot become pregnant without such intervention, because the new information directly contradicts her belief. Therefore, cognitive dissonance theory predicts that she will alter her attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to reduce the resulting discomfort. The only course of action that will not reduce the discomfort would be accepting her doctor's diagnosis and maintaining her stance against medical intervention. This course of action would maintain the dissonance, which is not consistent with the central tenet of cognitive dissonance theory.

A woman who wants a baby but is opposed to using medical intervention to become pregnant is informed by her doctor that she will never conceive without medical intervention. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that this woman is most likely to do all of the following, EXCEPT: A. seek a second opinion from another doctor. B. change her attitude about using medical intervention to become pregnant. C. accept her doctor's diagnosis while maintaining her own opposition to medical intervention. D. decide that she does not want to have a baby.

C. praise from parents Student 2's quote reflects a desire to be seen as "good" and secure the approval of others (stage 3); therefore, the individual should be most motivated to work hard in school by praise from the parents. Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development in six stages. At the pre-conventional level, morality is externally controlled by punishment (stage 1) and reciprocity with others (stage 2). At the conventional level, morality is based on conforming to norms (stage 3) and obeying the law (stage 4). At the post-conventional level, which few people achieve, morality is based on a social contract (stage 5) and a personal code of ethics (stage 6).

According to Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which of the following is most likely to motivate Student 2 to work hard in school? A. fear of punishment B. expectation of reward C. praise from parents D. internal standard of success

B. Decreasing death rates and increasing access to food, medicine, and improved sanitation According to the demographic transition model, a society's transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates typically occurs in the following stages: Stage 1: In preindustrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow. Stage 2: As societies begin to industrialize, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase, and population growth is rapid. Stage 3: As societies urbanize, the population continues to grow, but birth rates begin to decline as access to contraception increases. Stage 4: In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow. Stage 5: For highly developed societies with very low birth rates, the population may decline. A newly industrializing society would be in Stage 2 of demographic transition, in which the death rate declines as a result of increased access to food, medicine, and improved sanitation.

According to the demographic transition model, a newly industrializing society is characterized by which of the following? A. Low birth and death rates combined with slow population growth B. Decreasing death rates and increasing access to food, medicine, and improved sanitation C. Dropping birth rates and a declining population size D. High birth and death rates combined with slow population growth

B. Hypothalamus The limbic system comprises the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus and is responsible for emotion, learning, and memory. The hypothalamus influences the physiological component of emotion by regulating the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system. The James-Lange theory of emotion (second paragraph) suggests that specific physiological reactions produce specific emotions. For example, if experiencing increased heart rate and sweating, one will experience fear. Therefore, the hypothalamus is most critical to the experience of emotion according to the James-Lange theory.

According to the early theory of emotion described in the second paragraph, which of the following brain structures is most critical to the experience of emotion? A. Prefrontal cortex B. Hypothalamus C. Hippocampus D. Posterior pituitary

C. an attractive celebrity using a catchy phase to summarize hep risk factors The elaboration likelihood model defines two routes of persuasion: The central route (focusing on the logical content of the message) is most effective when the audience is motivated by the message, whereas the peripheral route (focusing on superficial characteristics of the message) is more effective when people are not motivated by the message. According to the elaboration likelihood model, the most persuasive strategy for people who have low motivation and/or ability to process the message (such as the uncommon behaviors groups in Study 2) is to use the peripheral route of processing. Therefore, a television commercial with an attractive celebrity using a catchy phrase to summarize the main hepatitis C risk factors would be the best way to structure a persuasive health message about hepatitis C to this group.

According to the elaboration likelihood model, which of the following should generate the most concern about the risks of contracting hepatitis C in the two-uncommon-behaviors group from Study 2? A television commercial showing: A. text detailing the scientific facts about contracting hep c B. actual drug addicts sharing needles C. an attractive celebrity using a catchy phase to summarize hep risk factors D. medical expert from a prestigious

C. demonstrates intergenerational and intragenerational mobility. The success of immigrant youths appears to be both intergenerational and intragenerational. It is intragenerational because the parents typically achieve a more prosperous status in the United States than in their native country. It is also intergenerational because the children achieve better education than their parents, with the potential for additional social advancement. Social mobility refers to the change in social status experienced by a group or individual. It may be upward or downward and may be intragenerational (occurring over a relatively short time among members of the same generation) or intergenerational (occurring over a relatively long time among members of different generations).

As described in the passage, the success of immigrant youths: A. appears to be the result of social and economic capital. B. appears to result from social reproduction and intersectionality. C. demonstrates intergenerational and intragenerational mobility. D. demonstrates class consciousness and false consciousness.

C. The subjects were not randomly chosen, which may have resulted in sampling bias. Sampling bias occurs when certain individuals in a population have a greater chance of being selected for a study than other individuals, producing a sample that inaccurately reflects the population from which it was drawn. Random sampling of study subjects helps reduce sampling bias. For Study 2, the subjects were chosen nonrandomly (eg, all Hispanic patients who visited the clinic during a one-week time frame were included in the study), so this sample may differ from the larger population in ways that could impact the study outcomes.

Based on the description of Study 2, which of the following statements identifies a potential methodological error of the study's design? A. The physicians were unaware of the study's purpose, which may have resulted in experimenter bias. B. The physicians were unaware of the study's purpose, which may have resulted in question-order bias. C. The subjects were not randomly chosen, which may have resulted in sampling bias. D. The subjects were not randomly chosen, which may have resulted in social desirability bias.

D. avoid eating their favorite foods entirely A conditioned taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism becomes ill after consuming something (eg, food, alcohol). Whatever was consumed prior to the N/V can become associated with the illness (even if it did not cause the illness) and is avoided afterward, long term. Taste aversions almost always link illness with foods (or smells), which is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation. Of the given choices, a physician should suggest that patients avoid eating their favorite foods on the day of chemotherapy. This strategy will prevent patients from developing a taste aversion to these foods. If a favored food is consumed prior to the experience of nausea (resulting from chemotherapy), it is possible that the food will be permanently associated with the nausea.

Based on the passage and the principles of taste aversion, which strategy should physicians suggest to their patients undergoing chemotherapy? On the day of chemotherapy, patients should: A. pair their favorite foods with a novel beverage. B. eat favorite foods several hours before chemotherapy treatment. C. only consume favorite beverages, not water. D. avoid eating their favorite foods entirely.

A. Infants have innate perceptual preferences that confer a survival advantage The adaptive value of traits refers to the extent to which a trait or behavior aids survival and/or reproduction. Innate behaviors are genetically determined. Learned behaviors result from observation and experience. Most human behaviors are complex, falling along a continuum from innate to learned.

Based on the results of these two studies, which conclusion is most supported? A. Infants have innate perceptual preferences that confer a survival advantage. B. Human perceptual abilities appear to be both innate and fixed. C. Human visual perception is more developed than auditory perception at birth. D. Infant perception relies more on top-down processing than on bottom-up processing. The adaptive value of traits refers to the extent to which a trait or behavior aids survival and/or reproduction. Innate behaviors are genetically determined. Learned behaviors result from observation and experience. Most human behaviors are complex, falling along a continuum from innate to learned.

B. Negative reinforcement Reinforcement increases (or maintains) behavior; negative reinforcement occurs when an undesirable stimulus is removed, which encourages a behavior to happen again. Sarah's cleaning rituals act as negative reinforcement because she experienced a reduction in anxiety (ie, removal of an undesirable stimulus) after performing cleaning rituals, leading her to perform the cleaning rituals more often (ie, behavior increases). (Choice A) Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable stimulus is applied, which encourages a behavior to happen again. For Sarah, cleaning rituals remove an unpleasant stimulus (ie, reduce anxiety), an example of negative reinforcement, rather than apply a desirable stimulus.

Before Sarah sought therapy, her cleaning rituals acted as: A. positive reinforcement. B. negative reinforcement. C. positive punishment. D. negative punishment.

C. Role strain Role strain occurs when competing expectations for a single role cause discomfort or stress. In the physician's role as a doctor, he is expected to help his patient with her symptoms, and he must also consider the potential negative consequences of any drug he prescribes. The stress caused by these competing expectations for one role best illustrates role strain. Role strain occurs when different expectations for a single social role compete in a way that causes tension. Role strain is distinct from role conflict, which occurs when expectations from multiple different roles compete with one another.

Benzodiazepines, often used to treat anxiety, can have adverse and harmful effects when taken for an extended period. Suppose the Hispanic physician in Study 2 has a patient who asks for a refill of her benzodiazepine prescription. He wants to help his patient with her anxiety, but he is also concerned about the extended use of this drug. This scenario best illustrates: A. role conflict B. role exit C. role strain D. role taking

B. more social capital and more social mobility. Social networks are informal and nonhierarchical webs of interaction between nodes, which are linked by ties. Nodes can either be individuals or organizations. Ties describe the connections between the nodes and are defined as strong or weak. Weak ties are loose/flimsy connections, such as those between acquaintances, whereas strong ties are more solid connections, such as those between family and close friends. Social capital refers to a person's networks of people that can be converted into economic gain. Men's networks are larger and provide information about work-related topics, such as where there are job openings or promotion possibilities. Therefore, men's network connections confer more social capital because these connections can be more easily converted into economic gain. Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals, groups, or families between or within status categories in society (eg, from middle class to upper class). Social mobility can be horizontal or vertical and is related to a multitude of other factors, such as education, job loss, marriage, and institutionalized discrimination. By providing more social capital (potential economic gain), men's networks also provide more social mobility.

Compared to women's social networks, men's social networks tend to be larger, have more weak ties, and provide more information about work-related topics; therefore, men's social networks most likely confer: A. less social capital and less social mobility. B. more social capital and more social mobility. C. less social capital but more social mobility. D. more social capital but less social mobility.

B. No, the threshold described in the passage is based on a comparison that is relative to others within a given country Absolute poverty is the inability to secure the basic necessities of life, such as food, clean water, and shelter. Relative poverty, which is defined in comparison to the economic conditions of others, is a more subjective measure encompassing quality-of-life issues, such as relatively longer travel times to reach medical care using public transportation because one cannot afford a car. The first paragraph describes poverty thresholds defined as 50% of the median household income in a given country, which is a measure of relative (not absolute) poverty.

Does the passage provide a threshold for absolute poverty? A. No, there is no standardized definition of absolute poverty B. No, the threshold described in the passage is based on a comparison that is relative to others within a given country C. Yes, the passage describes a threshold below which individuals are unable to meet their basic needs D. Yes, the threshold described in the passage is based on a global standard that can be applied to any given country

A. Autocommunication Autocommunication occurs when a message sender is also the receiver. For example, dolphins echolocate by perceiving how the click sounds they have emitted echo back to them. Predator warning calls, communication that alerts other group members (not the individual making the call), is not relevant to autocommunication. Game theory mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time. When the evolutionary benefit of a social behavior outweighs the cost of that behavior (eg, a warning call puts an individual at risk but increases the likelihood that genes will be passed on), game theory predicts that the behavioral phenotype will persist.

Female S. beldingi ground squirrels tend to remain near their birthplace and kin for life. S. beldingi females are also more likely than males to give alarm calls when they spot a predator, even though this behavior draws the predator's attention to the individual who produced the alarm. Which concept is LEAST relevant to this phenomenon? A. Autocommunication B. Altruism C. Indirect fitness D. Evolutionary game theory

A. "I don't think so; I've made my career decision carefully and I'm committed to my choice." If Student 1 has reached identity achievement status, the student is most likely to respond with, "I don't think so; I've made my career decision carefully and I'm committed to my choice." Marcia outlines four identity statuses depending on a person's level of commitment and exploration: Identity diffusion (low commitment, low exploration), identity foreclosure (high commitment, low exploration), identity moratorium (low commitment, high exploration), and identity achievement (high commitment, high exploration).

If Student 1 has progressed to identity achievement status, how would the student most likely respond to the question, "Would you change your career choice if a better option came along?" A. "I don't think so; I've made my career decision carefully and I'm committed to my choice." B. "My family is in agreement about my career path, so I already know where I am going." C. "I haven't really thought about it that much because it makes no difference to me." D. "You never know what the future holds, so if something better comes along I would consider it."

A. Disgust Happiness, sadness, disgust, contempt, fear, surprise, anger are the 7 universal emotions Therefore, subjects from around the world, regardless of differences in their cultures, would most likely agree on a photograph of a participant expressing the universal emotion of disgust.

If subjects from around the world were shown photographs of participants' faces during Task 1 and asked to identify the participants' facial expressions, on which of the following facial expressions would the subjects most likely agree? A. Disgust B. Worry C. Jealousy D. Excitement

D. Observational learning and secondary reinforcement Observational learning occurs as the result of watching others. Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, food), whereas secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable (eg, money). ​​​​​​​In a token economy, certain behaviors (eg, completing homework) are positively reinforced through the use of tokens (eg, gold stars), which are secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for a desirable reward (eg, 5 gold stars can be exchanged for candy). The procedure does not involve trading in secondary reinforcers for a desirable reward, so it is not utilizing a token economy.

In a two-part procedure for teaching children with diabetes to self-inject insulin, a child is first shown a video of same-aged peers self-injecting insulin and is then given a sticker for each attempt to self-inject. This procedure utilizes: A. classical conditioning and secondary reinforcement B. classical conditioning and a token economy C. Observational learning and a token economy D. Observational learning and secondary reinforcement

A. feature detection Feature detection occurs for all the senses but is most often described regarding vision. Feature detectors in the visual system respond to aspects of the visual stimulus, such as horizontal lines or right angles (among others). The visual system is organized such that feature detectors synapse on neurons that respond to more complex stimuli (eg, faces) localized in certain areas of the brain (eg, fusiform face area). An experiment in which researchers find that certain neurons in the visual cortex preferentially fire in response to specific stimuli (eg, a bar of light oriented at a specific angle) provides the strongest evidence for feature detection.

In an experiment, researchers find that certain neurons in the visual cortex preferentially fire in response to a bar of light that is oriented at a specific angle, and that different neurons similarly respond to bars of light oriented at different angles. This finding provides the strongest evidence for: A. feature detection. B. parallel processing. C. spreading activation. D. sensory adaptation.

B. composed of all females from the same university Social influence describes many group processes (eg, conformity, obedience, peer pressure) and occurs when others affect one's thoughts/behaviors. Normative social influence takes place when people attempt to fit in, and informational social influence occurs when people assume others have more information and know what to do. Normative social influence describes when an individual conforms to fit in or avoid rejection by others. For example, a college freshman notices that everyone on campus wears yellow wristbands, so he wears one to fit in. Normative social influence would most likely arise in a group composed of females from the same university because individuals tend to want to fit in with group members with whom they identify.

Normative social influence is most likely to arise in the group: A. containing several members who have expertise regarding cancer. B. composed of all females from the same university. C. with an assigned group spokesperson. D. whose members are the most disparate in socioeconomic status.

C. cultural Sociologists define capital as something possessed by an individual that confers advantage in society; capital can be accumulated (one can get more of it or lose it) and converted into other desired outcomes, such as increased social status. There are three major types of capital: economic, social, and cultural. Cultural capital describes all of the nonfinancial and nonsocial network assets that confer advantage in society. For example, a degree from a well-respected university such as Harvard confers prestige. Hard work, talent, intelligence, and physical attractiveness are also examples of cultural capital because these are all valued in society. PD, which includes behaviors that allow individuals to get ahead in society, is a form of cultural capital. ​​​​​​​ Capital confers advantage in society and can be accumulated and converted. Economic capital includes all financial assets; social capital includes social networks; and cultural capital includes all nonfinancial and nonsocial assets, such as hard work, education, and attractiveness.

PD is an example of which type of capital that can be possessed by an individual? A. Economic B. Social C. Cultural D. Human

A. Task dissimilarity Divided attention (multitasking) occurs when an individual attends to more than one stimulus or task simultaneously. The ability to multitask is significantly impacted by task similarity, difficulty, and practice. Tasks that are dissimilar, less difficult, and/or well practiced are easier to perform simultaneously.

Researchers designed the two distraction conditions to require multitasking and predicted that the hands-free conversation condition would be less distracting than the texting condition because of: A. task dissimilarity. B. the cocktail party effect. C. the interference effect. D. speech shadowing.

D. the life course approach to illness. The life course approach to illness is holistic and multidisciplinary, examining the cumulative effect of psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime on health outcomes

Researchers have identified a set of factors associated with an increased risk of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, including low birth weight, respiratory infections before age 2, low socioeconomic status in childhood, adolescent smoking, and occupational exposure to airborne irritants as an adult. This finding best reflects: A. the sick role theory approach. B. the illness experience perspective. C. the social construction of chronic disease. D. the life course approach to illness.

C. Instructors' expectations of the student nurses would be the independent variable. The teacher expectancy effect refers to a teacher's preconceived ideas about a student resulting in student performance that meets the teacher's expectations. Independent variables are manipulated/controlled by the researcher to examine the impact on the dependent variable.

Researchers hypothesized that student nurses make more errors when they train under the supervision of an instructor who has low expectations for their competency. Which statement is accurate regarding research designed to test this hypothesis? A. Results showing a teacher expectancy effect would not support the researcher's hypothesis. B. If the hypothesis is confirmed, the results would suggest the presence of the Hawthorne effect. C. Instructors' expectations of the student nurses would be the independent variable. D. To test the hypothesis, the severity of errors would need to be operationalized.

B. the McDonaldization of health care McDonaldization is the process whereby efficiency reduces individuality, calculability reduces quality, predictability reduces uniqueness, and control reduces the need for a skilled workforce.

Standardized protocols, patient checklists, and clinical guidelines are meant to increase efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control in the clinical setting. However, critics of standardizing medicine suggest that these sorts of practices may lead to: A. a manifest function of medical care. B. the McDonaldization of health care. C. an increase in the cultural capital of doctors. D. a decrease in the ascribed status of patients.

A. Representativeness heuristic Heuristics are mental shortcuts that save time but may lead to inaccurate judgments. The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to compare things (eg, people, events) to mental prototypes. The availability heuristic is the tendency to believe that if something is easily recalled from memory, it must be common or likely.

Symptoms of a myocardial infarction can differ between individuals. Women who experienced a myocardial infarction were later interviewed by a researcher about their decision to seek treatment. Many participants noted that they delayed seeking treatment because their symptoms didn't match the "prototypical" heart attack symptoms they had seen in the media. Which concept best explains this phenomenon? A. Representativeness heuristic B. Availability heuristic C. actor-observer bias D. Hindsight bias

C. nonverbal communication between patient and physician is a better predictor of patient outcomes than verbal communication. The first paragraph asserts that physicians make assumptions about their patients, which impacts patient care and outcomes. A study showing that nonverbal communication between patient and physician is a better predictor of patient outcomes than verbal communication (the actual words spoken) would best support this assertion because the interpretation of nonverbal cues involves making assumptions.

The assertion made in the first paragraph of the passage would be best supported by a study demonstrating that: A. positive impression management strategies implemented by physicians correspond to increased patient trust. B. front- and backstage behaviors of hospital patients do not correlate with length of hospital stay. C. nonverbal communication between patient and physician is a better predictor of patient outcomes than verbal communication. D. patients are more likely to make assumptions about their physicians based on salient social roles than on attire.

C. Positive, macrosociological Microsociology focuses on how interpersonal interactions between individuals or in small groups build and shape society. Macrosociology focuses on broad, society-wide institutions and events that impact the lives of individuals.

The finding in Study 2 of an association between BMI and number of neighborhood retail food chains demonstrates which type of correlation, and the study represents which sociological approach, respectively? A. Positive, microsociological B. Negative, microsociological C. Positive, macrosociological D. Negative, macrosociological

B. Strain theory Deviance is defined as behavior that violates social norms, the customary ways of doing things in society. Deviant behaviors violate informal norms (eg, cutting in line) or formal norms (eg, breaking a law). There are three major theories of deviance: strain, differential association, and labeling. Strain theory predicts that individuals experience tension (strain) when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means for achieving those goals. For example, a parent who is unable to feed her child (goal) because there is not enough food (lack of means) experiences strain. This strain causes individuals to seek deviant means of achieving the goal. Strain theory suggests that innovation occurs when individuals come up with new strategies for obtaining goals, which is most applicable to the first paragraph's description of the initial acts of PD by the Vietnamese villagers

The first paragraph describes how certain villagers engaged in initial acts of positive deviance (PD) to nourish their children. This description of PD engaged in by these villagers is most applicable to which of the following? A. Differential association theory B. Strain theory C. Labeling theory D. Conflict theory

D. the Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect, which describes when research subjects behave differently as a result of knowing that they are being observed, does not describe an obstacle that PD villagers and bright spotters overcome when developing their innovative problem-solving strategies. Problem solving describes the mental processes involved in trying to accomplish a goal that has an unknown solution. Common barriers to effective problem solving include mental set, confirmation bias, and functional fixedness. ​​​​​​​ The mental processes required to accomplish a goal with an unknown solution are known as problem solving. Common barriers to problem solving include applying an old technique to a new problem (mental set), a focus only on information that supports a prior belief (confirmation bias), and an inability to see innovative uses for an object (functional fixedness).

The innovative strategies employed by PD villagers and bright spotters suggest an ability to overcome all of the following, EXCEPT: A. mental set. B. confirmation bias. C. functional fixedness. D. the Hawthorne effect.

D. Blood oxygenation This study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a neuroimaging procedure that relies on the principle that active neurons require increased blood flow for oxygen delivery. Neurons lack internal energy stores (ie, no glucose or oxygen), so as an active brain region depletes the local oxygen supply in the blood, freshly oxygenated blood (oxyhemoglobin) rushes to this area to replace the deoxygenated blood (deoxyhemoglobin). The resulting change in blood flow is analyzed by detecting the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin using an fMRI scanner. Researchers use this method to compare blood flow during a resting condition and an active condition. For example, the study researchers would have first assessed subjects at baseline (resting condition) and then while watching videos meant to induce emotion (active condition) and compared the regions of brain activation.

The neuroimaging tool used for this study works by measuring which of the following? A. Electrical impulses B. Glucose metabolism C. Radioactive tracing D. Blood oxygenation

D. Social epidemiology Whereas epidemiology is the study of disease incidence (new cases of a disease) and prevalence (proportion of population with a disease), social epidemiology is a subfield focusing on the social factors that influence the health of an individual or population. Social factors can include larger social structures, such as a society at war, and more immediate factors, such as neighborhood safety. Many social factors can negatively impact health, including income and education disparities, unemployment, and food quality/availability. The study of how certain PD individuals catalyze changes to reduce malnutrition in Vietnamese villages is most applicable to social epidemiology. Social epidemiology is a subfield of epidemiology that considers the various social factors that can impact the health of an individual or a population

The pilot study of how PD can reduce malnutrition in Vietnamese villages is most applicable to which of the following? A. Relative deprivation B. Push and pull factors C. Globalization D. Social epidemiology

According to cognitive dissonance theory, people are motivated to think and behave in ways that are cognitively consistent. Divergent thoughts and/or behaviors result in discomfort, motivating individuals to change their behaviors and/or attitudes so that they align. Table 1 shows a higher estimated probability of "self" contracting meningitis (mean score = 35) for the likely/common group as compared to the other groups. These results, which support the hypothesis (the likely/common group will experience less self-positivity bias), can be explained by cognitive dissonance. Individuals initially believe they will never contract meningitis but then learn that it can be contracted through common behaviors, increasing cognitive dissonance. To reduce cognitive dissonance, individuals are then more likely to change their attitude by acknowledging that they themselves could contract meningitis.

The results in table 1 can also be explained by what? (Choice A) Evolutionary game theory (EGT) describes how complex social behaviors (eg, mating, aggression, altruism) persist in populations. By applying mathematical models, EGT predicts how organisms will interact and how their behaviors confer evolutionary advantage and are passed on to offspring. This study does not assess social behaviors. Choice B. cognitive dissonance theory (Choice C) Drive reduction theory suggests that motivation results from the desire to maintain homeostasis. This study does not assess motivation, so this theory cannot explain the results. (Choice D) Labeling theory suggests that when individuals are assigned a "deviant" label by others in society, they are more likely to behave in deviant ways, therefore justifying the label. This study does not assess social labels or deviance, so this theory cannot explain the results.

A. Amygdala The limbic system is involved in emotion, learning, and memory, and contains several structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus. The amygdala functions in the processing of primal emotions (eg, fear, anger, sexual arousal) and the encoding of other emotionally charged memories.

The results of the study suggest which of the following brain regions was also activated? A. Amygdala B. Basal ganglia C. Cerebellum D. Somatosensory cortex

B. Expectancy The expectancy theory of motivation proposes that motivation results from expectancy (believing one is capable of achieving an outcome), instrumentality (believing one has control over the outcome), and valence (believing the outcome is desirable).

The study design described in the passage is most aligned with which theory of motivation? A. Arousal B. Expectancy C. Incentive D. Humanistic

D. Spatial inequality Spatial inequality results from the uneven distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area. Some of the best examples of spatial inequality are low-income subsidized housing projects (where Jake and Michael grew up) because these typically concentrate large numbers of lower-income individuals into one area that is geographically separated or isolated from middle- and upper-income areas. Wrong answer: Absolute poverty (inability to secure the basic necessities of life, such as food and shelter. Relative poverty is subjectively defined in comparison to the economic conditions of others. Living in a high-crime public housing project reflects poverty that is relative to others in the same urban area with nicer living conditions.

The type of environment in which Jake and Michael grew up is most directly defined by: A. gentrification. B. absolute poverty. C. institutional discrimination. D. spatial inequality.

A. social learning overriding genetic predisposition starting around age 2-4 This passage does not discuss how social learning overrides genetic predisposition starting around age 2-4, since the passage suggests that gender differences in emotion are the result of both biological and sociocultural factors. Gender differences in the expression and detection of emotion are thought to result from both biological and social factors. Biological factors such as genetics may result in men and women processing emotion differently. Social factors such as norms may result in women and men learning to express and interpret emotion differently.

This passage considers how gender differences in emotion may result from all of the following, EXCEPT: A. social learning overriding genetic predisposition starting around age 2-4. B. socialization across an individual's lifespan. C. social and cultural norms that differ for men and women. D. physiological differences between the brains of males and females.

B. a positive correlation between Task 1 scores and Task 3 scores. A positive correlation between emotional expression scores from Task 1 (for both the positive and negative videos) and social success scores would support the hypothesis that emotions play an adaptive role in society. Individuals with stronger emotional reactions to the videos may be more understanding/perceptive of positive or negative emotions, which should correspond with an increased ability to build interpersonal connections (ie, social success).

To test the hypothesis that emotions play an adaptive role in society, researchers added a Task 3 to assess social success (higher scores = more social success). This hypothesis would be best supported by: A. a negative correlation between Task 1 scores for negative videos and Task 3 scores. B. a positive correlation between Task 1 scores and Task 3 scores. C. a negative correlation between heart rate during Task 2 and Task 3 scores. D. a positive correlation between Task 2 accuracy and Task 3 scores.

B. Cultural relativism and ethnocentrism Cultural relativism and ethnocentrism are competing sociological concepts. Culture describes the aspects of society that are shared by its members, such as language, norms, beliefs, and practices. Cultural relativism suggests that there are no "right" or "wrong" cultural practices. Cultural relativism advocates for examining a culture based on its own context, rather than comparing it to another culture. Ethnocentrism is the opposite of cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism describes the process of judging another culture based on one's own culture. For example, the traditional veil worn by Muslim women is a cultural practice. Judging this practice as oppressive compared with American culture is ethnocentric, but viewing the practice within the larger context of Muslim culture without judgment is an example of cultural relativism. Community-based approaches to behavior change are usually more effective than change being imposed on people, because community-based approaches tend to be culturally relativistic whereas external organizations tend to be ethnocentric

What two competing concepts help explain why the Vietnamese community-based approach was effective and external approaches were not? A. Prejudice and discrimination B. Cultural relativism and ethnocentrism C. Impression management and the dramaturgical approach D. Social networks and coercive organizations

B. The design used for Study 1 requires a greater number of counterbalancing measures. In research, counterbalancing is used to control for the potential effects that the order of intervention administration may have on the results. For example, if participants were given two different interventions, A and B, a counterbalancing measure would involve separating participants into two groups, one receiving intervention A first, and the other receiving intervention B first. In both Study 1 and Study 2, only one type of intervention was used; therefore, counterbalancing measures would not be required.

When comparing the research designs used for Study 1 and Study 2, which of the following statements is NOT true? A. Posttest scores in Study 2 are more vulnerable to experimenter bias. B. The design used for Study 1 requires a greater number of counterbalancing measures. C. The design used for Study 2 is more labor intensive and more expensive to implement. D. Posttest scores from Study 1 are more vulnerable to subjective interpretation.

D. central executive Working memory consists of the central executive (attention, task switching) and three lower subsystems: the visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial information), the phonological loop (linguistic information), and the episodic buffer (timeline, long-term memory integration). The central executive controls the lower subsystems. The results indicated that driving was impaired because of the cognitive overload produced by competing tasks and visual inattention. The central executive, responsible for attention and switching among various tasks, such as holding a conversation and driving, appears to be the aspect of working memory that is overloaded

Which aspect of working memory appears to be overloaded, according to the results of this study? A. Phonological loop B. Visuospatial sketchpad C. Episodic buffer D. Central executive

D. sampling bias Sampling bias is the result of nonrandom study sampling techniques (eg, convenience sampling) that produce nonrepresentative samples from which conclusions about the larger population cannot be drawn. Immigrant children in America (convenience sample) are not representative of students in other countries because there are likely to be fundamental differences between families that have immigrated and those that have not. In other words, sampling bias best explains why researchers cannot conclude that American students are underperforming academically compared to students in other countries based on data from immigrant children.

Which concept best explains why it CANNOT be concluded that American students are underperforming academically compared to students in other countries, based on the passage's comparison between immigrant children and their US-born classmates? A. Social desirability bias B. Confirmation bias C. Hindsight bias D. Sampling bias

B. Cognitive; watching videos of others describing traumatic events In Task 1 of the study, participants watched videos of individuals describing personal events (both negative and positive) and then rated their reactions on a scale of 1 (no emotional reaction) to 10 (extreme emotional reaction). The videos were designed to evoke the cognitive component of emotion because they required the viewers to think about the events being described and likely also involved their expectations and beliefs.

Which of the following accurately pairs a component of emotion with the study procedure designed to evoke that component? A. Behavioral; rating emotional reactions on a Likert scale B. Cognitive; watching videos of others describing traumatic events C. Affective; performing tasks while in an fMRI machine D. Physiological; pressing a button with each heartbeat

C. Vicarious emotions are associated with greater activation of the mirror neuron system in females. Mirror neurons are a type of neuron that fires when an individual both observes and performs a behavior; they may play a central role in observational learning and the experience of vicarious emotions. Mirror neurons appear to be involved in grasping the intentions and in understanding the emotions of others. Deficiencies in the mirror neuron system are hypothesized to play a role in autism spectrum disorders. Vicarious emotions occur when an observer intuits the feelings that another might be experiencing. Vicarious emotions are thought to have evolved to help individuals relate to and understand one another through shared emotional expression. fMRI data suggest that neural activation when one experiences an emotion is similar to when one watches someone else experience that emotion, suggesting that vicarious emotions are linked to the mirror neuron system. The third paragraph suggests that vicarious emotions may be associated with greater activation of the mirror neuron system in females than in males.

Which of the following conclusions is most supported by information in the third paragraph? A. The entire limbic system appears to be more active in males than in females. B. The prefrontal cortex is more likely to be active in males when expressing anger. C. Vicarious emotions are associated with greater activation of the mirror neuron system in females. D. Suppression of negative emotions is associated with activation of the limbic system in females.

A. An antiemetic that prevents a recurrence of N/V acts as positive reinforcement. Behavior is increased or maintained by reinforcement; positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable stimulus is applied, encouraging a behavior to happen again. For example, a young child receives a lollipop (desirable stimulus) for good behavior during a medical appointment, which increases the likelihood of future good behavior. In terms of the answer choice that is not accurate regarding antiemetic medications, an antiemetic that prevents a recurrence of N/V is inhibiting an undesirable stimulus, not adding a desirable stimulus; therefore, it is not an example of positive reinforcement.

Which of the following is NOT accurate regarding antiemetic medications, which are administered to patients undergoing chemotherapy to treat or prevent N/V? A. An antiemetic that prevents a recurrence of N/V acts as positive reinforcement. B. An antiemetic that treats current PN acts as negative reinforcement. C. An antiemetic that treats current PN may produce escape learning. D. An antiemetic that prevents a recurrence of N/V may produce avoidance learning.

D. Structural functionalism Structural functionalism is a macro-level (large-scale) sociological perspective suggesting that all aspects of society work together to maintain dynamic equilibrium (societal balance). Structural functionalism is not concerned with micro-level (small-scale) interactions between individuals, so this theory would be the least concerned with how nonverbal communication influences the social behavior of individuals. Nonverbal communication includes all the wordless cues meant to convey meaning to another individual, such as body language, hand gestures, facial expressions, and vocal inflections. Research suggests that nonverbal communication has an important impact on social interactions.

Which of the following is the LEAST concerned with the role of nonverbal communication in influencing the social behavior of individuals? A. Elaboration likelihood model B. Dramaturgical perspective C. Symbolic interactionism D. Structural functionalism

The hypothesis that memories are consolidated (processed and stored) during REM sleep has not been supported by data. While it appears that sleep is involved in the consolidation of certain types of memory, research has yet to determine which types are consolidated during specific sleep stages. REM sleep is suppressed by several classes of antidepressants, yet these drugs do not appear to disrupt learning or memory processes. Therefore, this observation disconfirms the hypothesis that REM sleep is critical for memory consolidation

Which of the following observations disconfirms the hypothesis that REM sleep is critical for memory consolidation? A. Individuals taking antidepressant drugs that profoundly suppress REM sleep show no learning disruptions. B. Individuals deprived of REM sleep one night tend to exhibit REM rebound, more REM sleep than usual the next night. C. Individuals deprived of sleep tend to perform worse on memory tasks than those who are not deprived of sleep. D. Studies suggest that dreaming occurs during both REM and NREM sleep but is more common during REM sleep.

A. Motion parallax Monocular (one eye) and binocular (both eyes) cues are important for visual perception. Motion parallax (relative motion) is a monocular cue important for the perception of motion and distance. Motion parallax describes when objects in the foreground appear to be moving faster than objects in the background.

Which of the following processes assists in the perception of depth and motion required during the driving simulation? A. Motion parallax B. Retinal disparity C. Convergence D. Phi phenomenon

B. When a medical student is expelled, she spends her days watching cartoons and becomes attached to a childhood teddy bear. According to psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms are a largely unconscious means of dealing with anxiety or stress, often through distorting or ignoring aspects of reality. Some defense mechanisms are more adaptive (eg, channeling unacceptable urges into a socially acceptable hobby) and provide an effective means of coping with stress, whereas others are less adaptive (eg, avoiding feelings through excessive alcohol consumption) and can result in additional problems (eg, unstable relationships). Regression involves unconsciously acting much younger, often reverting to behaviors one hasn't engaged in for years (eg, thumb sucking) to avoid dealing with a stressor. An individual who experiences a distressing event (eg, expulsion from medical school) is exhibiting regression by spending her days watching cartoons and becoming attached to a childhood toy.

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the psychoanalytic concept of regression? A. When a medical student receives a failing grade in his medical ethics class, he says that the instructor was "unprepared" and "incompetent." B. When a medical student is expelled, she spends her days watching cartoons and becomes attached to a childhood teddy bear. C. When a medical student finds out that he has failed his licensing exam, he becomes angry and throws his laptop on the ground. D. When a medical student struggles with a difficult rotation, she starts taking martial arts classes to channel her frustration.

D. James lange The commonsense view of emotion suggests that emotion (eg, fear) causes physiological responses (eg, racing heart, sweating). The James-Lange theory suggests that specific physiological responses (eg, racing heart, sweating) produce specific emotions (eg, fear)

Which of the following theories is most consistent with the theory described in the second paragraph? A. Evolutionary B. Cognitive appraisal C. Schachter-Singer D. James-Lange

B. Attachment styles result from bonding that occurs within the first hours after birth Attachment styles, which reflect the emotional bond between child and caregiver, are not formed during the first few hours after birth but rather form during the first few years of life as a result of repeated interactions. The nature of this ongoing contact between child and caregiver can produce a secure or insecure attachment style.

Which statement is NOT accurate regarding human social behavior? A. Early attachment style tends to have long-lasting effects on relationships and well-being B. Attachment styles result from bonding that occurs within the first hours after birth C. Sensitive and responsive caregiving tends to result in more secure attachments D. Stranger anxiety is considered a normal developmental milestone for infants

D. episodic Sensory memory has the shortest duration and smallest capacity, short-term memory lasts for half a minute, and long-term memory is permanent. The two types of long-term memory are explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural). The two types of declarative memory are episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (facts).

Which type of memory is LEAST likely to be engaged during the driving simulation? A. Implicit B. Sensory C. Short-term D. Episodic