BEHAVORIAL NEUROSCIENCE (LO 4, LO 5, LO 6)

Four anatomical regions of the spine

1st layer: The cervical region has eight pairs of spinal nerves. 2nd layer: The thoracic region has twelve pairs of spinal nerves. 3rd layer: The lumbar region has five pairs of spinal nerves. 4th layer: The sacral regions has five pairs of spinal nerves (similar to the lumbar region).

Cerebrum (or cerebral cortex)

The ... assists in learning and cognition of thoughts. It is an information processing center. It is divided into four lobes, which have specific functions. It is also wrinkly in appearance due to the gyri and sulci. It is also divided by the longitudinal fissure, which separates the brain into two hemispheres. The lateralization of the two hemispheres differs from their language functions and how they contribute to behavior. The right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body. It is also the largest part of the brain.

Reticular formation

The ... formation is centered in the midbrain region. However, it extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain. ... formation regulates motor activity, alertness, arousal, and sleeping cycle.

dorsal horn

The ... horn is the upper region of the butterfly-shaped structure of the gray matter. It is posterior (back).

Thalamus

The ... is almost like a router that relays sensory information (except for olfactory) between sensory neurons and to the higher brain regions for interpretation. The senses are routed through the ... before they are directed to the higher regions of the brain. It is located in the forebrain.

Hippocampus

The ... is part of the limbic system. It assists in memory and learning.

Amygdala

The ... is part of the limbic system. It plays a role in the experience of emotions, such as rage, fear, and aggression. It is also attributable to the emotional meaning that is attached to memories.

ventral horn

The ventral ... is the lower region of the butterfly-shaped structure of the gray matter. It is anterior.

dorsal root

the dorsal ... is the posterior root of the spinal cord and it extends from the spinal cord. It is an afferent (sensory; to the brain) root. It transmits sensory information to the central nervous system from the periphery for interpretation.

Corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them; neural fibers, which contain about 200 million axons. allows the two hemispheres of the brain to communicate with each other for processing of information. For example, when one side of the brain processes information, the information is then shared with the other side. In severe cases of epilepsy, it might be severed.

Psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior; evaluates the effects of drugs on the nervous system and how it influences human behavior and thought processes.

List the steps in synaptic transmission in the proper order.

First step: The action potential arrives at the axon terminal button. Second step: The arrival of the action potential opens the voltage-gated calcium channels in the axon's plasma membrane (axolemma) and calcium ions then diffuse into the axon terminal. Third step: Calcium ions bind with the calcium receptor—calmodulin—which causes the synaptic vesicles to depart to and fuse with the presynaptic cell's membrane. Fourth step: The neurotransmitter is then released into synaptic cleft by the process of exocytosis. Fifth step: The neurotransmitter moves by diffusing across the synaptic cleft and binds with the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Sixth step: The binding of the neurotransmitters to the postsynaptic receptors causes a response in the postsynaptic cell.

Antagonist

An ... is a molecule that rejects or opposes the effect of a neurotransmitter. For example, the substance curate blocks the binding site of acetylcholine's receptor protein. Therefore, it cannot bind to the site because of the blockage and the sodium channel cannot open to reach excitatory stimulation. Another example of an ... is Narcans. Narcan is an ..., which prevents an opioid from binding to the receptor protein's site by temporarily withholding its physiological effects on the host's body.

Dopamine

As a neurotransmitter, it is responsible for the feelings of pleasure, reward, satisfaction, addiction, and motivation. Dopamine is released naturally through activities, such as the consumption of tasty food or sexual activities. Often, individuals will perform certain behaviors, which will unnaturally release ..., such as taking exogenous drugs, which interfere with the inhibition (heroin) and transportation (cocaine) of ... It belongs to both the categories of monoamines and catecholamines. An imbalance of this can cause schizophrenia—when an individual has too much. Reversely, Parkinson's disease is caused by an absence of it. Receptors: Ionotropic (none) metabotropic (excitatory or inhibitory)

Agonist

It is a molecule that is parallel to the effect of a certain neurotransmitter and similarly reproduces or mimics its physiological effects. For example, succinylcholine reproduces the effect of acetylcholine when it binds to the specific site of the receptor protein and opens the sodium channel. Another example of an ... is opioids, which over-activate the receptors.

Serotonin

It is a monoamine. As a neurotransmitter, it is responsible for feelings of happiness and good health. It regulates the sleep cycle and intestinal movements. Low levels of it have been associated with the diagnoses of clinical depression and anxiety disorders. Individuals with low ... levels are often prescribed SSRI antidepressants (serotonin agonist), which prevents the reuptake of ... and causes ... to stay in the synapse while continuing to exert its effect. Activities, such as exercise, may naturally improve ... levels over time and contribute to wellness. Receptors: Ionotropic (excitatory) metabotropic (excitatory or inhibitory)

Glutamate

It is an amino acid. It can be detected in all areas of the central nervous system (CNS) and it is the most common form of neurotransmitter that can be identified in the brain. Within the CNS, it excites the areas of brainstem, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Glutamate assists in vital cognitive processes, e.g., memory and learning; along with the regulation of the development of brain and nerve contact creation. Its receptors are all excitatory. - In vast amounts, it is highly toxic and can result in the death of neurons and brain cells—along with strokes. Receptors: All excitatory

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

It is an amino acid. It is associated with motor control and vision. It inhibits motor, sensory, and cognitive neurons, which are associated with sedation, muscular/cardiorespiratory relaxation, and the inhibition of pain and/or reflexes. As a neurotransmitter, it is also the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system. For instance, it inhibits the firing of nerves in the central nervous system and interferes with action potentials by slowing them down. Elevated levels of it improve focus and relaxation; while, decreased levels cause anxiety and epilepsy. Its receptors are all inhibitory. Receptors: All inhibitory.

EPSP

It is an excitatory postsynaptic potential, which occurs if the membrane is depolarized by the movement of the ions. When the chemically gated channel allows sodium (Na+) ions to rush inside the cell, it becomes depolarized and results in a threshold.

Glycine

It is an inhibitory amino acid. It is found in the spinal cord, and it specifically inhibits the interneurons of the spinal cord. Just as GABA, it is inhibitory, and it binds to the ionotropic receptor by opening the Cl- channel. Receptors: All inhibitory.

IPSP

It is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential, which occurs if the membrane is hyperpolarized by the movement of the ions. In this case, the ... will strongly decrease the probability of the postsynaptic cell to reach the threshold towards an action potential.

Drug

It is chemical to originate externally and not internally within the human body (exogenous). A drug tends to chemically alter the function of cells within the body in minimal doses. It is not essential for the natural functioning and mechanisms of the cells.

Occipital Lobe

It is located at the back of the brain. It processes visual information due to the primary visual cortex.

White matter

It is myelinated and it is the outer region, which consists of many myelinated axons.

Cerebellum

It is part of the hindbrain (aka "little brain"), which regulates bodily balance by receiving messages from the muscles, tendons, ear, and joints and by assisting in motor coordination. It also processes memories, which are related to remembering motor tasks ("procedural memory"). For example, if one learned how to swim or ride a bike, they would recall how to do these motor activities because of the cerebellum.

adrenaline (epinephrine)

It is produced as a hormone by the adrenal medulla during times of elevated stress or exciting happenings. It increases the heart, contracts blood vessels, and expands airways to boost the flow of blood to muscles and oxygen to the respiratory system (lungs). Due to these physiological occurrences, it results in a physical stimulus and an increase in awareness. EpiPens are used to treat allergic reactions, and they work by injecting ... into the system.

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

It is produced as a hormone by the adrenal medulla, and it affects attention and the response of actions in the brain. It is involved in the "fight-or-flight" (sympathetic nervous system) response and contracts blood vessels to increase the flow of blood. Those who have been diagnosed with ADHD are often prescribed drugs, which help to boost the level of ... in the brain. Patients with anxiety and cardiac failure may also be prescribed ...

Silence synaptic signaling

Other than the summation of the EPSPs, the summation of both the EPSPs and IPSPs specify whether or not an action potential will be elicited. The quantity of EPSPs and IPSPs must be adequate to raise the membrane's potential to fire an action potential. If IPSPs in quantity conquer and outnumber the quantity of EPSPs, then the postsynaptic neuron will be silent and it will not reach threshold to fire an action potential and receive signals. It is below its resting potential and hyperpolarized.

medulla oblongata

Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion; is a part of the hindbrain, and it regulates the basic physiological functions of involuntary reflexes, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

plasma-like clear fluid circulating in and around the brain and spinal cord; it is between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. This cavity is called the subarachnoid space. The production of CSF originates from the choroid plexuses, which are capillaries that are in the ventricles. - CSF cushions the brain to protect it from internal injuries (e.g., head blows). It also rids the skull of its metabolic waste and ships nutrients and hormones.

Parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position; this lobe is located behind the frontal lobe, and it processes sensory information. The lobe contains the somatosensory cortex. For example, when something bitter is tasted, one may immediately think about how bitter it is because of the inner neural mechanisms of the ... lobe that processes gustatory information.

Pre-synaptic neuron

... neuron is the cell that transmits the signal to the synapse. When defined, the term synapse also means "coming together," or where two components join together for a synaptic formation, which serves as a point of communication between two cells or two neurons that communicate (or a muscle that communicates with a neuron). A ... neuron can form three different types of synapses with a post-synaptic neuron: Axodendritic is the most common type of synapse; where the axon of pre-synaptic neuron synapses with a dendrite of the post-synaptic neuron. Axosomatic is when the pre-synaptic neuron synapses with the soma of the postsynaptic neurons. Axoaxonic synapse is when the pre-synaptic neuron synapses with the axon of the postsynaptic neuron.

pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain; is a part of the hindbrain and it serves as a bridge to connect the hindbrain to the rest of the configurations of the brain. It regulates sleeping, waking, and dreaming by regulating brain activity during sleep.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature (homeostasis) blood pressure, sexual behavior), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. It is part of the limbic system.

Temporal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language; This lobe is located on the side of the head and it assists with hearing, emotion, and language. It contains the auditory cortex, which processes auditory information. In terms of language, the Wernicke's area plays a role in the comprehension of speech.

Frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement. It assists in reasoning, emotion, language, motor control, attention, decision-making, and speaking. It also contains the prefrontal cortex and Broca's area. The prefrontal cortex assists in advanced cognitive functioning and how the brain processes information. The Broca's area produces language.

Synaptic cleft

A synaptic ... or a synaptic gap separates the pre- and post-synaptic cells. When an action potential occurs and is produced to the axon terminal, it results in the secretion of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messages from the axon terminals. Through the process of diffusion, neurotransmitter molecules move across the synaptic ... and bind to the specific receptor proteins on the cell membrane of the post-synaptic cell.

blood-brain barrier

Blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out; the barrier provides protections against harmful substances that can physiologically damage the cellular configurations of the brain by being dissolved in the blood. However, it may also create complications due to the rejection of certain medications.

Temporal summation

Describes the event when a synapse causes the postsynaptic cell to become instantly stimulated and the subsequent produced EPSPs by the cell gather on top of one another to cause depolarization at an elevated level.

Spatial summation

Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources; describes the event of numerous presynaptic neurons stimulating the postsynaptic neuron simultaneously. The membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron is changed minimally due to a limited number of ions from each individual synapse. The membrane potential eventually reaches a threshold towards an action potential when the combined effect of all the synapses based on plentiful ions that are inside the cell.

Post-synaptic neuron

It is the cell that will receive the transmitted signal from the pre-synaptic neuron; once it crosses the synapse of the postsynaptic cell. ... neurons at a synapse may become the presynaptic neuron for another cell.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

It is the vital neurotransmitter that is involved in the processes of cognition (thoughts), learning, attention, amplification of sensory perception when awake, and memory. Moreover, it is associated with the activation of muscle action. It is found in motor neurons. When there is damage to the production of it, it results in a memory deficit. The memory deficiency is associated with Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Hence, it is used to treat these diseases—related to memory. Receptors: Ionotropic (excitatory) metabotropic (excitatory or inhibitory)

Synaptic vesicles

Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept; ... vesicles are secretory vesicles, which are located inside the pre-synaptic neuron's terminal. Synaptic ... contain the chemical molecules neurotransmitters that are then released to the synapse by the process of exocytosis, which are vital to the synaptic transmission of a signal.

ventral root

The ... root is the anterior root of the spinal cord and it extends below the dorsal root of the spinal cord. It is an efferent (motor; outgoing) root. It transmits motor information to the muscles and glands.

Limbic system

The ... system processes emotion and memory. It is also associated with the regulation of basic motives, such as food, fights, fleeing, and sex.

grey matter

The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in cell bodies of neurons rather than axons. Unmyelinated; It is the inner region within the spinal cord in cross section that consists of many cell bodies and dendrites. It is butterfly-shaped. Moreover, it is the location of synapses.

the protective mechanisms of the CNS

The protective mechanisms of the CNS are protected by the three layers of meninges, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the blood-brain barrier, a vertebral column (protects the spinal cord), and skulls of the cranial bone (protects the brain and the bones of the face). The three layers of meninges are dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is the outlying meninge layer that is at the top of the arachnoid mater. It is also the most durable layer - which makes it difficult to penetrate it. The arachnoid mater is below the dura mater, and it resembles a spider web due to its projections. These projections extend to the third layer, which is the pia mater, through a small cavity. The cavity has CSF fluid. In comparison to the pia mater, the arachnoid mater is a bit thicker in its quality. The pia mater is a fragile covering that resembles the quality of tissue paper. The pia mater protects the brain and spinal cord and clinging onto them to provide protection.

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

These are serotonin agonists that prevent the reuptake (when neurotransmitters are recycled back into the presynaptic neuron) of serotonin. Agonists will block serotonin reuptake and prevent it from being turned off and signaling. For example, antidepressants are ..., which are used to treat patients who have been diagnosed with clinical depression.

Basal Ganglia

a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements; consist of a bunch of nuclei or neurons that have the same functions. The ... control motor movement. For instance, patients who have been diagnosed with Parkinson's have dysfunctionality in this area, which destabilizes motor movement.

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

autoreceptor

signal the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing the neurotransmitter; An ... is a type of metabotropic receptor (which is a signal protein connected to the G protein; inside of a neuron). An ... is found in the membranes of the presynaptic neuron. ... are stimulated by a neuron's individual neurotransmitters. They intervene in negative feedbacks, which is a process that is involved in homeostasis. For example, ... may reduce or suppress the release of a neurotransmitter.