Big Biology Praxis Boi

dependent variable

variable that is observed and that changes in response to the independent variable (responding variable)

How are sugars transported throughout plant?

vascular bundles of xylem and phloem. Vascular bundles make up veins in leaf.

systole phase of the heart cycle?

ventricles contract sending blood to the rest of the body.

lysosomes

small organelles filled with enjpyes. "cleanup crew" Breaks downs lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins into small molecules that can be used by the rest of the cell. They are also involved in breaking down organelles that have outlived their usefulness.

ribosomes

small particles of RNA and protein found throughout cytoplasm in all cells. where proteins are assembled.

selective permeability

some substances can pass across them and others cannot

What is incomplete dominance?

some traits are determined by genes that are neither dominant nor recessive and instead produce offspring that are a mix of the 2 parents. EX - red and white flowers produce pink flower

Give the frequency of Y-linked disorders from affected males.

sons 100%. daughters 0%

What is the frequency of inheritance of X-linked recessive disorder from the mother?

sons 50% affected daughters 50% carriers

What are internodes?

spaces between nodes

flame cells

specialized cells that remove excess water from the body (flatworms)

What are sieve plates?

specialized tissue that allow nutrients to pass from cell to cell

What are vertebrates?

species with an internal backbone

What are invertebrates?

species with no internal backbone structure. Have exoskeletons. sponges, worms, arthropods, mollusks, crustaceans

allelles?

specific versions of a gene

What are sperm cells?

sperm cells develop from spermatids

What is spermatogenesis?

sperm formation

What happens during metaphase?

spindle fibers pull cx into alignment along center of cell (equatorial plane), creating metaphase plate. ensures each daughter cell receives 1 copy of each cx.

What layer is under the palisade cells?

spongy layer - layer of parenchyma cells separated by large air spaces to allow for exchange of CO2 and O2 for photosynthesis.

propagating units for moss and fern?

spores - single haploid cell

In angiosperms which generation is the most prominent?

sporophyte - adult flowering plant

Golgi Apparatus

stack of flattened membranes. modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other materials from the ER for storage in cell or release outside cell. "factory"

What is phloem?

stacked cells connected by sieve plates that transport food made in the leaves to the rest of the plant.

male plant parts?

stamen, anther, filament

Prokaryotic DNA Replication

starts from a single point and proceeds in two directions until the entire chromosome is copied (circular shape)

What is the main organ for transporting food and water to and from leaves; also storing food?

stem

What is the main support structure of the plant?

stem

Where is meristem tissue found?

stem

role of potassium?

stomata opening and closing; conducts electricity in the body, along with sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium. Potassium is crucial to heart function and plays a key role in skeletal and smooth muscle contraction

vacuoles

store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Plant Central Vacuole

stores water, food and waste products in plant cells

plant cell wall

strong, protective structure made from cellulose fibrils

what are centrioles

structural components of many cells. tubes constructed of pinwheel shape of MTs. Function is formation of new MTs; also formation of structure around which cells split during mitosis and meiosis

nucleus

structural site containing genetic material as well as the site of replication, transcription, and ribosomal synthesis in some cells

Chloroplasts

structural sites of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into food. Chloroplasts exist in the cytoplasm of plant cells.

lysosome

structure within the cell that contains digestive enzymes.

analogy/analogous

structures that are similar because of their common function, although they do not share a common ancestry.

homology/homologous

structures that exist in two different species because they share a common ancestry

Hershey and Chase

studied a bacteriophage that was composed of a DNA core and a protein coat. They wanted to determine which part of the virus--the protein coat or the DNA core--entered the bacterial cell. The experiment confirmed Avery's results, convincing many scientists that DNA was the genetic material found in genes--not just in viruses and bacteria but all living cells.

What is biogeography?

study of how photosynthetic organisms and animals are distributed in a particular location, plus history of their past distribution

What is island biogeography?

subdiscipline of biogeography. Studies the distribution of species in an island habitat Closed systems easiest to study

two types of autonomic NS?

sympathetic - fight or flight response parasympathetic - rest and repair

What does RER do?

synthesizes proteins for membrane-bound organelles; packages and tx materials within cell

what are the most important factors that affect photosynthesis?

temperature, light intensity, and availability of water

What is the terminal bud?

the beginning of a new set of leaves. New one produced each year.

What is a community structure?

the characteristics of a specified community. includes the types of species that dominate, major climactic trends of the region, whether open or closed community

Watson and Crick

the clues in Franklin's Xray pattern enabled Watson and Crick to build a model that explained the specific structure and properties of DNA

Cephalization

the concentration of nerve tissue and sensory organs at the anterior end of an organism

Endosymbiosis evidence

the mitochondria and the chloroplast contain their own DNA and ribosomes, and they can make their own proteins

What did Linnaeus base his taxonomic methods on?

the morphological (outward anatomical) similarities and differences seen among species.

What is the endosperm of the seed?

the polar bodies produced during meiosis in the ovule. When fertilized by sperm cells, polar bodies (nuclei) develop into the endosperm.

anaerobic cellular respiration

the process by which cells obtain energy from an energy source without using oxygen

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

What is the shoot apex?

the region where stem elongation occurs.

The lac operon in E. coli

the repressor protein binds to the operator in the absence of lactose

What is a niche?

the role a species plays within an ecosystem includes physical requirements and biological activities

What is the demographic transition theory?

theory that proposes there are progressive demographic time periods of human population growth.

Chloroplast DNA

they contain their own DNA and ribosomes. The DNA is different than the DNA in the nucleus and may code for proteins essential to photosynthesis. Having its own ribosomes also allows the chloroplast to perform translation of these proteins, independent of what goes on outside the chloroplast inside the cytoplasm of the cell.

What traits do r-selected species have?

they have traits to allow them to succeed in the long term and also in a changing or new ecosystem.

What advantages do extinction events give?

they open up massive ecological niches, encouraging evolution of multitudes of new species.

What traits do equilibreal or K-selected species have?

they tend to have long life spans with a long maturation time.

What are the parenchyma cells of the root?

thin-walled cells loosely packed to allow for flow of gases and mineral uptake

Which islands are more likely to have a wider diversity of species?

those that support numerous habitats larger and older the island, the more species it will support Exception- old island with eroded soil - nutrients lost. also, harsh climates and soil characteristics

photosystems

thylakoids contain clusters of chlorophyll and proteins known as photosystems. which are surrounded by accessory pigments, are essential to the light dependent reactions. absorb sunlight and generate high energy electrons that are then passed to a series of electron carriers embedded in the thylakoid membrane.

What is chromatin?

tightly packed and coiled DNA with histones

What is contained in each seed?

tiny embryonic plant, stored food, and seed coat for protection.

ground tissue

tissue between the dermal tissue and vascular tissue of a non-woody plant that functions in photosynthesis, storage, and support

What is the function of the endodermis of the root?

to act as a filter

What is purpose of stomata?

to allow moisture and gases to pass in and out of leaf to facilitate phosynthesis.

What is the main purpose of the petals?

to attract insects and birds for pollination

linked traits

traits that are inherited together. This is exception to law of independent assortment. Some traits are always inherited together.

somatic and autonomic nervous system?

two parts of the peripheral NS somatic - conscious control of muscles autonomic - everything else that doesn't require conscious thought to work

Universal dONor?

type O blood is the universal dOnOr

What is amensalism?

type of symbiosis where one species is neither harmed nor helped, but inhibits growth of another species

macrophage?

type of white blood cell within body tissues that is produced by monocytes

What is a tuber?

underground storage stem that develops new shoots after dormant season

What layer is under spongy layer?

underneath layer - openings (stomata) ringed by guard cells.

How long would a fish population introduced into a pond experience exponential population growth?

until food and space supplies began to limit the population

How is water pulled up through stem once it reaches the xylem?

via the cohesion-tension process; also via transpiration

What affect do telomeres have on cell longevity?

w/ each division telomeres get shorter; when too short the cell becomes inactive (senescent)

What role do fossil fuels play in the carbon cycle?

when fossil fuels are burned, CO2 is released into atmosphere to be used by plants

bottleneck effect?

when large numbers of a population are removed in one or a few generations due to overhunting, disease, natural disaster, etc.

What is a climax community?

when succession ends in a stable community. Is best suited to climate and soil conditions. Achieves homeostasis. Remains until catastrophic event destroys it

divergent evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time

What is the nucleolus?

where rRNA is synthesized

activation site of an enzyme?

where substrate binds

What are ovules?

within ovary. Small, round cases, each containing one or more egg cells. Ovule will become seed if egg is fertilized.

-These are the 5 types or classes of antibodies: -B-cells can:

1. IgG 2. IgM 3. IgA 4. IgD 5. IgE -B-cells can produce each type of antibody at different times during an infection

5 characteristics of autosomal recessive inheritance in a pedigree:

1. Males and females are equally likely to have the trait 2. Traits often skip generations 3. Only homozygous individuals have the trait 4. Traits can appear in siblings without appearing in parents 5. If a parent has the trait, offspring without the phenotype are carriers of the trait

Point mutations can result in all of the following:

1. Missense mutation (wrong amino acid) 2. Nonsense mutation (STOP codon) 3. Silent mutation (by coding for a redundant codon)

microtubule facts?

- Make up cilia and flagella; movement due to contraction of microtubules - Substance of the spindle apparatus - -made of tubulin protein - -cytoskeletal role in cell - -in nerve cells - Pseudopods of protozoa

Pneumonic for divisions of classification in the diversity of organisms:

"Do Kinky People Cry Out For Good Sex?"

The first cells on earth were most likely _______ ________ Because 3.5 billion years ago the earths atmosphere contained:

"Obligate anaerobes" No oxygen

Concentrated acids are always diluted by first adding ________ to ________

"Stock acid solution" To "Water"

organelles

"little organs"

In protein translation there are _____ possible codon triplets, and there are ____ amino acids

-64 -20

Mitochondria structure and function

- rod shaped of oval structure enclosed by a double membrane composed of cristae that project into inner matrix -The outer membrane surrounds the mitochondria. It is a semi-permeable membrane similar to the cell membrane. -The inner membrane is impermeable. Its function is to create more space to perform cellular respiration. -The folds created by the inner membrane are known as the cristae, which contain proteins and molecules that participate in cellular respiration -The matrix of the mitochondria is the space surrounding the cristae, which also includes molecules that participate in cellular respiration as well as ribosomes and mitochondrial DNA. - extract energy from nutrient molecules in food into a usable form of energy (ATP) to power cellular activity. Generate 90% of energy!!

Lymphocytes come in two varieties:

-B-cells -T-cells

In each turn of the citric acid cycle _____ molecule of ATP is produced via _________

-1 -substrate level phosphorylation

Starting about __________ years ago photosynthesis helped:

-1.2 billion -create the oxygen-rich atmosphere found on earth today

DNA

-1.Found in nucleus 2. sugar is deoxyribose 3. Bases are A,T,C,G -DNA is a long polymer with a deoxyribose and phosphate backbone and four different bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine -A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms -Medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information -Typically a double- stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides -Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive because of C-H bonds. Stable in alkaline conditions. DNA has smaller grooves where the damaging enzyme can attach which makes it harder for the enzyme to attack DNA

For each molecule of glucose ______ molecules of ________ are _______ and channeled into the citric acid cycle:

-2 -pyruvate -decarboxylated (into acetyl-CoA)

Glycolysis yields _________ per molecule of glucose Whereas cellular respiration can yield:

-2 ATP -36 - 38 ATP

Structure/function of chloroplast?

-2 membranes -stroma contains enzymes for dark reactions -thylakoids contain chlorophyll

Mitochondria structure?

-2 membranes; inner folded - folds called cristae -space btw cristae is called the matrix -matrix contains enzymes for krebs cycle -bound to cristae are enzymes needed to oxidize NADH+ or run the ETC for the generation of ATP in the krebs cycle -95% of ATP generated in mitochondria

ribosome structure and function in translation?

-2 parts: large subunit and small subunit -both parts made of rRNA and proteins -mRNA from the nucleus (created through transcription?) associates 1st w/ small subunit and then binds w/ large subunit for protein synthesis -mRNA then pairs with complimentary molecules of tRNA which carries a specific amino acid to form a specific protein

Structure/function of plasma membrane?

-40% lipid and 60% protein -hydrophilic ends and hydrophobic middle -protein globules embedded that can move across the membrane as needed -discriminately permeable

Phylogenies are based on _________ structures They describe:

-Homologous -species that are derived from a common ancestor

A hypotonic solution has a ________ solute concentration than another solution:

-Lower

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work - is the molecule all living things use to store energy. ATP is like a rechargeable battery. When the battery loses its charge (in the form of a phosphate), it becomes ADP

what do ribonucleases do?

(commonly abbreviated RNase) is a type of nuclease that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components.

Radial cleavage is shown by: Spiral cleavage is shown by:

-Protosome -Deuterosome

The _________ will undergo ________ in order to produce spores

-Sporophyte -meiosis

Peroxisomes?

-contain oxidative enzymes to decompose some compounds

This percent of all the wavelengths in visible light can actually be absorbed by photosynthetic pigments

1%

Humoral response: 1. Lag period in first exposure: 2. Lag period in secondary response after re-exposure:

1. 7 - 10 days 2. 1 - 4 days

The different ways that antigens work: (3 main ways)

1. Agglutination / neutralization 2. Precipitation 3. Complement activation

Denitrifying bacteria are _______ _________ that are typically live in deep soil.

"Facultative anaerobes"

Nucleoid Region?

- Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecule.

What are the 4 types of bad changes to chromosome structure?

1. Duplication 2. Deficiency (deletion) 3. Inversion 4. translocation

Chlorophyll

A green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and some bacteria

Cloning

A process in which a cell, cell product, or organism is copied from an original source.

TATA box

A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.

Codon

A specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid

chromosome

A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

For ecological succession to occur in a given area, the organisms living there at a given time must:

Alter the environment; organic matter increases in the soil = allows environment to support larger more diverse group of organisms

Steroid hormones are:

Androgens and estrogen that promote secondary sex characteristics

Linnaean classification for human: (entire classification)

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Homo Sapiens

Sodium potassium pump is a _________

Antiport

anaphase

Apart- pulls chromosomes apart

The different between plants and fungi is that plants are:

Autotrophic; fungi absorb nutrients from their surroundings

this is the only photopigment that participates in light reactions:

Chlorophyll a

Metaphase (mitosis)

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

What are the six stages of fertilization?

Contact, Entry, Blocks to polyspermy, Activation of cell, restart of Mitosis, and Amphimixis

Blue-green algae are what?

Cyanobacteria!

How does the cell control metabolic activity? (meaning control the making of proteins)

Degradation of mRNA stops the process

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

The amino acid sequence differences in shared proteins between organisms are greater as the organisms:

Diverge farther away from each other in time and evolve separately from one another

Genus of the fruit fly

Drosophila

Prometaphase (Mitosis)

During prometaphase, the nuclear membrane breaks down. The centrosomes move to opposite sides of the cell. Chromosomes are beginning to attach to the mitotic spindle.

Transcription factors bind to:

Enhancer regions on DNA

homologous recombination

Exchange of genetic information between homologous DNA molecules.

Energy metabolism: How are fats used for energy?

Fats are broken down into glycerols that can be converted to pyruvate and fatty acids that are converted to acetyl-CoA which can enter the citric acid cycle

On a global scale, there is a net movement of water:

From the oceans --> to the land

Look for evidence of contribution to more than one _____________ to determine better Darwinian fitness

Generation

Parasitism?

In this association one organism [the parasite] benefits, and the other [the host] is adversely affected

Why use karyotype technique?

Look for chromosome abnormalities Compare chromosomes from different species

Chloroplasts are found mainly in the:

Mesophyl

Epithelial cells lining the mammalian trachea are examples of cells that have this feature:

Motile cilia covered with thin layer of mucus

ABO blood group is an example of:

Multiple alleles; more than 2 choices of alleles are present (A and B are dominant and O is recessive)

Will GPP or NPP be available for the next tropic level?

NPP..

This type of mutation results in premature termination of the polypeptide chain:

Nonsense mutation --> wrongly codes for a STOP codon

What happens in prophase?

Nuclear envelope dissolves Chromosomes form (duplication occurred in interphase) Pairs line up and crossing over occurs if is in meiosis

What happens during dark reaction?

Occurs in stroma. Requires use of products of light rxn. 6 CO2 are linked with H from light rxn to produce glucose.

sympatric speciation

Occurs without a geographic separation, when a population develops members with a genetic difference, which prevents a successful reproduction with the original species. Result is a population that is separate from the original species.

On average, NPP is about ____ of the gross primary production (GPP) available:

One-Half

A species is a group of:

Organisms that can produce viable offspring

osmolarity

Osmotic concentration, formerly known as osmolarity,is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L). The osmolarity of a solution is usually expressed as Osm/L

In the ETC _______ is the final electron acceptor

Oxygen

phases of mitosis

PMAT prophase metaphase anaphase telophase

This refers to the process of chemical signaling of only nearby cells:

Paracrine signaling

This occurs when two populations are able to interbreed along a border, but the exchange of alleles is negligible compared to the amount of genetic exchange occurring within each population: (A narrow zone of hybridization exists, but the two populations never coalesce into one

Parapatric speciation

This is the part of the plant where sap is found

Phloem

Only__________ have branches that represent evolutionary time and amount of change

Phylogenetic trees

This branching evolutionary tree illustrates the relationships between taxa based on shared characteristics:

Phylogeny

What organisms can carry out non-cyclic photophosphorylation?

Plants, algae, cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae but they are prokaryotes, not plants or algae) and some other types of aerobic, photosynthetic bacteria - only have PSI.

Water potential =

Pressure potential + solute potential

Fertilization of female gametes by make gametes with alternation of generations:

Reproduction method of Plantae

Describe the classical pathway of complement activation:

Requires Ab bound to Ag; complement proteins bridge the gap between two adjacent Ab molecules and use a protein complex called the membrane attack complex to lyse the cell membrane of the invader. Complement proteins also activate mast cells to release histamine which brings more blood cells to the area

Best definition of a buffer:

Resists change in H+ and OH- ions in a solution by combining with any such excess ions

What is an example of an X-linked dominant disorder?

Rett syndrome and a form of rickets

Which of the following best describes scientific evidence?

Scientific evidence is data gathered from experiments or observations to address a specific hypothesis. The data may help to support or reject the hypothesis.

similarties of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Similarities. Both aerobic and anaerobic respirations are types of cellular respiration. It is clear both use glycolysis to produce ATP. Both generate energy by breaking down glucose, produce byproducts and depend on chemical reactions that are localized in the cytosol

incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele

isotonic medium?

Solvent/solute is equal inside and outside the cell

Geographic isolation can lead to:

Speciation

Transpiration in plants occurs through this structure:

Stomata

Phloem transports this

Sugars (food)

nucleolus?

Synthesis of rRNA - material making up ribosomes

These are scientists who study and formulate classifications as well as the relationships among taxa:

Systematists

What are telomeres?

Telomeres are stretches of DNA at the ends of chromosomes; they prevent chromosome ends from fraying and sticking to each other.

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

The coupling of the oxidation of NADH and the phosphorylation of ADP --> ATP

differential gene expression

The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.

Biological magnification refers to:

The increase in concentration of a substance as it moves up the food chain

Induction of the lac operon in E. coli is most likely to occur under which of the following environmental conditions?

The lac operon of E. coli encodes enzymes that enable the bacteria to take up the disaccharide lactose from the environment and hydrolyze the lactose to glucose and galactose. The operon is maximally active when the concentration of glucose is low in the environment and the concentration of lactose is high.

Cortex (plants)

The outer later of cells n a plant root

Which of the following occurs during the processing of a eukaryotic pre-mRNA molecule?

The pre-mRNA is cleaved at its 3' end, and approximately 200 AMPs are added to the cleaved end.

Gradualism

The theory that evolution occurs slowly but steadily

Citric Acid Cycle

To start, oxaloacetic acid, a four-carbon molecule, combines with acetyl coenzyme A from pyruvate oxidation . The coenzyme A molecule separates, donating the acetyl group to oxaloacetic acid so that it becomes a six-carbon molecule - this is called citric acid. Do you see where the citric acid cycle got its name?

RNA transcription

Transfers DNA gene base sequence to a complementary base sequence of an mRNA

____________ is the evaporation of water through the stromata in plant leaves

Transpiration

Y-shaped antibodies can bind how many antigens?

Two

This is a single molecule of circular RNA without any surrounding capsid or envelope:

Viroids

phagocytes; 3 types?

White blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens Type: Monocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils are the main phagocytic cells

What could result from the extinction of a single species?

a chain reaction of secondary extinctions if other species depend on the extinct species for survival

What is a chromosome?

a long chain made up of nucleosomes

What is a codon?

a unit of 3 nucleotides. Each codon encodes an AA.

autotrophs

able to make own food. Ex - cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).

Hydrophilic ends?

affinity for water

Epistasis example

albinism

Where is the anther? Is it male or female?

atop the long, hollow, filament. Male.

Mutation

change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information

what are microfilaments made of

double-stranded chains of proteins found in the cytoskeleton

sporophyte?

embryo of a plant

What is a zygote?

fertilized egg cell

bioinformatics?

field that develops and improves upon methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data.

example of polymorphism

gender

Give example of monocots.

grasses,lilies, palm trees

what is accuracy

how close a measurement is to real or accepted value

Body plans of animals

radial vs bilateral

Pleiotropy example

sickle cell anemia

What does the S curve population represent? Does an S curve show population growth over a longer or shorter time period?

the effects of limiting factors on population size growth accelerates to a point and then slows down shows population growth over a longer time period

What is the signature structure of an angiosperm?

the flower - primary reproductive organ

oxidation-reduction reactions involve:

the gain (reduction) and loss (oxidation) of electrons;

multiple alleles

three or more forms of a gene that code for a single trait

How do insects absorb gases?

through diffusion of gases through spiracles (holes in exoskeleton)

What is a rhizome?

underground runners that develop into a new plant

What 2 varieties of vascular tissue are there?

xylem phloem

ground tissue in plants?

• Photosynthesis • Food storage • Healing and tissue regeneration and support

7 different protein functions:

-Connection (collagen) -movement (actin myosin) -Communication (markers) -Regulation (hormones) -Immune defense (Ab) -Enzymes -Transport materials (channel proteins)

Gap junctions are formed by proteins called: These proteins function by:

-Connexins -building tubes or pores between two adjacent cells' cytoplasm

These are he two different processes that occur in photosystems:

-Cyclic photophosphorylation -noncyclic photophosphorylation

Desmosomes are attachment sites in cell - to- cell junctions that are found in _______ cells and between:

-Heart -epithelial cells in the skin

Steroid hormones are _________ and therefore do not:

-Lipids -they do not dissolve in water; meaning they last for hours Or days in the bloodstream

plant structure

-Roots: anchor, absorb nutrients, store food -Shoots: stems (support above ground), leaves (photosynthesis), flowers (reproduction)

Three types of T cells:

-T helper (H) -T cytotoxic (C) -T suppressor (S)

Chlorophyll is found is found in the __________ of the __________

-Thylakoid membranes -chloroplast

Different cells can respond to the same hormone or neurotransmitter in different ways: provide an example: These differences are the result of:

-acetylcholine can cause smooth muscles to relax and skeletal muscles to contract -variety of receptor complexes that can respond to the same hormone

cell theory

-all living things are made up of cells -cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things -new cells are produced from existing cells

What is middle lamella?

-area btw plant cells composed primarily of pectin to bind cells together and create more rigidity.

cerebellum?

-at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum -much smaller than cerebrum -controls balance, movement, and coordination

Diverse communicates have the following benefits:

-better protected -withstand stresses better -more resistant to invasive species -produce more biomass -produce biomass more consistently each year

What happens to the nucleolus and nuclear membrane during mitosis?

-both go through dissolution during prophase and reform in telophase

Most of the molecules in the ETC are _________; electron carriers that resemble _________

-cytochromes -hemoglobin

Anchoring junctions include _________ and function by:

-desmosomes - they function by connecting one cells cytoplasm to another via anchoring proteins

Communicating junctions include ___________ and __________ in plants, and function by:

-gap junctions -plasmodesmata (in plants) -they function by allowing cells to directly exchange cytoplasmic material via channels that cross both cells' membranes

What reproduces through budding?

-hydras and yeasts

microfilament facts?

-intercellular communication (communication btw cells) -transport products within cell -cytoplasmic movement and amoeboid motion of cells -rapid streaming of cytoplasm of plant cells

Role of surface proteins?

-intercellular communication and linkage; helps cells to divide together and avoid malignancy -can inactivate some foreign substances -change shape as instructed by immune system during viral invasion -interact with hormones; convey messages to the nucleus -conduction of impulses in nerve cells

Concerning body symmetry, the most primitive animals have:

-no body symmetry (ex./ sponges) OR -radial symmetry

Not all energy comes in the form of glucose; organisms can use these molecules for food also:

-other carbohydrates (starch) -protein -fat

examples of organisms that use photosynthesis

-plants, which provide us with food and oxygen; -algae, which serve as a food source for many organisms in the food chain; -some bacteria, such as the green sulfur bacteria.

Transformation

-process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria. -direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane

Rough ER verses smooth ER?

-rough = transport of proteins synthesized in the ribosomes; secretory products are brought to the golgi bodies for packaging via vesicles that bud off of the ER -smooth = lipid synthesis believed (lots in hepatocytes of the liver)

Specialized ER found in muscle cells: This ER contains:

-sarcoplasmic reticulum -calcium ions that it releases for muscle contraction

2 plasma membrane facts?

-selectively permeable -made of lipids and proteins (called unit membranes)

Differences btw sexual and asexual reproduction?

-sexual almost always involves 2 parents (exception is parasitic flukes that are hermaphrodites that can self-fertilize) -asexual: split, bud or fragment -sexual results in recombined traits and therefore not clones

Two major types of hormones:

-steroidal -nonsteroidal

1 micron = ? mm = ? m = ? cm

0.01mm 0.000001m 0.0001cm

What happens during light reaction?

1. A photon of light excites a chlorophyll pigment. 2. A decomposition Rxn occurs that separates H2O into H and O, using NRG from excited chlorophyll pigment. 3. O released into environment. 4. H is grabbed by Hydrogen acceptor until needed. 5. Excited chlorophyll supplies NRG to series of rxns that produce ATP from ADP and Pi.

These are two development models that organisms can be classified into:

1. Deuterosome development (blastopore becomes the anus) 2. Protosome development (blastopore becomes the mouth)

5 stages of cellular respiration:

1. Glycolysis 2. Fermentation 3. Pyruvate decarboxylation 4. Citric acid cycle (krebbs cycle) 5. ETC

DNA replication steps

1. Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between base pairs to create replication fork 2. RNA primase lays down an RNA primer for DNA polymerase to begin laying down complementary base pairs along leading strand 3. DNA polymerase starts at the 3' end of DNA and moves toward the 5' 4. On the lagging strand, RNA polymerase lays down RNA primer so the DNA polymerase can work in small segments (Okazaki fragments) 5. Another kind of DNA polymerase replaces all the RNA primers 6. DNA ligase connects all the Okazaki fragments together. 7.

4 Structures of an amino acid?

1. Hydrogen 2. Carboxyl group 3. Amino group 4. Unique R group (side chain) that makes the amino acid unique

1. Bigger bodies produce _______ body heat per pound per hour than smaller bodies 2. Bigger bodies lose ________ body heat per pound per hour than smaller bodies

1. Less 2. Less

Describe some important properties of the functional group: "Hydroxyl" ex./ : (alcohol)

1. Makes compounds soluble in water

Describe some important properties of the functional group: "Carboxyl" ex./'s of carboxyls: (carboxylic acid)

1. Weak acids able to donate protons to several biological reactions

Ways E is used in the body?

1. anabolic reactions of the cell - meaning the synthesis of macromolecules 2. motion 3. active transport of molecules 4. heat production - to produce heat, some E is blocked from being used to produce ATP so that the E is released as heat; this is caused by the hormone thyroxine.

What are the 5 characteristics of a taiga?

1. cold 2. moderate precip 3.snow most of year 4. thick pine forests, wide variety of animal life

What are the 5 characteristics of a tundra?

1. extreme cold 2. low precip 3. modified grassland 4.perma-frost 5. short growing season with some plants and animals

What are the 4 characteristics of a chaparral?

1. hot summer temperate winter 2. low precip in summer, high precip in winter 3. trees, shrubs, small animals, 4. prolonged summer

What are the 3 characteristics of a savanna?

1. warm climate 2. light grassland 3. moderate seasonal rains

What is the poloidy of cells during prophase Meiosis 2?

1n

Pepsin activity in the stomach will function best at around this pH:

2

Diploid

2 sets of chromosomes

How many amino acids?

20

Eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

This is the type of graph type that should be used to illustrate the percent of hospital-acquired infections (nosocomial infections) in patients that are caused by each of several different organisms in a single year:

A pie chart

When initially placing a slide on a light microscope's stage, which of the following is the correct position of the microscope's stage and the correct magnification?

A slide should be placed on a microscope's stage when the stage is in a lowered position and with the lowest magnification objective lens in position. This arrangement helps to protect both the slide and the lens and is the most efficient way for the user to focus on the material on the slide.

Epistasis

A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited.

Multiple alleles

ABO blood group is example. More than 2 choices of alleles are present. In ABO group, A and B are dominant and O is recessive.

What are opportunistic life history strategies?

AKA r-selected - tend to be pioneer species in a new or recently devastated community.

Aneuploidy

Abnormal number of chromosomes.

If the sodium channels in the neuronal membrane of a nerve cell are blocked and a stimulus is applied to the nerve cell then:

Action potential will not occur because depolarization will not occur

What is the frequency of autsomal recessive disorders from unaffected parents who are carriers?

Affected person may receive one or both of the mutated genes from unaffected parents. Unaffected parents are carriers and possess one copy of the mutated gene. Their children have a 25% chance of inheriting the disorder

What happens to secondary oocytes and polar bodies after Meoisis 1?

All undergo Meiosis 2. Secondary oocyte produces one haploid egg cell and one polar body polar body produces 2 more polar bodies all haploid

This is when geographically separated populations develop into different species:

Allopatric speciation

neoplasm?

An abnormal new growth of tissue in animals or plants; a tumor Tumor can be benign or invasive (keeps growing)

What is telomerase?

An enzyme that adds bases to the ends of telomeres; abundant in young cells but eventually runs out. Telomerase remains active in sperm and egg cells and are passed from one generation to the next.

Blastopore is:

An opening that developed during gastrulation in embryonic development

genetically modified organisms

An organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique.

what 3 domains are there?

Archaea, Eubacteria, and Eukaryota

auxillary cells?

Attract leukocytes to points of infection Types: mast cells, platelets and basophils

Gregor Mendel

Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884) By examining the phenotypes of the plants for many generations, he developed several basic principles of genetics, including one that states that traits are passed in discrete units (that we now know as alleles of genes) and produce predictable outcomes in offspring.

Domain system

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya Above the Kingdom System

Why is this called C3 carbon fixation?

Because the 1st products formed are 2, 3-C compounds (PGA) Performed by more than 90% of angiosperms Photorespiration is a problem

The crossover frequencies between four genes on a single chromosome are shown in the table above. Based on the data, which of the following is the most likely order of the four genes?

Because the crossover frequency between genes O and P is 25%, gene O is probably further from gene P than is gene N that has a crossover frequency with gene P of 20%, but this does not indicate whether genes N and O are on the same side or different sides of gene P. The crossover frequencies of gene M with genes N and O provide this information. Because the crossover frequency between genes M and O (10%) is less than that between genes M and N (15%), gene O is most likely between genes N and M, and thus gene N is between gene P and gene O. Based on crossover frequencies, a map of the four genes is: P ‑ 20 mu ‑ N ‑ 5 mu ‑ O ‑ 10 mu ‑ M ("mu" represents map units).

Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is a multidisciplinary field that is heavily dependent on computer software tools, mathematics, and engineering for storing, analyzing, and retrieving biological data such as the sequences of DNA from many different sources.

plant division with a dominant gametophyte lifestyle

Bryophyte

Hemolysis?

Bursting of red blood cells from being in an hypotonic solution

Most plants are:

C3 plants

cation verses anion?

Cations are PAWsitive, anion stands for "a negative ion"

What is an inversion?

Chromosome is broken and the broken piece is reversed and reinserted.

Why does linkage occur?

Chromosomes are relatively low in # The whole chromosome segregates in meiosis so gene separation can only independent if the genes are on different chromosomes Genes on same chromosomes are forced to move together in meiosis and therefore are linked

How does kin selection benefit altruism?

Close relatives have a greater likelihood of passing on identical traits to their offspring.

What are communities containing altruistic individuals made up of?

Close relatives that have been able to preserve altruism through kin selection.

Chromatin

Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the nucleus of a cell

water cohesion

Cohesion is the attractive force between similar molecules in the same phase. Water's hydrogen bonds are largely responsible for its cohesion. Cohesion can be thought of as the sum of all the hydrogen bonds in a collection of water molecules. Cohesion has important biological consequences. Cohesion helps hold a column of water together against the force of gravity. This lets the water from a tree's roots be transported all the way to its leaves.

transcription factors

Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.

An interaction between species that benefits one but is neutral to the other:

Commensalism

This is natural selection favoring the same structure in different ancestors: (even when not evolutionarily related)

Convergent evolution

homologous chromosomes

Corresponding pairs of chromosomes that carry genes for the same traits. Found in most eukaryotes

I flowering plants, the seed leaves that may store carbohydrates for the embryonic plant are called:

Cotelydons

how do nucleotides join?

Covalent bonds btw the phosphate group on one and the ribose (sugar) of another.

Linked genes and crossing over?

Crossing over may occur btw linked genes so 4 possible gamete combinations are possible The frequency of the recombinants will be lower than that of the parental types

This amino acid forms covalent disulfide bonds with other amino acid of its kind:

Cysteine

What are the most common examples of autosomal recessive disorders?

Cystic fibrosis and Sickle-Cell Anemia

What molecule transfers e's from PSII to PS1?

Cytochrome b6f complex, a pigment embedded in the thylakoid membrane, accepts the 2 e's from PQ; this occurs after PQ releases the 2H+'s into the lumen that it pulled out of the stroma. Cytochrome b6f complex passes the e's to plastocyanin.

which bases are pyrimidines?

Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine are PYrimidines because you CUT a pie and are a single ring like a pie

The genomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are always composed entirely of:

DNA (Never RNA)

What are the 2 types of nucleic acids?

DNA and RNA

Viral genomes are composed of:

DNA or RNA

Molecular evidence in support of natural selection

DNA sequence comparisons

Nucleosomes are:

DNA-histone protein complexes often referred to as "beads on a string"

karyokinesis?

Division of nuclear materials (mitosis)

Taxonomic rank in order from the most broad / large group to the smallest and most specific:

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species ("Do Kinky people cry out for good sex?")

taxonomy categories in order?

Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species Did King Phillip Cry Out "For Goodness Sakes!"

chromatin?

Double helix DNA wrapped around histone proteins; DNA in this form during interphase

nuclear envelope

Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.

What is the wobble hypothesis?

Easiest to remember is that it explain the redundancy of the genetic code (codons) that code for 20 amino acids precisely.

Species that radically alter the physical environment are called:

Ecosystem engineers Or "foundation species"

ETC of cellular respiration and role of oxygen in cellular respiration?

Electron Transport requires oxygen directly. The ETC is a series of e' carriers in the membrane of the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. Through a series of reactions, the "high energy" e's are passed to oxygen. In the process, a gradient is formed, and ultimately ATP is produced. -Oxygen accepts de-energized Hydrogens and forms water

When photons strike chlorophyll.....

Electrons become excited and get transferred through the photosystems to a reaction center which gives up excited electrons so they enter an electron transport chain to make ATP

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Which of the following best describes the difference between natural selection and artificial selection?

Environmental conditions drive natural selection, whereas humans determine artificial selection.

RNA polymerase

Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription (copies DNA upstream from 5 to 3)

What does DNA or RNA polymerase do?

Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA and RNA

Epigenetics and Cancer

Epigenetic changes to DNA can alter gene expression and contribute to cancer

Describe the role between epinephrine and thermoregulation:

Epinephrine is an adrenal gland hormone that can increase metabolic rate which in turn increases heat production as a mechanism to regulate homeostatic internal temperature

Nondisjunction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate during anaphase

Which Biome has the following characteristics: salt-marsh grasses, algae, phytoplankton prevalent, variable water salinity/ freshwater stream merges with ocean?

Estuary

Protist characteristics

Eukaryotic most are unicellular protozoa (heterotrophs) protophyta (autotrophs) fungus like (extra cellular digestion heterotrophs) mostly aquatic asexual or sexual iatoms, dinoflagellates, and euglenas

Animal Characteristics

Eukaryotic multicellular heterotrophic asexual and sexual reproduction

Huntington's disease is caused by:

Excessive number of repeats of the codon CAG in the HTT gene; autosomal dominant inheritance

Many amphibians reproduce by __________ fertilization

External (Male and female both release gametes into the environment where they become fertilized)

This type of diffusion requires transmembrane carrier proteins to shuttle ions across biological membranes (also requires no ATP) :

Facilitated diffusion (passive transport)

One species, without directly interacting with another species as seen in symbiosis, still has behaviors that indirectly help another species:

Facilitation Ex./ organism lives and enriches the soil for other plants to benefit from

Four examples of lipids: Lipid structure:

Fats, oils, waxes, steroids Glycerol attached to a fatty acid

Are sex-linked trait female carriers more common or less common than males/females who express the trait?

Female carriers of sex-linked traits are more common in the population than males or females expressing the trait.

Name this major plant division based on the following reproduction: Water necessary for swimming sperm; diploid sporophyte is dominant generation; homosporous:

Ferns

Name this plant division based on the following structure: Vascular; compound leaves called "fronds" develop from coiled fiddlehead; true roots:

Ferns

Describe the 5 time periods of demographic transition.

First period - birth and death rates approximately equal - pop is in equilibrium with environment. Second period - social evolution causes birth rate to overtake death rate - rapid pop growth Third period - Agrarian lifestyles decrease, children become liability in urban society; Fourth period - biomedical progress - causes decrease in infant death rate; dramatic population growth mostly in cities Final stage - developed industrialized nations use contraception to lower birth rates

Fixed action pattern

Fixed action patterns are a sequence of behaviors that are triggered by an external sensory stimulus and that are basically unchangeable. Male sticklebacks act aggressively toward anything that bears a red marking on its underside.

Flower structure and function

Flowers are the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte; they attach to a part of the stem called the receptacle

Pasteur

French chemist--first to show convincingly that bacteria cause disease. Helped to establish what has become known as "germ theory of disease" when he showed that bacteria were responsible for a number of human and animal diseases

Nephrons

Functional units of the kidneys

Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms are examples of:

Fungi

H bonds btw nitrogen bases?

G-C = 3 H bonds A-T = 2 H bonds

eukaryotic cell cycle

G0-daily growth G1-Cell Growth S-DNA Replication (stands for synthesis)-chromosomes double G2-Preparing for Cell Division (shortest of 3 phases) M-Cell Division (produces 2 daughter cells)

cell cycle

G1, S, G2, M -G1 cell growth -S synthesize new chromosomes -G2 protein synthesis and more cell growth -M mitosis

How are genes written to show linkage?

GN gn

In nonvascular plants, such as mosses, the __________ is the dominant form of the plant

Gametophyte

gel electrophoresis

Gel electrophoresis is a laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, or proteins according to molecular size. In gel electrophoresis, the molecules to be separated are pushed by an electrical field through a gel that contains small pores. The molecules travel through the pores in the gel at a speed that is inversely related to their lengths. This means that a small DNA molecule will travel a greater distance through the gel than will a larger DNA molecule.

The sugar product of the Calvin cycle:

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

This is a terms used to describe the protein-carbohydrate-rich coating on the cell surface:

Glycolax

Which of the following pathways is common to both fermentation and aerobic cellular respiration?

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that produces pyruvate from glucose. It occurs in the cytoplasm and is the first step in both fermentation and aerobic cellular respiration.

cellular respiration mnemonic?

Glycolysis slits carbs into PYs (pyruvates) to make lemon Krapes (citric acid cycle aka krebs cycle) and lots of ATP; in the ETC, oxygen accepts tired H+ and forms water

Some surface proteins embedded in the plasma membrane have sugar groups attached to them called:

Glycoproteins

The single greatest threat to loss of both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity is:

Habitat destruction by humans

The dominant species in a community is the species with the...

Highest collective biomass; in other words the species that is the most abundant

What is the function of histones in the chromosome?

Histones help protect the DNA from degradation.

Who eats more food per body weight? Homeotherm (warm-blooded) or poikilotherm (cold-blooded)?

Homeotherms due to need for heat production

Most common example of autosomal dominant disorder

Huntington's disease

How is ATP broken up to release E?

Hydrolysis of ATP (ATP broken up by action of water)

RNA world hypothesis

Hypothesis that describes how the Earth may have been filled with RNA-based life before it became filled with the DNA-based life we see today.

What are translation and transcription?

I transcript DNA with mRNA in order to have tRNA translate it to make proteins.

Studied mortality rates and connected them to contact with disease

Ignaz Phillipp Semmelweis

what do cells do in a hypotonic solution?

In a hypOtonic solution, the cell will swell up like an "O" when a cell is in a hypERRRRtonic solution, it shrivels and moans "ERRRRRR

operons

In prokaryotic cells, a cluster of genes under control of a promoter.

In anchoring junctions, linker proteins would be found here:

In the intercellular space between the two cells being connected

Water potential predicts:

In which direction water will diffuse

Red flowers cross with white flowers to make pink flowers. This is an example of:

Incomplete Dominance Co-dominance

phases of mitosis?

Interphase, prophase metaphase, anaphase, telophase I-PMAT

Common pioneer species

Lichens and mosses or hardy plants with extensive root systems

Increasing this will result in a faster rate of transpiration in plants

Light intensity

On earth, these are three major reservoirs of carbon cycling:

Limestone, oceans, and sediments of aquatic ecosystems

THREE of the following are major reservoirs of carbon?

Limestone, oceans, and sediments of aquatic ecosystems are all major reservoirs of carbon. Of these three, the oceans are the major reservoir of actively cycling carbon.

PEP in C4 plants are found in a:

Mesophyl cell

This cell organelle can synthesize it's own proteins:

Mitochondria (also chloroplasts)

Intermediate disturbance hypothesis states:

Moderate levels of disturbances foster greater species diversity than do low or high levels of disturbance

5 kingdoms?

Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

What is the difference between monocots and eudicots?

Monocot = one cotyledon Eudicot = two cotelydons

Of all the major plant divisions, this division is the only one that is nonvascular:

Mosses

Role of NADP in light reactions?

NADP is the final e' acceptor in PS1 and is a hydrogen ion acceptor - the stored E in NADPH will be used in the Calvin cycle.

The most common "limiting nutrients" in marine ecosystems are:

Nitrogen , and phosphorous

Chlorophyll c and d?

Occur in some algae and plant-like protists

What are isochromosomes?

One arm of a chromosome is deleted and replaced by a piece identical to the remaining arm and can lead to problems when this takes place in X or y cells.

Mullerian mimicry

One palatable species represents an unpalatable species

Products of cyclic photophosphorylation :

Only ATP

During what era did early forms of fish develop?

Ordovician

OIL RIG?

Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain

4 most abundant elements in the human body

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen & Nitrogen.

P680 and P700?

P 680 is photosystem II which absorbs photon of 680 nm first - chlorophyll b P700 is PS 1 which absorbs E from excited electron from PS II - chlorophyll a

How do amino acids bond with each other?

Peptide bond which is the carboxyl of one bonded to the amino group of another.

These contain oxidative enzymes that catalyze reactions in which H2O2 is produced:

Peroxisomes

Flower parts

Petal, anther, filament (these make up the stamen), stigma, style, ovary(these make up the pistil) and the sepal

These are pieces of protein that are infectious:

Prions --> gained fame via mad cow disease

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

aerobic cellular respiration

Producing ATP with oxygen by breaking down glucose (36-38 ATP); occurs in the mitochondria

Bacteria characteristics

Prokaryotic capsule, cell wall of peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharides most heterotroph, some autotroph circular DNA asexual, conjugation, binary fission, buddingf

Green algae are:

Protista

this is the end product of glycolysis:

Pyruvate

Which represents population growth under normal conditions: J curve or S curve

S curve (logistical growth)

Lysosomes are:

Small membrane bound organelle in the cytoplasm containing degradative enzymes

Safest way to handle an acid spill:

Soak up acid with an acid- neutralizing absorbent pad

What is aneuploidy?

Some chromosomes are deleted rather than copied or some are copied more than once (rather than the whole set). -animals results in death or sterile -trisomy 21 is example - down's syndrome

These convert ADP to ATP when a proton passes through:

Special membrane proteins called ATPases

Extinction is the death of all individuals within a _________

Species

spectrophotometery

Spectrophotometry is a method to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light by measuring the intensity of light as a beam of light passes through sample solution. The basic principle is that each compound absorbs or transmits light over a certain range of wavelength.

Louis Pasteur's work disproved:

Spontaneous generation

In nonvascular plants the ___________ is dependent on the __________ for nutrients and water

Sporophyte; gametophyte

What is the Law of Independent Assortment?

States that paired chromosomes are separated and sorted independently. As a result, each gamete may receive one of any number of combinations of each parent's chromosomes.

This is the fluid inside the chloroplast that surrounds the grana:

Stroma

Three examples of carbohydrates:

Sugars, starches, and cellulose

This is the most common element in eukaryotic promoters:

TATA box ; A-T-rich sequences involved in positioning the start of transcription (separate more easily)

On which end are nucleotides added to a DNA molecule?

The 3' end (added in a 5' to 3' direction)

If the "molecular clock" hypothesis is correct then it is possible to calculate:

The age of divergence of two organisms by counting the number of genetic differences between the two organisms

If a population is subject to stabilizing selection then:

The extremes at both ends of a phenotype are eliminated

allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

What is kin selection?

The tendency of an individual to be altruistic toward a close relative, resulting in the preservation of its genetic traits.

Fungi are not plants because:

They cannot undergo photosynthesis; they are eukaryotic and heterotrophic

This Vaccine provided the most widespread benefit to individuals in the US:

Vaccine against the hepatitis B virus

How are plants classified?

Vascular/nonvascular Method of reproduction (angiosperm/gymnosperm) Length of survival (annual/biennial/perennial)

vena cava?

Venae cavae are the two largest veins in the body. These blood vessels carry de-oxygenated blood from various regions of the body to the right atrium of the heart.

Xylem transports this

Water

granulocytes?

White blood cells that have granules in their cytoplasm

Describe the reproduction used by Conifers:

Wind pollinated; diploid sporophyte is dominant generation; heterosporous

Does natural selection favor altruism and kin selection?

Yes - communities with altruistic individuals are more likely to persevere, while weaker ones will die out.

modern definition of evolution

a change in allele frequency over time. Does not occur through changes from individual to individual, but rather as the gene pool changes through one of a number of possible mechanisms.

mutation

a change of the DNA sequence of a gene, resulting in a change of the trait.

endomembrane system

a membranous compartment consisting of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. This system works together to produce lipids and proteins and ship them to the correct destination.

fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

a model that describes the phospholipid bilayer as fluid and proposes that integral membrane proteins float freely in the lipid bilayer

complete dominance

a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another

What is the Oparin hypothesis?

a theory of the origin of life. The early Earth had a reducing atmosphere - very little free O2 present. Instead, an abundance of NH3, H2, CH4, and H20 vapor, all escaping from volcanoes.

How is P used in the P cycle?

absorbed by photosynthetic organisms in/near water to be used in the synthesis of organic materials

What occurs in the large intestine?

absorption of water back into body?

Body cavities of animals

acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate

relaxed muscle description?

actin and myosin myofilaments lie side by side and the H zones and I bands are at maximum width

What were the 3 evolutionary processes contributing to diversity in the plant world today?

adaptive radiation genetic drift natural selection

A scientific theory is

an explanation that is generally broad in scope, is supported by a large body of evidence, and that can serve as the basis for new hypotheses and experimentation.

sexual selection?

an individual specifically selects a mate based on certain characteristics. Sexual selection impacts natural selection because the choosing of the traits will enhance the number of alleles of a given type or weaken the number of alleles of a different trait based on the preferences of the individuals who are mating.

prion?

an infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form - does NOT contain DNA or RNA like a Virus does. Causes brain/nerve diseases that are fatal

pedigree analysis

an inherited trait is analyzed over the course of a few generations in one family

What is a tropism?

an involuntary response of an organism to an external stimulus; e.g., light, water, gravity, nutrients

diastole phase of the heart cycle?

atria and ventricles are relaxed and blood flows into the atria and ventricles

A student is studying a certain species of bacterium. In this species, the student has identified a certain operon that is inducible. The student causes a mutation in the regulatory gene so that the repressor protein is not synthesized. The most likely result of this mutation is that the structural genes in the operon will

be continuously transcribed in both the presence and the absence of the inducer. In an inducible operon, the repressor protein binds to the operator region of the operon in the absence of the inducer (generally a nutrient, such as lactose) and blocks transcription of the structural genes (the products of which are generally used to metabolize the inducing nutrient). In the presence of the inducer, the inducer binds to the repressor protein and changes its shape such that it disengages from the operator and no longer blocks transcription. If the repressor is absent, the operon may be continuously transcribed, even in the absence of the inducer.

How can succession occur?

because of small changes over time in climate or conditions; immigration of new species; disease; other slow acting factors

Where are the sperm nuclei?

behind the pollen tube.

cerebrum?

biggest part of the brain memory storage 2 halves

chloroplasts

biological equivalents of solar power plants. capture energy from sunlight and convert it into food that contains chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis

What is a closed circulatory system?

blood confined to vessels

What is denitrification?

breakdown of excess nitrates by bacteria and fungi releases nitrogen gas back into air

What is fermentation?

breaking down of pyruvic acid without using molecular oxygen; pyruvic acid is converted to ethanol or lactic acid (in animals)

What digestion occurs in the mouth?

breaks down food into smaller particles increases surface area of food mixes with saliva mixes with amylase to break down starches

plant cytokinesis

build a new cell wall and membrane

mutagens

can be chemical or physical. include certain pesticides, a few natural plant alkaloids, tobacco smoke, forms of electromagnetic radiations, such as x-rays and ultraviolent light. If these agents interact with DNA, they can produce mutations at high rates.

What role does volcanic activity play in nitrogen cycle?

can produce ammonia and nitrates

soma?

cell body of a neuron; dendrites and axons project from this "body"

What happens during interphase?

cell is actively growing and functioning throughout all 3 phases: G1, S, G2

schwann cell?

cell named after Theodor Schwann; found in animal cells 2 types: myelinating and nonmyelinating. Myelinating Schwann cells wrap around axons of motor and sensory neurons to form the myelin sheath.

What happens during S phase?

cell replicates DNA and proteins necessary to form a new set of Cx.

apopstosis?

cell suicide

what happens if cytokinesis doesnt occur

cells will have more than one nuclei

genetic drift?

change in the gene pool of a small population due to chance; can be caused by bottleneck effect and founder effect

Does the effect of genetic mutation on change in population occur rapidly or slowly?

change occurs very slowly, over multiple generations.

What are life history strategies?

characteristics that differentiate organisms that evolve within an ecosystem.

hydrolysis

chemical breakdown of due to reaction with water

neurotransmitters?

chemicals that transmit a signal from an axon to another cell

What happens during anaphase?

chromatids separate when centromere divides. each chromatid now called cx. cx move to opposite ends of cell

Prophase (mitosis)

chromosomes condense. The centrosomes begin to form spindle and move into position on opposite sides of the cell. Sister chromatids are held together by a protein called cohesin at the centromere.

evolutionary events that lead to speciation are known as:

cladogenetic

What are fossil fuels?

coal, oil, natural gas formed from the decay of organic matter under conditions of heat and pressure

polyploidy

condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes

What is the function of the cerebrum?

controls sensory, motor responses memory speech most factors of intelligence

Does altruism increase or decrease the fitness of the individual?

decrease

This type of reaction results in the release of water molecule(s):

dehydration reactions

which variable is on y axis

dependent variable

neuron cell body function?

determine whether to send a signal to the next cell

osmosis?

diffusion of water

diffusion

driving force behind movement of many substances across cell membrane

What are germ layers?

ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm formed via gastrulation

What does the female gametophyte produce?

egg

Which of the 3 rxns in cellular respiration net the most ATP per glucose?

electron transport - 32 ATP

gene pool

entire collection of genes within a given population. Individuals int he population will have only one pair of alleles for a particular single-gene trait.

E.R.

eukaryotic cells contain an internal membrane system. Where lipid components of the cell membrane are assembled, along with proteins and other materials that are exported from cell.

directional selection?

favoring of a variation of a trait toward one extreme

What were the first vertebrates in the fossil record?

fish

Stroma

fluid portion of the chloroplast; outside of the thylakoids

What is the cortex of the root?

found inside epidermis, made up of large parenchyma cells

What is inquiry?

foundational method of gathering scientific knowledge. Looks at the world and develops questions, which form basis of developing ideas and answers as to how world works

What is a gametophyte?

haploid cells. may be male or female

In mosses, which stage is most prominent?

haploid phase

mutations

heritable changes in genetic information

microtubules

hollow structures made up of proteins known as tubulins. Important in cell division.

The different beaks found on Darwin's finches represent:

homologous structures! (Not analogous structures)

endocrine system?

hormone producing system pituitary gland in brain controls the other glands

List 4 behavioral characteristics of animals.

how they acquire food how they seek out and relate to a mate response to danger care for young

population genetics

how traits are preserved, changed, or introduced within a population of organisms.

What is function of the hypothalamus?

hunger, thirst BP, body temp, hostility, pain, pleasure

What is the endosymbiont hypothesis?

hyp. of how mitochondria evolved from independent organisms to become part of cells

What is alternation of generations?

identifiable life cycles within a plant - alternate between 2n and 1n

What does the chorioallantoic membrane do? In what species is it found?

in egg-laying reptiles - allantois fuses with chorion - regulates gas exchange through shell

Where in chloroplast does photosynthesis take place?

in stroma, on grana

density-INdependent factors affecting population?

include food or nutrient limitation, pollutants in the environment, and climate extremes, including seasonal cycles such as monsoons. In addition, catastrophic factors can also impact population growth, such as fires and hurricanes.

kingdom plantae

includes multicellular organisms that manufacture their own food

kingdom animalia

includes multicellular organisms that must capture their food and digest it internally

Does altruism increase or decrease the fitness of the community?

increase

which variable is on x axis

independent variable

receptor-mediated endocytosis

integral membrane proteins called receptor proteins recognize and bind to a specific target,

What is the function of the thalamus?

integrates senses

What is symbiosis?

interaction of 2 species within same range

What does the stigma do?

it is a sticky surface at the top of the pistil. Traps pollen grains

What is a kinetochore?

junction of spindle fiber attached to centromere during 2nd part of prophase/mitosis

synapses in the nervous system?

junctions between nerve cells or between a nerve cell and other cells

animal cytokinesis

just splits cell in 2

What is the importance of P?

key component in ADP, ATP, NADP, many other organic compounds

2 main types of hormones?

lipid/steroid (nonpolar and can pass thru cell membrane) peptide/amines (polar therefore bind to receptor on cell membrane)

What is xylem?

long tubular cells that transport water up from the ground to the branches and leaves

Fossil Evidence for Evolution

looking at historical organisms for change and similarities to present day organisms

Translation?

mRNA is read in the ribosomes in order to make proteins

nucleic acids

macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. They are polymers assembled from individual monomers known as nucleotides. Store and transmit hereditary, or genetic information.

Protein

macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Non-flowering plants (gymnosperms)

make seeds in cones or produce spores instead of seeds

What is fruit?

matured ovary, contains seeds.

Gregor Mendel

modern science of genetics was founded by him

gene flow?

movement of alleles from one population to another, such as through migration

passive transport

movement of materials across the cell membrane without using cellular energy

Do red blood cells have a nucleus?

no

prophase

nuclar envolope breaks up, chromosomes consisting of 2 sister chromosomes, spindle forming dna condenced

Animal cells

nucleus, vacuoles, lysosomes, cytoskeleton, centrioles, ribosomes, ER, Golgi, Mitochondria, cell membrane dont have--chloroplasts, cell wall

What is the Law of Segregation?

paired chromosomes/corresponding genes separate and randomly recombine during gamete formation.

What occurs in the esophagus?

peristalsis of food toward stomach

What is abscisic acid?

plant hormone - promotes opening and closing of stomata to regulate water loss through transpiration

effect of mutation on change of phenotype in offspring

possibly swift, but if the mutation does not produce a desirable trait for a particular environment it will not be expressed.

Name the types of plants that produce structures to carry on vegetative propagation.

potatoes - tubers irises - rhizomes strawberries - stolens amaryllis - bulbs gladiolus, crocus - corms

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

divergent evolution?

process by which an interbreeding population or species diverges into two or more descendant species, resulting in once similar or related species to become more and more dissimilar.

Differentiation

process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

What is catabolism?

process of breaking down molecules and releasing stored NRG

endocytosis

process of taking material into the cell by means of infoldings, or pockets, of the cell membrane

What is a dispersal process?

process such as air or water that can transport a species, usually seeds, from one ecosystem to another. Birds, insects, sea animals also

What is a zygote?

produced from sperm fertilizing an egg cell - 2n

When does crossing over occur?

prophase of Meiosis 1.

What happens during G2 phase?

proteins necessary for cell division produced, centrioles replicated.

What is the function of fruit?

provides seed protection and a method to disburse them.

Promoters

regions of DNA that have specific base sequences

genome sequencing projects

research endeavors that have the ultimate goal of determining the sequence of DNA bases of the entire genome of a given species

What is inside the cortex of the root?

ring of endodermis - single layer of tightly packed cells - no substances can pass in between

What is primary root tissue?

root tissue found above the maturation region. Contains several types of tissue.

support cells for peripheral nervous system?

schwann cells (myelin sheath)

heterosporous?

seed plants are heterosporous (produce pollen and ova) and spore plants are homosporous (1 type of spore)

propagating unit for angio and gymnosperms?

seeds - multicellular, complex structure that contains the sporophyte (embryo)

axon function?

send signal from the neuron to the next cell

sensory neurons and motor neurons?

sensory - send signals to the CNS motor - send signals away from the CNS

dicot?

sepals and petals in fours, fives, or multiples thereof

Anaphase (Mitosis)

separase cleaves the cohesin protein that's been holding the centromeres together. cell elongates and sister chromatids are pulled apart toward the poles

What is cleavage?

series of cell divisions zygote undergoes

Punctualism

short periods of rapid change in a species

Vesicles

small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

What is altruism?

social behavior where organisms seem to place the needs of the community over their own needs.

What is the frequency of inheritance of X-linked dominant disorder in male parents?

sons - 0%. daughters - 100%

What is the frequency of inheritance of X-linked recessive disorder from the father?

sons 0%. daughters 100% carriers only.

What does the male gametophyte produce?

sperm

Grana

stacks of thylakoids

nucleolus

starting site of ribosomal synthesis from rRNA and proteins

What occurs in the stomach?

storage of incompletely digested food. continues mechanical and chemical breakdown of food particles secretes digestive enzymes and HCl to produce watery soup of nutrients

cambrian explosion

sudden appearance of multitudes of differentiated animal forms.

endosymbiont theory

suggests that original prokaryotic cells took in other cells that performed various tasks - evolved into mitochondria and other organelles. Eventually evolved into eukaryotic cell.

cell walls

support, shape, and protect cell. animal cells do not have cell walls. most prokaryotes and many eukaryotes have cell walls.

Transgenic

term used to refer to an organism that contains genes from other organisms

Carle Woese based his phylogenetic classification on...

the Archaea - was initially thought to exist only in extreme environments, niches devoid of oxygen and whose temperatures can be near or above the normal boiling point of water. Microbiologists later realized that Archaea are a large and diverse group of organisms that are widely distributed in nature and are common in much less extreme habitats, such as soils and oceans. As such, they are significant contributors to the global carbon and nitrogen cycles.

observation

the act of noticing and describing events or processes in a careful, orderly way

bacterial conjugation

the direct transfer of genetic material (DNA) from one bacterial cell to another. The genes that are transferred during conjugation may cause the recipient bacterium to express a new phenotype.

founder effect?

the founding of new colonies by a small number of individuals of a population which can lead to genetic drift.

Enzymes reduce the free energy of activation (EA) in a reaction without altering:

the free energy change for the reaction

epistatic gene

the gene that does the masking

Recombination

the genetic process by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division

What tissues/structures are found in the shoot apex?

the meristem tissue and the terminal bud

What is a minimal viable population size?

the minimum population size that allows for the survival of a population

passive transport

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell

Telophase (mitosis)

the spindle breaks down. The nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes, establishing two nuclei. Chromosomes begin to uncoil back to the level of packaging found in chromatin during interphase.

What happens when pollen comes in contact with stigma?

the stigma produces chemicals which stimulate the pollen to burrow into the style, forming a pollen tube.

anabolic reactions result in:

the synthesis of larger molecules from smaller precursor molecules

What is in the center of the root?

the vascular cylinder - includes xylem and phloem tissue

What are equilibreal or K-selected species?

they are organisms that overtake the opportunistic pioneer species.

Why do species become extinct?

they have not been able to adapt appropriately to environmental changes.

According to the theory of evolution, how did plants evolve?

thought to have begun with heterotrophic prokaryotic cells that were anaerobic. Over time, some bacteria evolved ability to carry on photosynthesis (cyanobacteria), thus becoming autotrophic. This put lots of O2 into atmosphere. This opened up new niche - cells able to survive in presence of 02 and use it in metabolism.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

microfilaments

threadlike structures made up of a protein called actin

How do earthworms absorb gases?

through skin

How is most water absorbed in a plant?

through the plant's root system

What is the function of roots?

to provide water and needed nutrients to the plant, and to anchor the plant

polygenetic inheritance

traits produced from interaction of multiple sets of genes.

What is transduction (bacteria)?

transfer of genetic material from 1 bacterial cell to another

One branch of mammals developed into what?

tree dwelling primates, considered the ancestors of humans.

metanephridia of annelids

tube connects coelom to outside

Malpighian tubules

tubules that excrete metabolic wastes into the hindgut in arthropods

What main characteristics does a dicot have?

two cotylendons/seed, leaves with branched/networked veins vascular bundles arranged in rings taproot system with smaller secondary roots flowers with petals in multiples of 4 or 5

diploid cell

two sets of chromosomes (2n) one set from mom one set from dad

tRNA (transfer RNA)

type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis

What is the meristem tissue?

undifferentiated cells capable of quick growth/specialization

eukaryotic chromosome structure

unique eukaryotic chromosome packaging features include tight coiling, dense packing, enclosure within a nuclear membrane and linear rather than circular structures.u

What is a scientific law?

universal generalization related to how world behaves under certain conditions. Is testable, internally consistent, compatible with available evidence & phenomena

stem cells

unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division

light dependent reactions

use energy from sunlight to produce oxygen and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH

Robert Hooke

used an early compound microscope to look at a nonliving thin slice of cork, a plant material. Cork seemed to be made of thousands of tiny empty chambers. Hook called these chambers "cells"

DNA fingerprinting?

used to determine to whom DNA belongs (such as in forensics)

independent variable

variable that is deliberately changed (manipulated variable)

How do animals take in carbon?

via plants and animals as they are consumed

What is a hydrologic cycle?

water vapor that circulates through biosphere

What is a theory?

well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations (proposed not proved)

What is habituation?

when an organism produces less and less response as a stimulus is repeated. Safeguards species from wasting NRG on irrelevant stimuli

heterozygous trait

when both alleles for a given gene are different in an individual.

homozygous trait

when both alleles for a given gene are the same in an individual

What is succession?

when one community completely replaces another over time in a given area

What is competitive exclusion.

when one species is wiped out in an area due to competition

What are lateral buds?

where new leaves begin

Do many plants produce both asexually and sexually?

yes

Can genetic traits be introduced through mutation?

yes - if they did not exist in the original gene pool

4 embryo development stages?

zygote - morula - blastocyst - gastrula (3 germ layers)

How is cyclic photophosphorylation different from noncyclic?

• Water not split • Only PSI • Only ATP produced • Oxygen is not created/released because water is not split • Predominately occurs in bacteria

What is CAM photosynthesis?

•Type found almost only in succulents of dry environments •Stomata only open at night to conserve water •Light reactions during day and dark reactions during night when can take in CO2 •Adaptation to conserve water more than to avoid photorespiration.

Given the DNA sequence 5' ATGCCCTCA 3', which of the following is the correct complementary sequence of messenger RNA?

3' U A C G G G A G U 5' A strand of messenger RNA has a base sequence complementary to that of the DNA template strand, and the strand orientations are antiparallel. The only difference between DNA-DNA and DNA-RNA pairing is that uracil in RNA replaces thymine in DNA.

DNA polymerase can only synthesize a new strand of DNA by proceeding along the template strand in this direction:

3' to 5' Yes this is true

What is the total # of ATP formed via cellular respiration (aerobic)?

36: -2 in glycolysis in cytoplasm -34 in krebs cycle in mitochondria

Translation sequence?

5' end of mRNA binds to the small ribosome unit; 3 initiation factors and GTP needed to get the process going. Large ribosome unit attaches the initiation factors are released.

Catalase can convert over _______ molecules of H2O2 to H20 and O2 each minute:

6 million

C4 carbon fixation pathway?

A 4-C compound is formed instead of a 3-C compound; the 4-C compound is oxaloacetate. Adaptation to circumvent photorespiration. Plant leaf has Kranz anatomy - has bundle sheath cells which fix CO2 and have rubisco but mesophyll cells don't so that photorespiration can be avoided.

Enhancers

A DNA sequence that recognizes certain transcription factors that can stimulate transcription of nearby genes.

This is the technical name for a sequence of behaviors that are triggered by an external sensory stimulus and that are basically unchangeable:

"Fixed action pattern"

What are the earliest known hominid fossils, and where were they found?

"Lucy" skeleton - australopithecus afarensis - found in Africa in the 1970s.

Cilia and flagella are composed of long stabilized __________ arranged in a ________ structure

"Microtubules" "9 + 2" (9 pairs of microtubules surrounding two central microtubules for added stability)

RNA

1.Found in nucleus and cytoplasm 2.sugar is ribose. 3. Bases are A,U,C,G -RNA is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone and four different bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil -The main job of RNA is to transfer the genetic code need for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. this process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins could never be made -A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological roles and has a shorter chain of nucleotides -A-U(Adenine-Uracil), GC(Guanine-Cytosine) -Ribose sugar is more reactive because of C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds. Not stable in alkaline conditions. RNA on the other hand has larger grooves which makes it easier to be attacked by enzymes.

light reactions summary?

1.Light reactions occur on the membranes of thylakoids 2.Photon absorbed by psII (P680 - chlorophyll b) 3.E excites an e' that is passed from e'-accepting molecule to molecule (ETC) until it reaches PSI 4.The lost e' in PSII is replaced by photolysis - splitting of water into H+ and O - the H+'s are kept inside the thylakoid and the O bonds with another O and is released as O2 5.As the e' travels down the ETC (or electron transport system) H+'s are pumped into the thylakoid 6.Electron from PSII eventually reaches PSI (P700 - chlorophyll a) where it is excited by another photon; the e' travels down the ETC and converts NADP+ to become NADPH 7.Also, H+ from the photolysis of water are used to generate ATP

blastocyst structure?

1.Ring of outer cells called trophoblast - develops into placenta 2.Inner cells called embryoblast - develops into organism Blastocyst is called a blastula or blastophere in animals

DNA structure?

1.Sugar-phosphate backbone (deoxyribose - ribose that has lost an oxygen atom) with a 5-C structure 2.The phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon atom on the deoxyribose molecule 3.Base pairs attach at the 1' carbon atom on the deoxyribose molecule 4.The phosphate group (PO4) that is on the 5' carbon of its nucleotide attaches to the 3' carbon on its neighbor nucleotide thru a condensation reaction 5.Base pairs form hydrogen bonds between each other 6.The genetic code in genes is always written in the 5' to 3' direction along a chain. 7.the two chains run in opposite directions, and the right-hand chain is essentially upside-down.

What are the 4 main layers of leaf from top to bottom?

1.Upper epidermis - protective 2.Palisade mesophyll - lots of chloroplasts 3.Spongy mesophyll - loosely packed cells that creates air pockets to facilitate air exchange 4.Lower epidermis - protective and contains more stoma than upper

A pH change of 1 represents a ____ -fold difference in _______ concentration

10 Proton (H+)

Anaerobic respiration produces _____ molecules of ATP per molecules of glucose

2

The pepsin enzyme is most optimal at this pH:

2

Citric acid cycle undergoes ____ turns per molecule glucose

2 (Trace it all the way through)

What is the net result of glycolysis?

2 ATP 2 pyruvate 2 NADH+ 2 H+

What are chromatids?

2 identical strands of chromatin, attached to each other at the centromere.

How does genetic change produce new species?

2 mechanisms: allopatric speciation sympatric speciation

meiosis

2 nueclar divisions 1 diploid cell produces 4 non identical haploid cells pro 1- duplicated homolous chromosomes form tetrads crossing over met- tetrads align at center of cell ana-sister stay together and go to same pole when homologus chromosome are separated

How many ATP and NADPH formed in light reactions?

2 of each

Photolysis of water in light reactions?

2H2O --> 4 e' (replace lost ones in PSII) + 4H+ + 2O

What is the ploidy of cell during Meiosis 1 prophase?

2n

vascular plants (tracheophytes)

3 Types: Angiosperms (protected seeds; flowering plants), Gymnosperms (naked seeds; pine trees), Seedless (ferns)

How many ATP are formed in the Krebs cycle and ETC taking place in the mitochondria from the complete oxidation of glucose?

34

Plant Vascular Tissue (xylem and phloem)

- Xylem and phloem - Located at the center of the root - Conduct water and minerals from the root to leaves and leaves to roots.

Cilia and flagella structure?

-9 sets of microtubules arranged in a cylinder like centrioles, but the groups are a doublet instead of a triplet. -basal body fibers from the cilia/flagella project into the cytoplasm

In the light reaction of photosynthesis light energy is harnessed to produce ________ and ________ in a process known as _____________

-ATP -NADPH -photophosphorylation

Products of noncyclic photophosphorylation :

-ATP -Oxygen -NADPH

What is role of ATP in mitosis?

-ATP energizes contraction of spindle fiber microtubules to pull chromatids to opposite sides of cell

Citric acid cycle begins when ________ combines with ________ to form ________

-Acetyl-CoA -oxaloacetate -citrate (6 carbon molecule)

Without oxygen, the ETC becomes: As a result this happens:

-Back logged with electrons (since there is no oxygen as a final acceptor for those electrons) -NAD+ can't be regenerated and glycolysis cannot continue until lactic acid fermentation occurs

The dark reactions of photosynthesis accomplish this: How do light and dark reactions work together?

-Carbon fixation: the process by which environmental CO2 is incorporated into sugars; -processes in dark reactions require the ATP from the light reactions to make sugars

These types of molecules do not easily pass through biological membranes:

-Charged ions -Large uncharged polar molecules (ex./ glucose)

Animals with radial symmetry include the following:

-Cnidarians •jellies •corals •Sea anemones

This must be regenerated for glycolysis to continue in the absence of oxygen: This is regeneration is accomplished by:

-NAD+ -reducing pyruvate to lactic acid or ethanol (restores NAD+)

In the ETC ATP is produced when high energy electrons are transferred from _______ and ________ to _________

-NADH -FADH2 -oxygen

In the krebbs cycle the breakdown of acetyl-CoA generates _______ , _______ and __________

-NADH -FADH2 -ATP

In cell respiration, the electron carriers are categorized into three large protein complexes:

-NADH dehydrogenase -cytochrome b-c1 complex -cytochrome oxidase (as well as carrier molecule Q)

________ is an important signaling molecule that passes into the cells' cytoplasm acting on the enzyme _______ which in turn produces _________ which allows for:

-Nitric Oxide (NO) -guanylyl cyclase -cyclic-GMP -blood vessels to relax when stimulated by acetylcholine

Modes of Reproduction in animals

-Ovuliparity: fertilisation is external, the oocytes being released into the environment and fertilised outside her body by the male.[This is common in molluscs, arthropods and fishes, and is found in most frogs. -oviparity (embryos in eggs) -viviparity (young born live) -ovoviviparity (intermediate between the first two). -Histotrophic viviparity: the zygotes develop in the female's oviducts, but find their nutriments from other tissues, whether skin or glandular tissue -Hemotrophic viviparity: nutriments are provided by the female, often through a placenta,

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

-Two molecules of pyruvate were produced from glycolysis (enter the mitochondria) and converted into two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A inside the mitochondrial matrix, two carbon dioxide, and two NADH + H+ molecules through pyruvate oxidation -Each acetyl coenzyme A proceeded once through the citric acid cycle -it created 6 NADH + H+ molecules, two FADH2 molecules, four carbon dioxide molecules, and two ATP molecules

Gap junctions allow for: Provide an example in the human body where gap junctions are essential:

-Undisrupted and very fast signal transmission across wide areas of tissue -example: gap junctions allow for the rhythmic contractions of large sections of the heart all at once

Animals with radial symmetry have these two sides: Animals with radial symmetry lack this:

-a side with a mouth (oral) -a side without a mouth (aboral) -they lack a "front" or "back" end; or "right" / "left" sides

Difference btw cytokinesis in plant and animal cells?

-animal - formation of furrow in the equatorial plane -Plant - formation of a cell plate; cellulose cell wall laid down on either side of the plate and two complete plant cells form

Transmembrane proteins can be involved in all the following functions:

-carrying materials across biological membranes -cell recognition -cell adhesion -cell signaling -enzymatic reactions

living versus non-living

-cellular organization -growth and reproduction -regulation and responds to environment -obtain and use energy

microfilaments and microtubules?

-cellular shape and movement -are types of proteins

Chief difference btw plant and animal cells?

-cellulose cell wall in plants -in division - cell plate in plants; cleavage furrow in animals -large vacuole in plants -plant cell maintain rigid shape -chloroplasts in plant hence autotrophs -most higher plants do not have centrioles, but do have spindle apparatus

Based on these shared features, terrestrial plants are hypothesized to have evolved from green algae (Protoctista):

-chlorophyll a and accessory pigments -thylakoid membranes stacked locally into grana -cell wall made of cellulose -carbohydrate stores made of starch -cell plate dividing cytoplasm in cytokinesis formed from Golgi complex vesicles

What happens to chromosomes in telophase?

-chromosomes (really chromatids) relax and elongate and return to the state of chromatin; nuclear membrane forms around each nuclear material and cytokinesis begins.

Viruses have capsizes, or protein shells, in the following shapes:

-cones -rods -polyhedrons

Nuclear membrane function?

-contains nuclear pores that provide for nuclear-cytoplasmic communication -2 leaflets (or layers)

How do protozoans asexually reproduce?

-fission; simplest form of asexual -this is splitting of the body in a mitotic way

What reproduces through fragmentation?

-flatworms such as planaria, which is when several pieces break off and regenerate into new organism

Alternating generation: Gametes produced by the _______ fuse to create a diploid zygote which eventually becomes a__________

-gametophyte (N) -sporophyte (2N)

What is a tetrad in meiosis?

-homologous chromosome pairs together which makes 4 chromatids with the two centromeres connected -note that when homologous pairs are connected, the # of tetrads is = to the haploid #.

In operon transcription control, the ______ can bind to the ________ to initiate transcription:

-inducer -repressor

Primary homeostatic organs are all of the following:

-kidney -liver -large intestines -skin

extinction of species

-lack of genetic diversity -environmental pressures (climate and habitat change) -human impacts -interspecific competition

DNA

-linear molecule -3 billion bases in the nucleus -efficiently packed into chromosomes -proteins called histones help package them more efficiently--DNA rolls around them (nucleosome)--all of it is called "chromatin"

Anchoring junctions have ________ proteins that attach to __________ or ________ in the cytoplasm of the cell thereby connecting the two cells

-linker -actin -intermediate filaments

Nonvascular plants (bryophytes)

-liverworts, hornworts, mosses -small plants, need moist habitat -dominant gametophyte generation (sporophytes depend on gametophytes) -flagellated sperm -rhizoids anchor bryophytes to substrate

Active transport?

-maintains disequilibrium of water/solutes as needed by a cell -ex. Concentration of sodium ions is usually less in the cell in comparison to concentration outside the cell because active transport pumps out sodium ions

What happens in telophase 1 that is different from telophase in mitosis?

-meiosis II begins immediately; no interphase and, of course, chromosomes do not duplicate in meiosis II

lysosomes function?

-membrane bound organelles -digestive enzymes which can break down macromolecules for energy production -digestive enzymes are called acid hydrolases -cause self-destruction of injured cells and digest materials that enter cell in vacuoles/vesicles - the lysosome fuses with the vesicle and releases the acid hydrolases into the vesicle

Mitochondria

-membrane-bound structures where cellular respiration occurs. - Bacteria, by the way, do not have mitochondria

vacuole facts?

-membrane-delimited bodies -transports materials -small ones called vesicles

nucleus function?

-monitors changes within and outside cells -directs protein synthesis and therefore amount and type of hormones and enzymes produced -transmission of hereditary material

centriole description?

-only animal cells and some algae and fungi cells -occur as pair composed of nine groups of tubules arranged in a ring to form a hollow cylinder -each group is a triplet of microtubules -space surrounding a pair of centrioles is called a centrosome -aster - ray-like filaments extending from the centriole

4 Other substances in cell walls?

-pectin -hemicellulose -Extension -lignin (in tree wood)

Three types of endocytosis:

-phagocytosis -pinocytosis -receptor-mediated endocytosis --> (carrier protein binds to specific substances for invagination )

plastids?

-plant organelles that contains pigments (chlorophyll or other color pigments) or function in nutrient storage (plastid that lacks pigment) -have own DNA and ribosomes -DNA codes for enzymes used in photosynthesis

Golgi bodies (apparatus)?

-protein molecules are dehydrated, chemically modified and packaged for release in the form of secretory granules.

Fermentation ends with the conversion of ___________ to ____________

-pyruvate -lactic acid (muscle cells)/ ethanol (yeast)

Axons of nerve cells?

-transmit impulses by temporary redistribution of ions inside and outside of the cell

cell wall function?

-withstands high osmotic pressure (pressure of water to want to flow into the cell) to prevent bursting. -made of cellulose (polymer of glucose) -cellulose bundles form structures called fibrils

conjugation in bacteria?

......type of bacterial recombination (create genetic diversity) in which one bacterium connects itself to another through a protein tube structure called a pilus. Genes are transferred from one bacterium to the other through this tube

transduction in bacteria?

...type of bacterial recombination (create genetic diversity) in which there is an exchange of bacterial DNA through bacteriophages - viruses that infect bacteria. There are two types of transduction: generalized and specialized transduction.

mitosis

1 nucelar division 1 diploid cell produces 2 identical diploid cells propahse- individual duplicated chromosomes metaphase- center ana- sister chromosomes are pulled apart form stomata cells

In photosynthesis, light energy is converted to chemical energy with an efficiency of approximately:

1%

Only about ____% of the visible light that strikes photosynthetic organisms is converted into chemical energy:

1%

Efficiency of photosynthesis?

1% of light E is converted to chemical E

Microscopy Practical - Using a Light Microscope

1) Clip the slide you've prepared onto the stage 2) Select the lowest-powered objective lens 3) Use the coarse adjustment knob to move the stage up to just below the objective lens (should start at lowest setting) 4) Look down the eyepiece. Use the coarse adjustment knob to move the stage downwards until the image is roughly in focus 5) Adjust the focus with the fine adjustment knob, until you get a clear image of what's on the slide

The establishment and survival of a particular organism in an area is dependent upon what 2 things?

1) the availability of necessary elements in at least the minimum quantity 2) the controlled supply of these elements to keep within the limits of tolerance

Describe some important properties of the functional group: "Amine",

1. Acts as a base, which affects the electronegativity of amino acids 2. Allows formation of peptide bond between amino acids

3 characteristics of X- linked dominant inheritance in a pedigree:

1. All daughters of a male who has the trait will also have the trait 2. There is no male to male transmission 3. A female who has the trait may or may not pass on the affected X to her son or daughter (unless both X's are affected)

Describe Schleiden & Schwann cell theory

1. All living things made up of 1 or more cells 2. Cells are basic units of life 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

Give four examples of Protoctista:

1. Amoeba 2. Paramecia 3. Diatoms 4. Slime molds

The following are all the stages of the lytic cycle for virus infecting a cell:

1. Attachment and penetration 2. Uncoating 3. Viral mRNA and protein synthesis 4. Replication of the genome 5. Assembly and release

In cellular respiration, what rxns take place?

1. Glycolysis (anaerobic) 2. Krebs Cycle (aerobic) 3. electron transport (aerobic)

Describe some important properties of the functional group: "Carbonyl" ex./'s of carbonyls: (aldehydes), (ketones)

1. Highly reactive carbonyl group 2. The carbon nearest to the carbonyl group is highly reactive 3. Produces important intermediary molecules in several biological reactions

4 characteristics of autosomal dominant inheritance in a pedigree:

1. Males and females are equally likely to have the trait 2. Traits do not skip generations 3. The trait is present if the corresponding gene is present 4. There is male to male and female to female transmission

Name these 5 animal groups (Phylum) of importance:

1. Mollusca 2. Annelida 3. Arthropoda 4. Echinodermata 5. Chordata

1. Horizontal gene transfer: 2. Vertical gene transfer:

1. Organism transfers genetic material to cells that are not its offspring 2. Organism receives genetic material from parent or predecessor species

What 2 pathways does water follow in a plant?

1. Vascular system - water seeps between epidermal cells of the roots and between the parenchyma cells of the cortex and travels to endodermal tissue, entering cells and goes through vascular system. 2. Water passes through the cell wall and plasma membrane and travels along through channels (plasmodesmata) in the cell membranes until it reaches the xylem.

4 main parts of the brain?

1. brainstem - oldest, includes amygdala and keeps you alive 2. cerebellum - motor control and balance 3. diencephalon - data analysis (like a switchboard), controls pituitary gland 4. cerebrum - biggest part; two lobes; memory and consciousness

What are the 2 roles of ATP in the cell?

1. drive all E-requiring reactions of cellular metabolism via hydrolysis of ATP 2. activate a compound prior to its entry into a reaction, such as the krebs cycle Ex. Glucose + ATP to form glucose-1-phosphate + ADP in glycolysis; this activates glucose and when the bond between the phosphate group and glucose is broken, enough E is released for the next reaction to proceed.

1. What does the yolk sac membrane enclose? 2. What is it formed from? 3. What does it become? 4. What does it do?

1. encloses yolk sac 2. forms from digestive tract 3. becomes part of umbilical cord and part of the reproductive system in embryo. 4. stores nutrients for embryo Is larger in egg-laying species

What are the 4 characteristics of a desert?

1. extreme hot/cold 2. very low precip 3. sandy or rocky terrain 4.sparse vegetation, mainly succulent plants, small animals, rodents, reptiles

1. What is the placenta formed from? 2. What does it do? 3. Does it have a separate blood system? 4. How are nutrients, etc. transferred from mother to baby?

1. formed from outer cells of embryo and inner cells of uterus 2. site of transfer of nutrients, waste, water between mother an embryo 3. synthesizes its own blood - kept separate from mother's blood vessels of mother and embryo are next to each other 4. nutrients, water, oxygen diffuse from mother's blood to embryo's blood

Mendel's 2 laws of heredity?

1. law of independent segregation - heredity "factors" (alleles) occur in pairs and they segregate in the formation of gametes; fusion of alleles in fertilization brings them back together. 2. law of independent assortment - independent assortment of two single "factors" (genes) in the formation of gametes, aka genes aren't linked (but only the traits he studied because linkage was later discovered) 9:3:3:1 when crossing GgAa xGgAa (16 boxes with this ratio when traits are not linked)

What are the 3 characteristics of a temperate deciduous forest?

1. moderate, seasonal temp 2. moderate precip 3. many deciduous trees, mosses, grasses, shrubs, abundant animal life

What are the 3 characteristics of temperate grassland?

1. moderate, seasonal temp 2.low precip most of year 3. large land tracts of grasslands, shrubs & annuals, rodents, some larger carnivores

List 6 general characteristics of animal cells that differentiate from plant cells.

1. no cell walls or plastids 2. multicellular with specialized tissues & organs 3. heterotrophic 4. capable of sexual reproduction; few (hydra) are also capable of asexual 5. develop from embryonic stages 6. symmetrical anatomy

What 5 main characteristics does a monocot have?

1. one cotyledon/seed 2. leaves with parallel veins 3. stems with random arrangement of vascular bundles 4. fibrous roots 5. flowers with petals in multiples of 3

What are 3 basic types of stereotyped behaviors?

1. taxes (plural of taxis) - directional response toward or away from stimulus 2. kineses - changes in speed of movement in response to stimuli 3. reflexes - fixed action patterns (FAP) - complex behaviors in response to stimulus

3 differences between RNA and DNA

1.) sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose 2)RNA is generally single stranded and not double stranded 3) RNA contains uracil in place of thymine

summary of dark reactions (calvin cycle)?

1.CO2 is combined w/ RuBp (5C) to form a 6C sugar via the enzyme RuBisCo. 2.6C immediately breaks down to form 2 PGA's (each 3C) 3.NADPH and ATP are used to convert PGA's into PGAL's (aka G3P) 4.PGAL's can form a 6 carbon sugar (glucose) 5.But... it takes 6 turns to generate enough carbon so that 12 molecules of PGAL are formed 10 PGAL's are converted back to RuBP via E from ATP and 2 PGAL's combine to make glucose

endosymbiotic theory evidence

1.Double membranes on chloroplasts & mitochondria 2.Organelles with own DNA - circular molecules 3.Size of organelles similar to prokaryotes 4.Endosymbiotic relationships occur in many Protists today

How many codons combinations exist?

64: 61 are amino acids 3 are termination signals (TAA ex.)

mammalian vertebrate from top to bottom?

7 - 12- 5 - 1 - 1 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and then of course, it's 1 sacrum, 1 coccyx

How many levels in Linnaeus' classification system?

7. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

This is the maximum absorbance wavelength of the chlorophyll found in photosystem I:

700nm "P700" is the name of the chlorophyll in this photosystem

A mature ovum produced from division of a primary oocyte has 18 chromosomes . How many chromatids were present in the primary oocyte during prophase I of meiosis?

72 (Primary oocyte contained 36 (2n) )

Fermentation

A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.

The dependent variable is the variable that changes in response to:

A change in the independent variable

Deletion

A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed.

Mutagens

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

Turner Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.

Klinefelter syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.

coenzyme?

A coenzyme is an organic substance that works with an enzyme to initiate or aid the function of the enzyme. Coenzymes cannot function on their own and require the presence of an enzyme. ATP can act as a coenzyme as well as vitamins. •They bind to the active site of the enzyme and participate in catalysis but are not considered substrates of the reaction.

Codominance

A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed

In flowering plants, the seed leaves that may store carbohydrates for the embryonic plant are called A.cotyledons

A cotyledon is a part of the plant embryo that typically becomes the first leaf of the seedling. However, cotyledons are not true leaves and are derived differently. Flowering plants have either one cotyledon (monocots) or two cotyledons (eudicots). Cotyledons are found in gymnosperms as well.

dihybrid cross

A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene

monohybrid cross

A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits

Restriction endonuclease

A degradative enzyme that recognizes specific nucleotide sequences and cuts up DNA. Many recognize and cleave at palindromic sequences and create nucleotide overhangs such as that shown in the figure of the cleaved plasmid.

What are domains?

A domain is a classification level above kingdom added by modern taxonomists

phylogenetic tree

A family tree that shows the evolutionary relationships thought to exist among groups of organisms

Thylakoids

A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.

Which of the following is true of peptide bond formation in a lengthening polypeptide?

A growing polypeptide is initially held in the P site of a ribosome. After a tRNA carrying the next amino acid required for the polypeptide binds to the corresponding codon in the A site of the ribosome, a peptide bond forms between the polypeptide and the amino acid. Bond formation releases the polypeptide from the tRNA in the P site and transfers it to the A site.

Alternation of generations life cycle

A life cycle in which organisms switch back and forth between diploid and haploid stages. (gametophyte and sporophyte)

What is an anticodon?

A sequence of 3 nucleotides located on one end of tRNA. It binds to the complementary codon of mRNA during translation phase of protein synthesis. Ex. Codon for amino acid glycine is GGG and the anticodon is CCC

lactic acid fermentation

A series of anaerobic chemical reactions using pyruvic acid that supplies energy when oxygen is scarce -pyruvate is reduced by NADH + H+. In doing so, the electron carriers are then returned to their NAD+ state so that they may re-enter the glycolysis cycle. Meanwhile, pyruvate is converted to the 3-carbon molecule lactic acid (lactate).

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Replication is always in this direction:

5' ---> 3'

ends of a DNA strand or molecule?

5' end bears a phosphate group 3' end bears a hydroxyl group

What is the frequency of inheritance of X-linked dominant disorder in female parents?

50% in all offspring

How to test whether two traits are linked (on same chromosome)?

Do a testcross between an individual heterozygous for both traits and an individual that is recessive homozygous for both traits: GgAa x ggaa: If offspring of testcross give a 1:1:1:1 phenotypic ratio than genes assort independently Any other ration shows linkage

What is crossing over?

During metaphase of meiosis 1 when homologous chromosomes line up along the center of the dividing cell, some pieces of the chromosomes break off and move from one chromosome to another. Adds more variation of traits.

These proteins are responsible for generating the rapid sliding force that causes the movement of flagella and cilia:

Dynein proteins (both outer and inner arms)

blastomere?

Each individual cell in the blastocyst is called a blastomere Blastomeres are stem cells - these are the stem cell "lines"

Each gamete will contain one member of:

Each pair of homologous chromosomes

This is a warning coloration given off when organisms, such as the poison dart frog, have effective chemical defenses (poisons):

Aposematic coloration

Kingdom System of Classification

Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

meristem in plants?

Areas within a plant that are capable of growth via mitosis are called meristems

This Phylum has a segmented exoskeleton and appendages and compound eyes:

Arthropoda

This was the first person to observe living cells by using microscopy to examine pond water; called his findings "animalcules" (tiny animals)

Aton van Leeuwenhoek

b-cells and T-cells develop where?

B - bone marrow and T - thymus

Oxygen first entered the earths atmosphere only after:

Bacteria (similar to today's Cyanobacteria) arose and split water as they carried out photosynthesis

Binary fission applies to the reproduction of:

Bacteria by means of replicating and dividing its single chromosome

What happens in cyclic photophosphorylation?

Bacteria shut down PSII (if they have it) to generate ATP from PSI - the e' is recycled in PSI rather than moved to PSII. Excited e' is passed to ferredoxin (fd) and then passed to PQ then to the cytochrome complex, then to PC and back to P700 PSI.

What is a facultative anaerobe?

Bacteria that can function w/or w/out oxygen Ex. Denitrifying bacteria of soil and methane-forming bacteria

If you want plants to be healthy then give them these color lights:

Blue and red. NOT green

What does phytochrome do?

Blue pigment that detects a light or dark environment

The first branch in the animal tree has to do with:

Body symmetry

Hematopoiesis occurs in the:

Bone marrow in humans (forms new red blood cells)

If a population is subject to disruptive (diversifying) equilibrium then:

Borge phenotype extremes become favored, but the average becomes selected against

Do X-linked dominant disorders affect males, females, or both?

Both males and females can be affected, but in males the symptoms are often much more severe and very commonly fatal.

This model suggests a unidirectional influence of biomass from lower to higher tropic levels; example: herbivores eat vegetation, therefore an increase in vegetation results in an increase in herbivore biomass (but not vice versa)

Bottom up model (When looking at a tropic level pyramid)

artificial selection

Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits.

Rosalind Franklin

British scientist began to study DNA and used a technique called Xray diffraction to get information about a DNA molecule.

A scientific theory is an explanation that is generally:

Broad in scope, supported by a large body of evidence, and that can serve as the basis for a new hypothesis and experimentation

what is the role of malic acid (malate) in C4 plants?

C4 plants store CO2 in malic acid in the vacuoles of photosynthetic cells; broken down during day when stomata are closed so the CO2 can be used in calvin cycle.

Chemosynthesis

CO2 + 4H2S + O2 -> CH20 + 4S + 3H2O -Bacteria found next to hydrothermal vents, whale carcasses, cold seeps, and even sunken ships are known to utilize chemosynthesis to make their own food. The key thing is that chemosynthesis doesn't rely on sunlight and thus deep-sea communities can still thrive despite a lack of sunlight thanks to chemosynthesis.

process of feedback inhibition of a metabolic pathway

Feedback inhibition of a metabolic pathway typically occurs when an end product of the pathway starts to build up and reduces the activity of an enzyme that functions early in the pathway.

How does CO2 get to the bundle sheath cells in C4 plants?

CO2 bonds with PEP to form OAA (oxaloacetate - a 4C compound) which converts to malate which is shuttled to the bundle sheath cell where the CO2 is removed and used in the calvin cycle. The remaining molecule is pyruvate which goes back to the mesophyll cell to be converted to PEP. Mostly in plants in hot, dry climates where C4 pathway is more efficient because CO2 has higher affinity for PEP carboxylase than rubisco at high temperatures; also corn and sugar cane

Calvin-Benson cycle pathway:

CO2 combines with RuBP, a 5 carbon sugar with two phosphate groups with the help of an enzyme called rubisco; this results in a 6 carbon sugar that is promptly split into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate; this new molecule is then phosphorolated by ATP and then reduced by NADPH forming PGAL

Calvin-Benson cycle fixes:

CO2 into carbohydrates

This happens during the Calvin cycle:

CO2 is fixed into organic molecules

Which of the following occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts?

CO2 is fixed into organic molecules. CO2 is fixed into organic molecules during the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis that occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts. The sugar product of the Calvin cycle is glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, a three-carbon sugar.

In what era did early forms of fish arise?

Cambrian

Beginning of fossil record during what period?

Cambrian period - 570 million years ago. These organismss had exoskeletons - fossil records began.

metastasize?

Cancer cells break off tumor and move to other body parts

why are there side effects of chemo?

Cancer cells tend to grow fast, and chemo drugs kill fast-growing cells. But because these drugs travel throughout the body, they can affect normal, healthy cells that are fast-growing, too. Damage to healthy cells causes side effects. Side effects are not always as bad as you might expect, but many people worry about this part of cancer treatment. The normal cells most likely to be damaged by chemo are : Blood-forming cells in the bone marrow Hair follicles Cells in the mouth, digestive tract, and reproductive system

What is an obligatory anaerobe?

Cannot use or live in presence of oxygen; example is botulism and tetanus causing bacteria

This is the most common organic compound in living things:

Carbohydrates

Four main classes of organic compounds:

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nuclei acids

Greenhouse gases:

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases

Saturated Fatty acids have: Unsaturated fatty acids have:

Carbons all single bonded to each other (saturated with hydrogen a) Carbons (some) are double bonded causing kinks and bends

Factors which influence the rate of diffusion across a cell membrane

Carrier - mediated diffusion, a type of facilitated diffusion Carrier - mediated transport can require that two or more substances be moved through the membrane _REQUIRE A CARRIER PROTEIN BUT DON'T REQUIRE NRG_ facilitated or carrier - mediated diffusion The rate at which a substance diffuses through a membrane can be explained using the equation for Fick's law of diffusion 1. Steepness of the concentration gradient 2. The surface area of the membrane through which diffusion is taking place. 3. The distance through which diffusion must take place. 4. Permeability of the membrane to the substance. 5. Temperature 6. Molecular size 7. Pressure difference across the membrane (special case) 8. charged particles

catabolic reactions

Catabolic processes move in the opposite direction, breaking down large molecules into smaller ones, and tend to release energy in the form of energy- rich compounds like adenosine triphosphate (ATP). They not only supply the energy to power anabolic activity, they also provide the small molecules (building blocks) required to create more complex molecules, and the electrons which act like "glue" by holding atoms together through chemical bonds.

Cause of red-green color blindness?

Caused by recessive gene on x chromosome. If male gets the recessive gene from mom than he will be colorblind.

Role of telomeres and telomerase in forming cancer cells?

Cell can activate production of telomerase to stop shortening of its telomeres which can result in the cell to continuously dividing and become malignant.

Vacuoles

Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

Carbohydrates on the surface of the cell and glycoproteins are involved in:

Cell recognition

What can happen to cell in a hypotonic solution?

Cell swells with water and can burst if too much water enters- called lysis

What is fermentation?

Cellular "respiration" without presence of oxygen Yeast does this and slows down reproduction but still takes place and results in yeast converting sugars into ethanol

Chitin and cellulose are examples of

Chitin and cellulose are examples of structural polysaccharides. Chitin is found in the cell walls of many fungi and in the exoskeletons of arthropods and insects as well as in certain tissues of other animals. Cellulose is found in the cell walls of plant cells.

Accessory pigments?

Chlorophyll b, c, or d, carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) Yellow, orange colors that are hidden by the much more prevalent chlorophyll.

Which of the following is required to initiate transcription of a particular gene in eukaryotic cells?

An RNA polymerase associates with transcription factors bound to the gene's regulatory sequences. In eukaryotic cells, an RNA polymerase cannot bind to a gene and initiate transcription until transcription factors have bound to the gene. Typically, cell-specific regulatory transcription factors bind to the enhancer sequences of a gene, which facilitates the binding of general basal transcription factors to the promoter sequence, and finally the binding of the RNA polymerase.

Spectrophotometry

An analytical method for identifying a substance by its selective absorption of different wavelengths of light.

reduction-oxidation reactions

An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron. Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic functions of life, including photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and corrosion or rusting.

embryonic stem cells

An undifferentiated cell, taken from an embryo that has potential to give rise to various other cell or tissue types

anabolic reactions

Anabolic processes create complex materials from simpler substances. This activity would include synthesizing the basic components of cells like proteins and lipids, as well as creating the storage form of nutrients to be utilized as needed for energy. The steroidal hormones that stimulate protein synthesis and muscle growth are traditionally classified by endocrinologists as anabolic hormones due to the nature of their effects on the body.

complementary base pairs

DNA Hydrogen bonding between particular pyrimidines and purines. Adenine & Thymine. Cytosine & Guanine. RNA: Adenine and Uracil

DNA transcription?

DNA copied to make mRNA for protein synthesis

DNA vs RNA structure

DNA has Thymine and RNA has Uracil DNA has deoxyribose and RNA has ribose DNA DS, RNA SS

Which of the following is most likely to occur when double-stranded DNA is heated in the laboratory as part of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique?

DNA must be heated during each cycle of PCR to break the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands together. The temperature of the reaction is then reduced so that added oligonucleotide primers can anneal by the formation of hydrogen bonds with the sequences to which they are complementary.

Second law of thermodynamics:

Heat cannot spontaneously flow from colder location to a hotter location

function of bone marrow in humans?

Hematopoiesis, the formation of all cells of the blood, occurs in the bone marrow. Pluripotent stem cells divide to produce new stem cells but also give rise to red blood cells, all types of white blood cells including lymphocytes and monocytes, and cells that are precursors to platelets.

mutations that can be passed onto offspring?

Hereditary mutations are inherited from a parent and are present throughout a person's life in virtually every cell in the body. These mutations are also called germline mutations because they are present in the parent's egg or sperm cells, which are also called germ cells. When an egg and a sperm cell unite, the resulting fertilized egg cell receives DNA from both parents. If this DNA has a mutation, the child that grows from the fertilized egg will have the mutation in each of his or her cells.

Viruses and bacteriophages were studied by these scientists

Hershey and Chase

What is the oldest known fossil of the human genus and how old is it thought to be?

Homo erectus - about 1.8 million years old.

Similar traits from a common ancestor:

Homologous structures

Similarity in characteristics between species, because the species share a common ancestor, is known as ___________

Homology

What if a male has a mutant x chromosome? How does this affect his offspring?

If a male has a mutant x chromosome than he will pass this on to his daughters. If mother is affected (hetero) and father normal than ½ male and female offspring will be affected.

A mature ovum produced from division of a primary oocyte has 18 chromosomes. How many chromatids were present in the primary oocyte during prophase I of meiosis?

If a mature ovum contains 18 (n) chromosomes, then the primary oocyte contained 36 (2n) chromosomes. Each chromosome was composed of two identical chromatids immediately after DNA replication, which occurred before the primary oocyte entered prophase I of meiosis. Hence, 72 chromatids were present in the primary oocyte during prophase I.

The one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis

If each mutation blocks a different step in a metabolic pathway, it appears that each mutation alters the activity of the enzyme that catalyzes that particular step. Because each mutation is in a different gene, it strongly suggests that each gene encodes a different enzyme. Enzymes are proteins composed of one or more polypeptides. Extensive research has proved that this hypothesis is correct.

A sample of peritoneal fluid from a laboratory mouse is placed between a slide and a 20 mm × 20 mm cover slip to count the number of viable white blood cells. The thickness of the peritoneal fluid sample between the slide and the cover slip is 0.1 mm. What is the volume of the sample?

If the dimensions of the cover slip are 20 mm × 20 mm, the surface area of the sample is 400 mm2. If the thickness of the sample under the cover slip is 0.1 mm, then the total volume of the sample is 400 mm2 × 0.1 mm = 40 mm3.

How to tell if someone is hetero or homozygous for a gene in gel electrophoresis?

If the individual has two lines then they are heterozygous; if he/she has one line then they are homozygous

_______ is the simplest type of antibody (simple meaning it has the fewest paratopes to bind antigens)

IgG

When does cyclic photophosphorylation take place?

In Anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria - ones that photosynthesize in environments devoid of oxygen

gene therapy

Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery. Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy, including: Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene. Inactivating, or "knocking out," a mutated gene that is functioning improperly. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease. Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections), the technique remains risky and is still under study to make sure that it will be safe and effective. Gene therapy is currently only being tested for the treatment of diseases that have no other cures.

What are sex-linked traits?

Genes that are located on the sex chromosomes (x) that are not related to sex determination. Ex: color blindness and hemophilia

Hardy Weinberg equilibrium states that: (also about ideal conditions)

Genetic distribution remains constant in large, isolated populations where mating occurs randomly; no mutations and no natural selection

gene mapping?

Genetic mapping - also called linkage mapping - can offer firm evidence that a disease transmitted from parent to child is linked to one or more genes. It also provides clues about which chromosome contains the gene and precisely where it lies on that chromosome.

Molecular clock hypothesis states:

Genetic mutations occur within a genome at a linear rate

Segregation of homologous chromosomes pairs at anaphase I is one of the many contributors to:

Genetic variation within a species

What are barr bodies?

In men and women with more than one X chromosome, the number of Barr bodies visible at interphase is always one less than the total number of X chromosomes. So normal male of xy would show no barr bodies

A mutant allele that causes disease in a homozygous fashion may persist in a population at a higher frequency than expected if:

Individuals who are carriers of the mutant allele (heterozygous) have an advantage over individuals with two copies of the wild-type allele

sex-linked inheritance

Inheritance of a genetic trait located on the sex chromosomes

ETC is located in the:

Inner membrane of the mitochondrial membrane

cytokines?

Intercellular communication molecules that are abundant in immune system

Desmosomes use which type of cytoplasm attachment structure?

Intermediate filaments (as opposed to actin)

DNA sequencing and polymerase chain reaction

Polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, is a technique to make many copies of a specific DNA region in vitro (in a test tube rather than an organism). -is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. It is an easy, cheap, and reliable way to repeatedly replicate a focused segment of DNA, a concept which is applicable to numerous fields in modern biology and related sciences.[1]

Definition of a protein?

Polymers (chain of units bonded together) of amino acids covalently bonded thru peptide bonds in a chain.

Name 9 major phyla within Kingdom Animalia

Porifera - sponges Cnidaria - jellyfish, sea anemones, hydra Platyhelminthes - flatworms Nematoda - round worms Mollusca- snails, clams, squid Annelida - segmented worms (earthworms, leeches, etc. Arthropoda - crabs, spiders, lobster, insects, millipedes Echinodermata - sea stars, sand dollars, etc. Chordata - fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, lampreys

These naturally want to diffuse into the cells cytoplasm under conditions where carrier proteins freely enable them to pass through the cell membrane:

Positively-charged ions like Sodium (Na+)

Aluminum cans should be recycled because:

Processing of aluminum ore (refined from bauxite) requires a tremendous amount of energy; this process also releases a lot of CO2 into the atmosphere. Recycling aluminum cans saves energy and reduces CO2 emissions

Which of the following describes a mechanism by which tumor-suppressor proteins prevent cells with DNA mutations from becoming cancer cells?

Progression of the cell cycle is dependent upon the interaction of two types of proteins, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). M or S cyclins increase in concentration, then bind to CDKs. This activates the CDKs to phosphorylate proteins that promote the M or S phases of the cell cycle. The role of tumor-suppressor proteins is to modulate the cell cycle so that abnormal cells do not divide. Some tumor-suppressor proteins act by causing the production of proteins that block the interaction of certain cyclins with the CDKs and thus halt cell cycle progression until the cells can correct the abnormality or else undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).

ATP synthesis

Pumping all these protons outside across the inner membrane of the mitochondria creates a high concentration of protons between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes and, therefore, a concentration gradient of protons. -ATP synthase The protons flow through this pump at max speed, back into the mitochondrial matrix; this causes part of the enzyme to spin in circles like a whirling dervish. This spinning motion provides the final dance and song number of cellular respiration. ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP, creating the last 28 molecules of ATP. How's that for a final act?

What happens to pyruvate so that the krebs cycle can take place?

Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-Co-A

Post glycolysis --> pyruvate decarboxylation : explain what happens here:

Pyruvate is decarboxylated (loses a CO2 molecule) and the remaining acetyl group is added to Coenzyme A thereby forming: acetyl-CoA

These are the first life forms to initially grow during primary succession:

Lichens and mosses (Via wind-blown spores)

Which cellular division process do spores undergo?

MITOSIS

T helper cells are mediators between:

Macrophages and B-cells

Who was Sidney Fox?

Major evolution researcher of 1960s. Conducted experiments that proved UV light may induce formation of dipeptides from AAs. Also showed that polyphosphoric aid could increase the yield of these polymers; process that simulates role of ATP in protein synthesis.

purpose of light reactions of photosynthesis?

Make ATP and NADPH+ that will energize the Calvin cycle (dark reactions) which is when glucose is formed from carbon dioxide molecules

law of segregation

Mendel's 1st law of inheritance - traits are expressed from a pair of genes in the individual on homologous chromosomes

What is the Law of Dominance?

Mendel's 2nd law of inheritance - one gene usually expresses itself over the other (one gene is dominant over the other)

What is the Law of Independent Assortment?

Mendel's 3rd law of inheritance - since homologous chromosomes separate and independently sort in gamete formation, alleles are also separated and independently sorted.

Law of Segregation

Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete

This structure of a plant consists of undifferentiated cells that can divide throughout the life of the plant enabling growth in length and girth

Meristem

changes in chromosome number

Normal development depends on the presence of exactly 2 of each type (autosomes and sex chromosomes) in somatic cells. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes leads to development abnormalities., Down syndrome, Turner syndrome Klinefelter's

Pathway for cyclic photophosphorylation :

Occurs in photosystem I ; electrons move from the reaction center, through an ETC, and back to the same reaction center again

Pathway for noncyclic photophosphorylation :

Occurs in photosystem II; excited Electrons pass to reaction center and then to ETC; at the end the electrons are not returned to the original reaction center, but instead are passed to photosystem I; photosystem II REPLACES LOST electrons from water thereby producing oxygen gas in the process; electrons that enter photosystem I are used to make NADPH

adaptive radiation

Occurs over relatively short period of time. Movement of a population into new geographic areas looking for new resources or to escape predators. Traits that allow this traveling population to use its resources more effectively and to produce more offspring will grow more common over time and the species will specially adapt to live more effectively in the new environment.

When many different genes contribute to one trait that trait is said to be:

Polygenic

Skin color is an example of:

Polygenic inheritance; several interacting genes control a single trait

Are polygenic traits difficult or easy to map and predict?

Polygenic traits are difficult to map and predict because of the varied effects of the different genes and contributing factors on a specific trait or disease.

Diversification among species began during what period?

Ordovician period - species that survived the Cambrian extinctions diversified.

Habitat fragmentation is when:

Organisms are forced to occupy much smaller regions after habitat destruction occurs

Why is Hardy-Weinberg important to evolutionary process?

It shows that alleles that have no current selective value will be retained in a population over time.

Role of plastoquinone (PQ) in the light reactions?

PQ's job is to bond with 2H+ in order to move the 2H+ ions from the stroma to the lumen inside the chloroplast. The e' from PSII is passed to PQ and PQ bonds with the 2H+ and then this bigger molecule diffuses through the thylakoid membrane and passes the e's to the next acceptor in the ETC (cytochrome b6f complex); the 2H+ are released into the lumen (cavity of the thylakoid membrane - think of thylakoid as flattened penne pasta) So...PQ moves H+'s from the stroma into the lumen - space within the thylakoid, AKA H+ pumping!

What is the ONLY biological molecule capable of oxidizing water?

PSII - the e's produced by the oxidation of water supply a steady source of e's for PSII!

Oxidation and reduction of PSII?

PSII is oxidized when it loses its e' and then PSII is reduced when it retrieves an electron from water which returns PSII to its unexcited state.

homologous chromosomes (homologs)

Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.

What 2 models of population growth exist?

J curve (exponential curve) S curve (logistic curve)

Stromata open, due to changes in turgor pressure, when guard cells actively take up:

K+ (potassium) from neighboring epidermal cells --> water then osmotically follows the K+ and the guard cells become turgid causing the stromata to open

Techniques for studying individual chromosomes?

Karyotype and banding techniques

This is a species that is usually not abundant in a community at all, but exerts strong control on the community by their pivotal ecological roles, or niches:

Keystone species

What factor must be present for altruism to evolve?

Kin selection - a factor that influences the preservation and proliferation of those traits.

Which of the following occurs as a part of the noncyclic photophosphorylation pathway of photosynthesis?

Water is split to two electrons, two protons, and an oxygen atom. The splitting of water and the associated oxygen‑generating reaction can be written as: 2 H2O → 4 H+ + 4 e− + O2.

water potential

Water potential is a measure of the potential energy in water as well as the difference between the potential in a given water sample and pure water.

monohybrid cross

a cross between two individuals where only one trait is considered.

dihybrid cross

a cross between two individuals where two separate traits are considered.

What is an X-linked dominant disorder?

a diseases that is caused by a dominant mutation in a gene on the X chromosome.

What kind of an effect do changes in limiting factors have in an ecosystem?

a domino effect. change in [population of one species will change the dynamics of the entire community

What are secondary spermatocytes?

haploid sperm produced from primary spermatocytes undergoing Meoisis 1 in testes

What are spermatids?

haploid sperm that have undergone Meiosis 2

somatic mutation

a mutation that occurs in a body cell

Axons?

a nerve fiber; a long, slender projection of a neuron

What is a cofactor?

a non-protein substance. Binds to active site on enzyme, allowing substrate to fit into active site.

What is a dicot?

a plant with two cotyledons in each seed.

Describe the structure of the anther.

has 4 lobes and contains cells that become pollen.

complete flower?

has all whorls

What is an open community?

has infinite boundaries populations have varying ranges and densities e.g. forest species widely distributed and may travel in and out of the area

Plant cells

have nucleus, vacuoles, lysosomes (rare), cytoskeleton, ribosomes, ER, golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, cell wall, cell membrane dont have--centrioles

C4 plants

have specialized chemical pathway that allows them to capture even the low levels of carbon dioxide and pass it to the Calvin Cycle. The name comes from the fact that the first compound formed in this pathway contains 4 carbon atoms. The C4 pathway enables photosynthesis to keep working under intense light and high temps, but it requires extra energy in the form of ATP to function. Include important crop plants like corn, sugar cane and sorghum.

septum?

heart is divided by a partition or septum into two halves. The halves are in turn divided into chambers

nodal tissue?

heart tissue that coordinates the beating of the heart

What is nitrification?

a process that breaks down ammonia into nitrites or nitrates

telomeres

a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes

operon

a segment of DNA that a repressor binds to. It is classically defined in the lac operon as a segment between the promoter and the genes of the operon. In the case of a repressor, the repressor protein physically obstructs the RNA polymerase from transcribing the genes.

Koch's Postulates

a sequence of experimental steps for directly relating a specific microbe to a specific disease

electron transport chain

a series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high energy electrons during ATP-generating reactions.

Homology (homologous structures)

a similarity between two species that is due descent from a common ancestor with the same trait

What is the result of adaptive radiation over time?

a single species can develop into several diverse species over time.

mRNA (messenger RNA)

a single-stranded RNA molecule that encodes the information to make a protein -5 prime cap, poly A tail

cytoskeleton

helps cell maintain its shape and is also involved in movement

What is the petiole?

a small stem-like extension that joins leaves to stem. Houses vascular tissue that connects veins in leaf with veins in stem.

stabilizing selection?

a type of natural selection that favors the average individuals in a population. This process selects against the extreme phenotypes and instead favors the majority of the population that is well adapted to the environment. Stabilizing selection is often shown on a graph as a modified bell curve that is narrower and taller than the norm.

balanced polymorphism

a type of polymorphism that occurs to keep any particular version within a species from dominating, unless that particular species version is more suited for its ecological niche.

cell- and tissue- specific gene expression?

accounts for the complex regulation of gene expression in eukaryotic organisms

during contraction of skeletal muscle?

actin myofilaments move towards each other but the length of the actin and myosin myofilaments does not change; as a result, the sarcomeres shorten

temperature, pH, and regulatory molecules can effect the ___________ of enzymes

activity

blastula

The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development

Which TWO of the following pose the greatest obstacle to the random passive diffusion of ions across the plasma membrane of a cell?

The hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane's lipid bilayer and The large size of ions that are hydrated by water molecules. Ions typically require a transmembrane protein channel with a hydrophilic interior to facilitate their diffusion across the membrane.

Postzygotic reproduction isolation refers to:

The inability for a hybrid zygote to develop to maturity or of a hybrid zygote to produce viable offspring

gene therapy

The insertion of working copies of a gene into the cells of a person with a genetic disorder in an attempt to correct the disorder

The interaction between these proteins becomes blocked thereby halting cell division:

The interactions between cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases

What mechanism is credited with the development of a new species in the Silurian era?

adaptive radiation. Widespread colonization of landmasses by plants and animals, plus large numbers of insects, fish, early amphibians.

maternal inheritance

aka mitochondrial disease - conditions that result from mitochondrial DNA abnormalities. Only egg cells contribute mitochondrial DNA to embryo. Only mothers pass this on to their children.

What 2 categories are digestive organs are divided into?

alimentary canal accessory organs

cell membranes

all cells contain cell membranes which almost always are made up of a double layered sheet called a lipid bilayer -regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also protects and supports the cell

Describe organisms in domain Eukaryota.

all organisms with eukaryotic cells.

steps in which regulation occurs in gene expression in the production of a protein in eukaryotic cells?

all steps

co-dominance

also known as incomplete dominance

Describe the reproductive cycle of plants

alternates through haploid and diploid phases.

how to transfer acids and bases

always pour into water while stirring

ventricle function?

always pumps blood out of the heart: right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs left ventricle pumps blood to the arteries

Carl Woese

american microbiologist. Famous for defining the archea, RNA

Oparin and amino acids

amino acids could combine to form proteins in early Earth conditions. Since proteins are catalysts he thought they could encourage further change and development of early cells.

What is the amnion? What 3 things does it do?

amniotic fluid 1. cushions embryo 2. keeps temp constant 3. keeps membrane from sticking to developing embryo

mutualism?

an association in which both organisms apparently benefit

action potential?

an electrical signal that is moved from the cell body and through the axon (exchange of sodium and potassium ions) - jumps from node to node (of Ravier)

gradualism

an older equilibrium model that predicts smooth, continuous transitions in the fossil record.

stem cells

an undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that is capable of giving rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation.

Give the sequence of the evolution of plants, beginning with anaerobic cells.

anaerobic cells --> cyanobacteria --> larger aerobic cells --> photosynthetic eukaryotic cells --> cell specialization --> plants

What is fermentation?

anaerobic respiration that proceeds after glycolysis. Nets 2 ATP/glucose

evolutionary changes that do not lead to speciation are known as:

anagenetic

Monocots

angiosperms that have only one seed leaf

What happens during cytokinesis?

animal cells: proteins pinch off cells to separate. plant cells: plate forms across cell, separating 2, then cell wall and cell membrane form.

What are ruminants?

animals with variations to digestive system consume larger amounts of vegetation several chambers in stomach regurgitate chewed food as cud, to be chewed again most food is broken down mechanically bacteria in digestive tract break down cellulose

percent solution

another common way to express concentration. The precise units of percent solution typically depend on the phase of each component. For solids dissolved in liquids, mass percent is usually used.

acids

any compound that forms H+ ions in solution. Have pH value below 7.

sympatric speciation example

apple maggot flies

theory

applies to a well tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations and hypothesis and that enables scientists to make accurate predictions about new situations.

What is conditioning?

applying an old response to a new stimulus eg Pavlov's dog salivating to bell

What does the allantois arise from? What does it become?

arises from developing digestive tract - becomes part of umbilical cord

What were coacervates, according to Oparin?

as concentration of organic molecules became high, Oparin hypothesized they began forming into larger, charged, complex molecules, or coacervates. These were able to divide.

How does new P enter the P cycle?

as undersea sedimentary rocks thrust up during shifting of tectonic plates. As rocks are eroded P enters cycle

What was the evolution of sexual reproduction in plants?

asexual at first, later sexual.

What is vegetative propagation?

asexual reproduction occurs through mitosis only produces offspring identical to parent

photosystem I

at end of second electron transport chain, NADP+ molecules in the stroma pick up the high energy electrons, along w H+ ions, at the outer surface of thylakoid membrane, to become NDPH.

What is a nucleosome?

Section of DNA wrapped around 8 histone protein cores inside a chromosome

Largest accumulations of phosphorous are found in this reservoirs:

Sedimentary rocks of marine origins Also found in soil and in oceans

reproductive isolation

Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring

What about pattern baldness?

Sex-influenced trait (influenced by hormones); if you get: BB - bald male or bald female Bb - bald male, normal female bb - normal male and normal female

This is a force exhibited by a member of the same species of the opposite sex

Sexual selection

Index of calculating diversity by using relative diversity and diversity richness:

Shannon diversity index

Crenation?

Shrinking of an animal cell because it is in a hypertonic solution

microspheres

Sidney Fox's production of proteins in the form of small spheres. showed similarities to living cells.

Analogous structures :

Similar traits from different ancestors that arise due to convergent evolution

Explain the Oparin hypothesis in terms of the Earth and energy.

Since Earth was in process of cooling down, lots of heat NRG was available; also lots of lightning producing NRG. Much of steam surrounding Earth would condense to form hot seas, and simple organic molecules were synthesized, producing "primordial soup."

The following substances can cross biological membranes most easily by simple diffusion and without the assistance of transport proteins or channels:

Small uncharged molecules like oxygen

lymphocytes; 2 types?

Small white blood cells that tell phagocytes what to do 2 types: 1. B cells - produce antibodies develop in bone marrow 2. T cells - attack body cells with viruses or cancerous (formed in Thymus)

nitrogen fixation?

bacteria and archaea fix atmospheric nitrogen gas into a more usable form such as ammonia

circular DNA molecule

bacterial DNA

Transduction (DNA Transfer)

bacterial DNA may be transferred to another bacterium via a bacteriophage

cyanobacteria

bacterial cells able to carry on photosynthesis.

What is transformation (bacteria)?

bacterial cells absorb and incorporate pieces of DNA from environment (usually dead bact. cells).

microevolution vs. macroevolution?

base pair mutation verses major mutation to the chromosome

sarcomere?

basic unit of muscle Sarcomeres are composed of long, fibrous proteins that slide past each other when the muscles contract and relax. Two of the important proteins are myosin, which forms the thick filament, and actin, which forms the thin filament

role of sodium?

Sodium regulates the total amount of water in the body and the transmission of sodium into and out of individual cells also plays a role in critical body functions. Many processes in the body, especially in the brain, nervous system, and muscles, require electrical signals for communication. The movement of sodium is critical in generation of these electrical signals.

how does the consumption of too many carbs lead to an increase in body fat?

Some excess calories you consume from carbohydrates are converted to and stored as glycogen, a complex carbohydrate, in your body. Your body stores glycogen primarily in your muscle and liver cells. Every 1 gram of carbohydrate gets stored along with 3 grams of water. According to Iowa State University, a healthy adult body can store about 500 grams of carbohydrate. Skeletal muscles store about 400 grams or glycogen, the liver stores 90 to 110 grams of glycogen and your blood circulates roughly 25 grams as glucose. This means your body is capable of storing about 2,000 calories of carbohydrates.

cleavage pattern in embryonic development?

The one cell embryo undergoes a series of cleavage divisions, progressing through 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell and 16 cell stages.The cells in cleavage stage embryos are known as blastomeres

Which part of the plant does the Calvin cycle occur in?

The stroma of choloroplasts

sugar phosphate backbone

The sugar phosphate backbone is an important stuctural component of DNA. It consists of 5-carbon deoxyribose sugars and phosphate groups.

protein folding

The physical process by which a polypeptide folds into its characteristic three-dimensional structure, which is essential to the protein's function. -primary structure -Secondary structure -helix and pleated sheets (h bonds) -Tertiary structures-(r groups) -Quaternary multiple shapes together

Which of the following properties of water is responsible for the solubility of many molecules in aqueous fluids such as blood and urine?

The polarity of water molecules. Water molecules are polar because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. The oxygen region of a water molecule has a partial negative charge, and the hydrogen regions have partial positive charges.

recombination mapping

The process of determining the relative distance between genes on a chromosome based on the frequency of recombination of alleles during meiosis.

(In photosynthesis) NADPH provides the reducing power for:

The reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates in the Calvin-Benson cycle

Which of the following best identifies the bonds between the components of a DNA molecule?

The two strands of a DNA molecule are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases. The alternating deoxyribose and phosphate groups of the backbone are linked by covalent phosphoester bonds (and sequential nucleotides are thus linked by phosphodiester bonds).

When caribou migrate, the weaker ones often become the prey of wolves and other carnivores. If the vegetation that the caribou eat is sparse for several consecutive years, which of the following will most likely be true about the wolf population during that same period?

The wolf population will initially increase because of an increase in the wolves' food availability.. In this example of interacting organisms in a community, the caribou population will weaken because of lack of food, making them easier prey for the wolves. With the increase in food, more wolves will survive and hence will produce more offspring. With time, if the caribou population does not rebound, the number of wolves will also decrease.

water's high specific heat

Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a 1-gram sample of a substance by one degree Celsius. The specific heat of water is 4.184 joules per gram per degree Celsius. A joule is a unit of energy in the metric system, just like a calorie is a unit of energy in the British system. We can also express specific heat in calorie units. The specific heat of water is 1 calorie per gram per degree Celsius. Water's high specific heat has some important biological consequences. Water is the most abundant compound in our body. Since water can absorb or lose a significant amount of heat before its temperature changes, we're more able to withstand a wide range of environmental temperatures.

The changes in turgor pressure that cause the stomata of leaves to open and close result primarily from the reversible uptake and loss of which of the following ions by the guard cells?

Stomata open when guard cells actively take up K+ from neighboring epidermal cells. Water osmotically follows the K+ and the guard cells become turgid, causing the stomata to open. The stomata close when the loss of K+, followed by water, causes the guard cells to become flaccid.

What is an ecotone?

boundaries of a closed community e.g., pond aquatic ecosystem that ends at shore

thermodynamics

branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work

dendrites?

branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrochemical stimulation received from within the neuron

proton motive force?

build up of H+ in the lumen (created by the movement of H+ from the stroma into the lumen by PQ) and then the movement of the H+'s thru ATP synthase for the generation of ATP from ADP - the ATP will be used to energize the dark reactions

What is the effect of mutation on change of genotype in offspring?

can be very swift, but sometimes mutations do not produce a desirable trait for a particular environment.

Relation btw ETC and Redox?

The ETC is a series of oxidation-reduction reactions --> molecule is reduced by gaining the e' and then the molecule is quickly oxidized by it losing the e'; the reduced molecule becomes the reducing agent for the next molecule.

chemotaxis?

cells move in response to a chemical stimulant or signal

What happens during prophase of mitosis?

chromatin condenses into cx within nucleus and becomes visible through microscope. centrioles move to opposite ends of cell spindle fibers begin to extend from centrioles toward cell center. nuclear membrane dissolves. spindle fibers attach to centromeres, forming kinetochore.

Pine trees are adapted to fire in this way:

Their seeds are released after the cones are exposed to fire (typically they release at a particular temperature) This gives the seedlings less competition after the fire

What is codominance?

There isn't a "blending" of traits to make an in between phenotype such as pink in incomplete dominance; instead there is a third and different phenotype: Example W'W would be red and white spotted, not pink

Explain the roles of chlorophyll b and the carotenoids:

These don't directly work in the light reactions, however they do supplement photosynthesis by supplying energy (ATP) to chlorophyll a

Explain the alternate method of preventing water loss that succulent plants (CAM plants) use:

They collect CO2 at night when it is cooler; store it in the form of organic acids thereby allowing the entirety of carbon fixation to occur at different times

Genes

code for DNA that code for RNA that code for protein

What is unique about the photosynthetic halobacteria that are found in salty environments?

They photosynthesize w/out chlorophyll

Why are cyanobacteria important?

They play a predominant role in photosynthesis in fresh and marine waters

Tight junctions do this:

They seal spaces between cells

dendrite function?

collect signals from other cells

corolla

collection of petals

polygenic inheritance

combined effect of two or more genes on a single character

polygenic inheritance examples

combined effect of two or more genes on a single character skin color

What happens once carrying capacity has been reached?

competition for resources ensues - Darwin described as struggle for existence.

Meiosis II

completes the cell division. It's sometimes referred to as equational division because each daughter cell ends up with the same number of chromatids as the mother cell started with. It's very similar to mitosis because, in this division, each homolog lines up at the metaphase plate. In this case, two chromosomes composed of two chromatids each line up in the center of the cell, and the chromatids which make up the homolog segregate to opposite poles.

What systems do sexual and mating behaviors rely on in an organism (ecology)?

complex interactions of endocrine, nervous, musculoskeletal systems

magnesium in plants?

component of chlorophyll

Non-coding DNA

components of an organism's DNA that do not encode protein sequences. Some non-coding DNA is transcribed into functional non-coding RNA molecules while others are not transcribed.

bases

compound that produces hydroxide (OH-) ions in solution. Contain lower concentrations of H+ ions than pure water and have pH values above 7.

carbohydrates

compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, usually in a ratio of 1:2:1. Living things use carbs as their main source of energy. Plants, some animals, and other organisms also use carbohydrates for structural purposes.

List the 3 types of learned behaviors.

conditioning habituation imprinting

transcription factors

Transcription factors are proteins involved in the process of converting, or transcribing, DNA into RNA. Transcription factors include a wide number of proteins, excluding RNA polymerase, that initiate and regulate the transcription of genes.

In eukaryotic cells, RNA polymerase cannot bind to a gene initiate transcription until:

Transcription factors have first bound to the gene's regulatory sequences; after this RNA polymerase associates with transcription factors

Which end of nucleic acid read first in transcription and translation?

Transcription: mRNA formed from reading of DNA from the 3' end to the 5' end Translation: 5' end of mRNA read first in translation by tRNA

what are plasmodesmata?

Tubes in plant leaves that transfer C-4 molecule into the bundle sheath cells for C-4 photosynthesis

nucleus

contains nearly all the cells DNA and the coded instructions for making proteins and other important molecules.

What is function of the cerebellum?

controls balance, equilibrium, muscle coordination

Hypothalamus?

controls body temperature (sweat or shiver)

What is function of the medulla oblongata?

controls involuntary responses such as breathing, heartbeat

What is the chorion?

controls passages of gases, water, nutrients and wastes between embryo and mother

sympatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area

peripheral nervous system?

cranial and spinal nerves radiating from the CNS (brain and spinal cord)

nonsense point mutation?

creates a stop codon (chain terminating mutation) that is deleterious for the cell

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

creates lipids or fat

T-cells produce what?

cytokine proteins which are interpreted by phagocytes as commands to destroy the material that they have taken up.

hypertonic solution?

high concentration of solutes in proportion to solvent think: lots of sugar makes you hyper

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

allele

different form of a gene. E.g., yellow seeds and green seeds arise from different alleles of the same gene.

What are alleles?

different forms of corresponding genes

What are the 4 mechanisms recognized to influence evolution?

differential reproduction mutation genetic drift gene migration

dialysis?

diffusion of a solute

osmosis

diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Molecules move from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration

What is a sporphyte?

diploid generation

In ferns, which stage is most prominent?

diploid phase

What are primary spermatocytes?

diploid sperm that are formed from spermatogonia in the testes

phototaxis?

directional movement in response to light

Examples of polygenic inheritance

diseases such as diabetes and heart disease have multiple contributing factors involved in their development in a person.

What are autosomal dominant disorders?

diseases that can affect a person when only one mutated copy of the gene is present.

According to the theory of evolution, what did the first amphibians give rise to?

early reptiles that diversified into birds, then mammals.

What type of circumstances that affect or determine the course of evolution of species in a particular area?

ecological circumstances

What is a biome?

ecosystem that is defined by its climate characteristics. includes many types of communities interacting.

3 germ layers of the gastrula?

ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

seeds enclosed in gymno or angiosperms?

enclosed in fruits in angiosperms, naked (open) in gymnosperms

Mass extinction events first show during what period

end of Paleozoic Era. Resulted in extinction of 95% of animal species. Trilobites and other organisms did not survive end of this era.

In what era did mass extinctions begin?

end of ordovician era

enzyme substrate complex

enzymes provide a site where reactants can be brought together to react. such a site reduces the energy needed for reaction. The reactants of enzyme catalyzed reactions are known as substrates. substrates bind to a site on a enzyme called active site. The active site and substrates have complementary shapes. The fit is so precise that the active site and substrates are often compared to a lock and key.

What is the primary tissue of root hairs?

epidermis - protects internal root tissue absorb nutrients and water

What main layers are in the leaf?

epidermis, mesophyll

cytoskeleton

eukaryotic cells are given their shape and internal organization by a network of protein filaments known as cytoskeleton. Helps the cell maintain its shape and is also involved in movement.

What is transpiration?

evaporation of water through leaves. Causes a sucking effect that continues to pull water up from the root xylem, through the length of the plant and to the leaves

What are extinction events?

events that have wiped out up to 95% of the species of their time.

What is empirical evidence?

evidence resulting from testing

convergent evolution example

evolution of the whole was a land mammal but became more or less like a fish.

convergent evolution

evolution that occurs when a particular characteristic evolves in two unrelated populations. Eg - wings of insects and birds - similar in function regardless of the lack of common ancestors.

adaptive evolution

evolution that results in a better match between organisms and their environment

What is a theory?

explanation of a particular phenomenon. Explains aspects of laws. Do not become laws with increasing testing or evidence. Are a separate type of explanation.

control group

exposed to the same conditions as the experimental group except for one independent variable

What are limiting factors?

factors that determine how much a particular population within a community can grow includes abiotic and biotic factors

Who was Thomas Malthus?

famous human population scientist in 1780s Recognized exponential population growth, calculated food supply would eventually be exhausted by human overpopulation

What does the endosperm do?

feeds the growing embryo

Glycolysis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm of the cell -In the process of creating two pyruvates, two molecules of ATP are used but four are created. -Two NAD+ electron carriers collected electrons, producing two NADH + proton molecules.

fixed action pattern

fixed action patterns are a sequence of behaviors that are triggered by an external sensory stimulus and that are basically unchangeable. Male sticklebacks act aggressively toward anything that bears a red marking on its underside.

What is the epiglottis?

flap of tissue that prevents food particles from entering bronchial tubes

incomplete flower?

flower missing one or more whorls

monocot?

flower parts in threes or multiples of three

pericardium?

fluid filled sac that surrounds the heart

What is mutualism?

form of symbiosis where both species benefit

What is transcription?

formation of RNA molecule

What are secondary oocytes?

formed after primary oocytes undergo Meiosis 1 1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body forms

Where does undigestible food go?

from small intestine to large intestine

When was punctuated equilibrium first proposed?

from studies of the fossil record by paleontologists

What is gametogenesis?

gamete formation

2 Sex chromosomal disorders?

Turner's syndrome - XO Klinefelter's syndrome - XXY - male but may have low intelligence and be sterile

What happens to glucose in plants after made in dark reactions?

Used immediately in cellular respiration or stored as starch.

Alfred Hershey and Marsha Chase

Used radioactive materials on bacteriophages to see which material got passed on to bacteria cells, DNA or proteins. Found that DNA was the molecule responsible. DNA contains phosphorus but protein does not. Bacteriophages insert only their genomes into bacteria.

What is a greenhouse gas?

gas that reflects radiation from the Earth's surface back toward earth, trapping heat water vapor can act as greenhouse gas

differential gene expression

gene expression that responds to signals or triggers; a means of gene regulation, for example, effects of certain hormones on protein biosynthesis.

point mutation

gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed

point mutation

gene mutations that involve changes in one or a few nucleotides are known as point mutations because they occur at a single point in DNA sequence

Principle of Independent Assortment

genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes

What are structural genes?

genes that code proteins that form proteins and structural characteristics.

polymorphism

genetic variation carried by members of a species for a given trait

Anticodon

group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon

auxin, cytokinin and gibberellin?

groups of plant growth hormones

What is geotropic?

growing toward center of earth, with gravity - plant roots are positively geotropic

What type of cells surrounds stomata?

guard cells

What does the endoderm form?

gut lining, various accessory structures

hormone action and feedback

hormones are released into the bloodstream through which they travel to target sites. The target cell has receptors specific to a given hormone and will be activated by either a lipid-soluble (permeable to plasma membrane) or water-soluble hormone (binds to a cell-surface receptor). Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane to enter the target cell and bind to a receptor protein. Water-soluble hormones bind to a receptor protein on the plasma membrane of the cell. Receptor stimulation results in a change in cell activity, which may send feedback to the original hormone-producing cell.

Common genetic disorders

sickle-cell anemia, Tay-sachs disease, cystic fibrosis, down syndrome, and hemophilia.

what are prosthetic groups?

similar to cofactors, but they are bound to the enzyme, rather than being separate molecules or atoms

What is the style?

sits just below stigma. Encloses the ovary.

How can population growth be limited by an abundance of a factor?

if there is too much of a factor (e.g., CO2 for plants), it could be toxic or otherwise harmful

Heterozygosity

in a population, the average proportion of genes for which a randomly chosen individual is heterozygous

The independent variable

in an experiment is the one thing that is varied between experimental groups. The effect of the independent variable is typically what is being analyzed. In the situation described, the independent variable is the method by which the passage is presented to the test subjects, either aurally or visually.

In what types of biomes can succession occur? Does it occur slowly or rapidly?

in both terrestrial and aquatic biomes. occurs slowly over time

peer review

in scientific journals allows researchers to share ideas and to test and evaluate each others work. Details about experimental conditions, controls, data, analysis, and conclusions.

How do angiosperms and gymnosperms differ?

in the structure of their stems and reproductive organs

kingdom protista

includes the protozoans and plant and funguslike protists; unicellular eukaryotes that have a nucleus and organelles

kindgom fungi

includes uni- and multicellular plantlike organisms that absorb food from their environment; yeasts; molds

kingdom monera

includes unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and many of the specialized cell parts, called organelles; prokaryotic organisms; bacteria

endoderm?

innermost layer of embryo - forms inner portions of digestive tract, respiratory system and urinary system

cofactor?

inorganic substances (such as zinc and other minerals) that are required for, or increase the rate of, catalysis.

Hydrophobic molecule or end of polar molecule?

insoluble in water

What are innate behaviors?

instincts. Are highly sterotyped - all individuals of a species will have these same behaviors

Where do nutrients go from the small intestine?

into blood to liver, where some sugars are removed and stored

How is food transferred from leaves to rest of plant

into phloem tissue via active transport. Once there, water enters phloem via osmosis, which causes pressure that pushes water/sugar solution through sieve plates in cells, which pushes water-sugar solution to all areas of the plant.

Give an example of introduction of new species

introduction of Australian brown snake into Pacific islands causing extinction of several bird species

What is an open circulatory system?

invertebrates - blood directly bathes internal organs

How is nitrogen recycled?

is passed along food chain and recycled via decomposition plants - amino acids are consumed, recombined and used animals - urine releases nitrogen into the environment via ammonia mainly

Transpiration

is the evaporation of water through stomata in plant leaves, which creates a negative pressure and causes water to be absorbed into the plant through the roots. In this setup, an increase in transpiration rate will be indicated by a decrease in water level in the pipet. Of the choices, only increasing the light intensity will increase the transpiration rate. Additional light will cause the stomata to open more fully so that additional CO2 can enter the leaves to allow an increase in photosynthesis. The increase in the size of the stomata will increase the rate of transpiration and will pull more water into the shoot to facilitate the light reactions of photosynthesis.

What is the ovary?

is the hollow, bulb-shaped structure in the lower interior of the pistil. After seeds have formed, ovary ripens and becomes fruit.

What would happen if a population had no limiting factors?

it could overpopulate the world in several generations

How does P get into water? In what form is P found in water?

it is dissolved from rocks and combines with O to form phosphates.

What 3 tings does a species need to do to become established in an ecosystem?

it must find a suitable: habitat niche must be able to reproduce for many generations

Ordovician era known for development of what?

land plants

What major features are in kingdom Protista?

large eukaryotic cells, nutrition via photosynthesis mainly; some ingestion and absorption

multicellularity advantages

large size mobility stable internal environment relative independence from environment

What is imprinting?

learned behavior that develops in a critical or sensitive period of an animal's lifespan EX baby geese responding to mother after birth

What does the stem produce?

leaves and lateral branches

plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation?

legume family - Fabaceae - with taxa such as kudzu, clovers, soybeans, alfalfa, lupines, peanuts, and rooibos. They contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants and this helps to fertilize the soil

Population growth is directly related to what in a population?

life characteristics, e.g. the age at which an individual reproduces age at death rate of growth

photosystem II

light energy absorbed produces high energy electrons. Water molecues are split to replace those electrons by releasing H+ ions and oxygen.

What are the 2 phases of photosynthesis?

light rxn - photolysis dark rxn - CO2 fixation

centrioles

located near the nucleus and help organize cell division. They are not found in plant cells.

What are nodes?

locations along stem where new leaves sprout.

what are microtubules made of

long hollow cylindrical protein filaments scattered around edges of cell

lipids

made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Fats, oils, waxes. Can be used to store energy. Some lipids are important parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings.

What is the cuticle?

maintains leaf's moisture balance. Covers most leaf surfaces. Secreted by epidermis of leaf; is waxy.

What is translation?

making of a protein. tRNA, with anticodon, lines up with a corresponding codon from newly transcribed RNA strand.

exocytosis

many cells release large amounts of material. During exocytosis, the membrane of the vacuole surrounding the material fuses with the cell membrane, forcing the contents out of the cell. The removal of water by means of contractile vacuole is one example of this kind of active transport.

The evolution of animals began with what, and why?

marine protists. Why? Animal cells bear the most similarity to marine protist cells, even though no fossil record.

What is carrying capacity?

maximum level a population may reach at which it will continue to thrive

What could result from the introduction of a new species into an area?

may compete for the niche of the native population upset predator/prey balance

What are extraembryonic membranes? List the 3 types.

membranes formed from germ layers - 1. chorion 2. amnion 3. allantois

What happens during G1?

metabolism and protein synthesis occur at high rate, most cell growth occurs

mesoderm?

middle layer of embryo - forms connective tissues and muscles and red blood cells

Krebs cycle summary?

mnemonic: Kreb kills carbs and loves lemons; and he lives in the mitochondria matrix. Forms NADH, ATP and FADH2 and spits out CO2. -pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA. Through a series of intermediate steps, several compounds capable of storing "high energy" e's are produced along with 2 ATP. These compounds, (NAD) and (FAD), are reduced in the process. These reduced forms carry the "high energy" e's to the ETC. The Citric Acid Cycle occurs only when oxygen is present but it doesn't use oxygen directly.

modern synthesis

modern concept of natural selection, focused on concept that evolution was a process of gradual adaptive change in traits among populations.

molarity

moles per liter--moles of solute/liters of solution

X-linked recessive disorders

more commonly affect males than females. Chances of gene passing to progeny are different for males and females.

What occurs in the small intestine?

more enzymes secreted by pancreas and gall bladder to complete digestion of food absorption of nutrients into bloodstream

flowering plants (angiosperms)

more than 75% of all land plants; reproductive organs are flowers; after fertilization, ovaries develop into fruits which surround, protect, and help disperse seeds; animals help with pollination so it is more efficient than wind

substrate?

most enzymes act specifically with only one reactant (called a substrate) to produce products. The substrate is a substance upon which the enzyme acts. The enzyme causes the reaction to take place faster

ectoderm?

most exterior layer that forms the nervous system and epidermis; also lining of exterior parts such as nostrils

RNA transcription

most of the work of making RNA takes place during Transcription. Segments of DNA serve as templates to produce complementary RNA molecules.

scientific measurement

most scientist use metric system when collecting data and performing experiments

somatic

motor division of PNS carry impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle

active transport

movement of materials against a concentration difference. Requires energy

7 characteristics of all animals?

movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration, excretion, nutrition MRS GREN

What major features are in kingdom Fungi?

multicellular eukaryotic filaments nutrition via absorption

What major features are in kingdom Animalia?

multicellular specialized eukaryotic motile cells nutrition via ingestion

What major features are in kingdom Plantae?

multicellular specialized nonmotile eukaryotic cells nutrition via photosynthesis

muscle tissue?

muscle --> fasciles --> made of bundles of fibers (muscle cells) --> made of myofibrils --> made of myofilaments --> made of thin layer of actin and thick layer of myosin; stack of myofibrils is called a sarcomere - muscle contraction takes place by the shortening of the sarcomere

role of calcium in body?

muscle contraction; bone formation, intracellular communication, cofactor

What does the mesoderm form?

muscles, organs of circulatory, respiratory, skeletal, reproductive, excretory systems

Give examples of X-linked recessive disorders.

muscular dystrophy, color blindness, hemophilia A

What is the effect of mutation on new gene possibilities?

mutation provides a vehicle for introducing new genetic possibilities.

Y-linked disorders

mutations on y chromosome. Only affect males.

Base pairing

nearly perfect fit between A-T and G-C nucleotides

role of magnesium?

nerve signaling, the building of healthy bones, and normal muscle contraction. About 350 enzymes are known to depend on magnesium.

2 cells of central nervous system?

neurons glial cells - provide support and protection to neurons

interneurons?

neurons in the CNS that collect and direct signals

NLS

nuclear localization signal-specialized amino acid sequence to allow large proteins in

What happens during telophase?

nuclear membranes form around cx. Cx disperse through nucleoplasm and are no longer visible under microscope. spindle fibers disappear.

Give examples of dicots.

oaks, flowers, vegetables

List 5 methods of scientific approach.

observation testing skepticism naturalistic explanations (based on observation & empirical testing)

extinction

occur at a low rate at all times.

allopatric speciation

occurs when 2 populations are geographically isolated from each other.Over time, both populations will continue to reproduce and experience genetic drift and/or mutation.

Genetic Drift: Founder Effect

occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population; can affect allele frequencies in a population

What is closed community?

one whose populations occupy essentially the same range with very similar density distributions

Where do J curve populations exist?

only during initial population growth in a particular ecosystem

imperfect flower?

only female or only male parts on the flower

In what form is P found ?

only in solid form. found in rocks and soil

Which type of community is more resilient and able to respond to calamity?

open community. Boundaries are subtler - population can move if environment is threatened

What is the glottis?

opening allowing gases to pass into the bronchi

What are the 2 types of life history strategies?

opportunistic and equilibreal

telophase

opposite of Prophase chromosomes unwinding nucelar envolope is there

feedback inhibition

or negative feedback, is a system in which the product or result of a process limits the process itself. Homeostasis is maintained by feedback inhibition.

organic vs inorganic

organic means that a molecule has a carbon backbone, with some hydrogens thrown in for good measure. Living creatures are made of various kinds of organic compounds. Inorganic molecules are composed of other elements. They can contain hydrogen or carbon, but if they have both, they are organic.

What does the ectoderm form from?

outer layer of the gastrula tube becomes skin, nervous system, some endocrine glands

What is genetic drift?

over time, a gene pool may experience a change in the frequency of a particular gene simply due to chance fluctuation. Occurs independently of environmental conditions. Depending on the affected traits, the change of gene frequency may produce a small or large change.

What happens to an ecosystem if a predator is removed?

overpopulation of prey species, resulting in shortage of food for the prey

biological redox reactions?

oxidation is usually accompanied by a loss of protons (hydrogen ions) and reduction is accompanied by a gain of protons

Two equations for Hardy Weinberg:

p + q = 1 P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

gene pool equation - Hardy Weinberg?

p + q = 1 p=frequency of dominant allele (R) q = frequency of recessive allele (r)

Hardy-Weinberg frequency equation

p+q=1 OR p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Hardy-Weinberg equation for frequency of a particular genotype in a population?

p2 + 2pg + q2 p2=freq of RR 2pq = freq of Rr q2=freq of rr if q2=.16 then what is freq of Rr? q2=.16 q=.4 p+.4=1 so p=.6 2pq = .4 x .6 x 2 = .48

4% of a population have autosomal recessive gene. In Hardy-Weinberg: "p" =? % of heterozygous in population =?

p= 0.8 Heterozygous = 32%

Hardy-Weinberg equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1, where p is the frequency of the dominant allele and q is the frequency of the recessive allele. It predicts the frequency of homozygous dominants, homozygous recessives, and heterozygotes.

What does the Golgi do?

packages and ships out proteins, lipids, fats, steroids (FedEX), either elsewhere in cell or to cell membrane to be exocytosed

What are homologs?

pairs of chromosomes. paired with cx of similar size and shape

What layers are in the mesophyll?

palisade layer - uppermost layer. Contains numerous chloroplasts in vertically aligned cells to maximize exposure of chloroplasts to sun. Most photosynthesis occurs in palisade layer.

density-dependent factors affecting populations?

parasitism overcrowding predation competition disease these limit growth as population size increases

What is the autonomic nervous system?

part of motor division of PNS sympathetic - carries impulses that stimulate organs parasympathetic - carries impulses back from organs

Louis Pasteur

performed a now‑classic experiment to test the hypothesis of spontaneous generation. He placed meat broth in each of two flasks with S‑shaped necks. He boiled the broth in both flasks to sterilize it and then broke off the S‑shaped portion of the neck from one flask. The broth in the flask that now had a straight neck became cloudy, while the broth in the flask with the S‑shaped neck remained clear because any airborne organisms were trapped in the neck of the flask.

The water cycle differs from other biochemical cycles because water moves through ecosystems by:

physical rather than chemical processes

living organism

physicochemical material that demonstrates a high degree of complexity, is capable of self-regulation, possesses a metabolism, and perpetuates itself through time

Describe the parts of the reproductive organs of the flower.

pistil - female structure. includes stigma, style, ovary, ovules anther - male structure

female plant parts?

pistil which is composed of the stigma, style, ovary and ovule

What is a giberellin?

plant hormone - promotes cell division and elongation

What is a cytokinin?

plant hormone - promotes cell division and fruit development

What is ethylene?

plant hormone - promotes fruit ripening; plant metabolic activity (producing flowers to incr. fertilization

ethylene?

plant hormone - rapid ripening of fruit

What are auxins?

plant hormones - growth factors

what is Kranz anatomy?

plant leaves w/ bundle sheaf cells for photosynthesis that avoids photorespiration

What is photoperiodicity?

plant response to relative periods of light and darkness. causes flowering and growth of varying plants at different times of year

Give an example of a tropism.

plant stems are usually positively phototropic (grow towards light); roots are negatively phototropic

What is a monocot?

plant with one cotyledon

What are nonvascular plants?

plants such as mosses that lack specialized tissue to circulate food and water. Produce no seeds or flowers and are generally only few centimeters in height.

What are angiosperms?

plants that produce flowers as reproductive organs

What are gymnosperms?

plants that produce seeds without flowers (conifers and cycads)

calvin cycle

plants use energy that ATP and NADPH contain to build stable high energy carbohydrate compounds that can be stored for a long time.

dioecious?

plants with male flowers and female flowers on separate plants; maple, holly

monoecious?

plants with separate male and female flowers on same plant; corn, squash and pine.

Describe the angiosperm life cycle

pollen develops from the stamen; eggs develop from the pistil pollen fertilizes the egg, resulting in an embryo within the seed.

What happens to population growth rate when carrying capacity is reached?

population growth rate will level off. no net growth will be shown

What does the J curve represent?

populations in which there is no environmental or social limit on population size growth rate accelerates over time

cytoplasm

portion of cell outside the nucleus. Both prokaryotes and eukarotes have cytoplasm

gene locus

position on a homologous chromosome at which the genes that produce a given trait exist

mitochondria

power plants of the cell. convert the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for cell to use

What is a primary oocyte?

present in ovaries at birth

What is the advantage of asexual reproduction in plants?

preservation of a plant with a desirable set of genetic traits

prezygotic barriers

prevent mating or fertilization between species

chemosynthesis

primary producers in deep sea ecosystems without light that chemical energy is used to produce carbohydrates

What is the root system of a typical angiosperm?

primary roots - extend downward lateral roots -extend horizontally, parallel with ground surface.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

principle that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant unless one or more factors cause the frequencies to change

What is nitrogen fixing?

process to make nitrogen available for absorption by plants combines N2 gas with either H or O to form a non-gas compound that plants can use

What is anabolism?

process where cells build molecules and store NRG.

What does sER do?

processes lipids, fats, steroids

What are root hairs?

produced in the maturation region. Extensions of cells which reach between soil particles and retrieve water and minerals

meiosis

produces 4 non identical haploid gametes reduction division stage 1- chromosome reduction division stage 2- division(mitosis)

pituitary gland?

produces metabolism, puberty and growth hormones

How many ATP's ideally produced in cellular respiration of one molecule of glucose?

prokaryotic cells can yield a maximum of 38 ATP molecules while eukaryotic cells can yield a maximum of 36

Describe organisms in domain Eubacteria.

prokaryotic organisms known as bacteria AKA Kingdom Monera in old classification sytstem

Describe organisms in domain Archaea

prokaryotic, have unique RNA able to live in the extreme ecosystems on Earth

Phases of Mitosis

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

sclerenchyma cells

protects seeds and support the plants. The shell of nuts such as a hazelnut is the pericarp, the thickened wall of the angiosperm ovary

rough ER

proteins made on the rough ER include those that will be released, or secreted, from the cell as well as many membrane proteins and proteins destined for lysosomes and other specialized locations within the cell.

What are villi?

protrusions of cells lining small intestine to absorb nutrients, which move into capillaries

safety data sheet

provide chemical-specific information, including chemical, physical, and toxicological properties, along with suggestions for storing, using, transporting, and disposing of chemicals. Current regulations require that all SDSs follow the same format (see OSHA Safety Data Sheet information). SDSs should be consulted as a first step in assessing risk associated with a new experiment or product.

left side of the heart?

pumps oxygen-rich blood through the aorta into the arteries

fermentation in yeast and bacteria cells

pyruvate is converted to a 2-carbon molecule called acetaldehyde. The third carbon is released as carbon dioxide. This is a lovely side effect that can add bubbles to beer and make bread rise. Meanwhile, acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol (ethyl alcohol) while the electron carriers NADH + H+ are oxidized. This returns them to NAD+, which can then re-enter glycolysis.

What 5 conditions must be met for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to occur?

random mating no migration no mutation no selection no genetic drift

transgenic

relating to or denoting an organism that contains genetic material into which DNA from an unrelated organism has been artificially introduced.

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

releases various hormones

what is precision

repeated measurements show same results. Need not be accurate

Telomere

repeating nucleotide at the ends of DNA molecules that do not form genes and help prevent the loss of genes

Eukaryotic DNA Replication

replication may begin at dozens or even hundreds of places on the DNA molecule, proceeding in both directions until each chromosome is completely copied

behavioral isolation

reproductive barrier to the hybridization of different species. Species-specific courtship displays, probably the most common form of behavioral isolation, enable mate recognition within a species but are not recognized by members of another species.

What does ER do in general?

responsible for delivery of lipids and proteins to certain areas within cytoplasm (kind of highway)

amygdala?

responsible for emotion and looks like an almond

fragile x syndrome?

results from repeats of a specific codon - inheritable and sex-linked; mental retardation and physical abnormalities

vein function?

return deoxygenated blood to right side of heart

4 major heart chambers?

right and left atrium; right and left ventricle In a heart diagram; the "right" parts are on the left side

right side of the heat?

right receives Deoxygenated blood and pumps blood into the pulmonary artery to go to the lungs for oxygenation.

plant structure

root system, a stem or trunk, branches, leaves, and reproductive structures (sometimes flowers, sometimes cones or spores, and so on). Most plants are vascular, which means they have a system of tubules inside them that carry nutrients around the plant. Vascular plants are differentiated from plants such as algae, which do not have a vascular system

What are the 4 major structural regions of roots in angiosperms?

run from bottom to top. 1. root cap - dead cells. protects root tip as it pushes through soil. 2. meristematic region - undifferentiated cells that undergo mitosis that grow to form next region - 3. elongation region - cells differentiate, large vacuoles form, cells grow 4. maturation region - formed as cells differentiate into various root tissues

hypothesis

scientific explanation for a set of observations that can be tested in ways that support or reject it

What are somatic sensory nerves?

sensory division of PNS carry impulses from body surface to CNS

What are visceral sensory nerves?

sensory division of PNS carry impulses from body organs to CNS

Describe the structure of the flower.

sepals - small green leaf-like structures petals - brightly colored part of flower pedicel - short branch of stem that supports the flower male and female reproductive organs

What happens to a population as birth rates increase?

shift is toward youth medical advances increase average age of population

Describe the structure of angiosperms.

shoot system includes stem leaves flowers fruit growth structures such as nodes and buds

What are the maturation times and lifespans of r-selected species?

short maturation spans and life spans.

DNA replication?

Entire strand of DNA is copied for cell division A-T; G-C •H bonds broken somewhere along strand •Free-floating nucleotides pair up with their matches with help from DNA polymerase

What catalyzes the making of mRNA?

Enzyme RNA polymerase

What does reverse transcriptase do?

Enzyme only produced by viruses that cause the transcription of DNA from RNA - this allows a virus to interject its RNA into the chromosome of the host.

Fungi characteristics

Eukaryotic most multicellular except yeast Heterotrophic with extracellular digestion Chitin-Based Cell wall Most fungi are made up of filaments called Hyphae spores (asexual and sexual)

Plant Characteristics

Eukaryotic multicellular autotrophs cell wall made of cellulose sexual/asexual

Eukaryote vs. Prokaryote

Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex and they contain a nucleus, while Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler cells that do not contain a nucleus.

Which type of selection variation within a population causes the average phenotype to move in one particular direction?

Directional equilibrium

Coevolution

Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other

Mitochondrial inheritance

Disease occurs in both males and females, inherited through females only

What are autosomal recessive disorders?

Diseases that require 2 copies of the mutated gene to be inherited for a person to be affected.

glycolysis summary?

Glucose splits into two molecules of a 3-C sugar (in cytoplasm). In the process, 2 ATP, 2 pyruvic acid and 2 NADH are produced (final e' acceptor). Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. Without oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of ATP. This process is called fermentation.

How is glycolysis regulated?

Glycolysis slows down or stops when aerobic respiration takes place by allosteric inhibition via ATP or citrate - large amount of ATP stops glycolysis through a feedback control mechanism Glycolysis shuts down to avoid conversion to fermentation (production of lactate or ethanol)

Responsible for synthesis, accumulation, storage, and transport of products within the cell:

Golgi complex

Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradualism: a model of evolution in which gradual change over a long period of time leads to biological diversity. Punctuated equilibrium: a theory of evolution holding that evolutionary change in the fossil record came in fits and starts rather than in a steady process of slow change.

Anchoring junctions are found in parts of the body where...

Great amount of stress/ shearing stress like skin

Yellow: Radiates Blue: Acoelomates Red: Coelomates Green: Deuterosomes

Green: Red: Blue: Yellow:

Greenhouse effect occurs when:

Greenhouse gases allow heat energy from the sun to pass through the earths atmosphere as visible light, but prevent it from being reflected back into space as infrared radiation

Water percolates through soil and collects as_____________ or becomes ___________

Groundwater; surface run-off

These two organelles can synthesize their own constituent proteins:

Mitochondria Chloroplasts

continuous variation

Human skin color, height, and weight are influenced by many genes as well as environmental factors. When the frequency in a population of different values for each one of these traits is plotted on a histogram, a bell‑shaped curve of continuous variation usually results. The values of a few individuals are at either end of the curve; the values of most individuals are intermediate and fall in the middle of the curve.

Which of the following statements best describes the process shown in the diagram above?

Hydrolysis of ATP provides the most immediate form of energy in cells. Breakdown of nutrients such as glucose takes significantly longer. Hence, glucose is broken down and the energy stored in the bonds of glucose is transferred to energy stored in the phosphate bonds of ATP. When a cell needs immediate energy to carry out a process, ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi .

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

In the summary formula shown for aerobic cellular respiration, C6H12O6 is oxidized and O2 is reduced. The electrons of H atoms removed from C6H12O6 during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle reduce O2, the final electron acceptor of each electron transport chain, to produce H2O.

Is altruism an evolved trait?

Unknown. If you look at the individual, no. If you look at the community, possibly.

What is a codon in the mRNA strand?

A sequence of 3 DNA or RNA nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid or termination signal.

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

crossing over

Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.

Biological species concept states:

Species are defined by a naturally interbreeding population that can produce viable fertile offspring

germ-line mutation

a mutation occurring in gametes; passed on to offspring

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium?

5 conditions must be met to maintain equilibrium: 1.large population size 2.no mutation 3.no immigration or emigration 4.random mating 5.random reproductive success

What is a retrovirus?

A retrovirus is an RNA virus that replicates in a host cell through the process of reverse transcription

Universal Blood Recipient?

AB can get Anybody's Blood -transfusion of any blood type possible because AB blood lacks antibodies for A and B

Photolysis

In the thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast during light-dependant reactions, two molecules of water are split to form oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons.

These two individuals are bred in a Testcross:

Individual with dominant phenotype (Aa or AA is unknown) and an Individual who is homozygous recessive for that trait

independent assortment

One of Mendel's principles that states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes

A scientist examining fossils of small rodents at a particular location found fossils of one species in a deep stratum and found fossils of a similar but distinct more recent species in the stratum immediately above. Fossils of transitional organisms were not found. Of the following, which is the best explanation of the observed distribution of fossils in the strata?

"There was a brief and rapid time of evolutionary change in the older species, so few fossils of transitional organisms exist." The theory of punctuated equilibrium proposes that species are generally evolutionarily stable for a long period of time, and thus there is the likelihood of fossil formation. On rare occasions, a population of a species undergoes rapid evolutionary change, usually resulting in the formation of a new species. The new species will then be evolutionarily stable for a long period of time and likely to contribute to the fossil record. Because of the rapid evolution of earlier species to new species, few fossils of transitional species are found.

Additional membrane sacs called ________ inside the chloroplast are derived from the inner membrane and form stacks called _________

"Thylakoid" "Grana"

Chloroplasts have __________ membranes.

"Two" (One inner and one outer membrane)

What does "karyotype" mean?

# and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus.

transformation in bacteria?

......type of bacterial recombination (create genetic diversity) in which bacteria take up DNA from their environment. These DNA remnants most commonly come from dead bacterial cells. During transformation, the bacterium binds the DNA and transports it across the bacterial cell membrane. The new DNA is then incorporated into the bacterial cell's DNA.

differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

1. Oxygen The presence of oxygen in the cells determines which type of cellular respiration will work, and in this case, aerobic respiration uses oxygen to produce energy in the form of ATP, with water and carbon dioxide as by-products. If oxygen is absent, the cells still produce energy, this time using anaerobic respiration. During aerobic respiration, oxygen (O2) reacts with sugar or glucose (C6H12O6), producing carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and energy (ATP). Thus, the chemical equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2900 KJ (ATP) During anaerobic respiration, when there is not enough oxygen, cells break down glucose into lactic acid (C3H6O3) and energy (ATP). This process releases less energy than aerobic respiration. Thus, the chemical equation: C6H12O6 → 2 C3H6O3 + Energy (ATP) 2. Energy Production Although both processes produce energy, more ATP molecules are generated from aerobic than anaerobic respiration. Every glucose molecule generates 38 molecules of ATP during aerobic metabolism. In contrast, one molecule of glucose yields only 2 ATP molecules during anaerobic metabolism. 3. By-products Aerobic respiration produces water and carbon dioxide as by-products, which are easily eliminated by the body. However, anaerobic respiration, which usually occurs during intense exercise, results in the production of lactic acid, which may accumulate in the muscles and cause muscle cramps.

Two steps in DNA fingerprinting?

1. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - uses heating and cooling of DNA to make billions of copies of particular target sections of someone's DNA 2. The copies are put through Gel electrophoresis to separate the fragments and compare to a control. Shorter strands move faster toward the positive side than longer DNA fragments

What does liver do as an excretory organ?

1. Produces bile, which aids in digesting fats & carries away broken down pigments and chemicals. Broken down particles are carried to small intestine to large intestine to be expelled in feces. 2. Also breaks down nitrogenous substances including some proteins, to be excreted as urea

Virus characteristics

1. Smaller in size 2. Require a living host to grow 3. Do not multiply in foods 4. Need only a few viral particles to cause an infection

Describe some important properties of the functional group: "Sulfhydryl"

1. Stabilizes protein structure 2. Forms disulfide bonds between other sulfhydryl functional groups in proteins

Important classes / types of hormones: (5)

1. Steroids (Nonsteroidal) 2. Catecholamine 3. Glycoproteins 4. Amino acids 5. Polypeptides

Describe some important properties of the functional group: "Phosphate"

1. Storage and transfer of energy

calculate percent error?

1. Subtract Approximate (measured) value from Exact value 2. show the error as a percent of the exact value ... so divide by the exact value and make it a percentage ex. approximated 8, but exact value is 10 so 10-8 = 2. Then, 2/10 = .2 or 20%

Three major types of cell junctions:

1. Tight junctions 2. desmosomes 3. Gap junctions

Sodium potassium pump: 1. _____ (# of) K+ ions are: 2. _____ (# of) Na+ are:

1. Two potassium ions into the cell 2. Three sodium ions out of the cell

These are the STOP codons:

1. UAA 2. UGA 3. UAG

Human chromosomes #?

46 total - ½ from each parent Single strand called a chromatid 22 pairs of somatic chromosomes 1 pair of gametes or sex chromosomes

Photosystem II

One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P680 reaction-center chlorophyll.

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

frame-shift mutation?

A gene mutation wherein the addition or deletion of nucleotide(s) causes a shift in the reading frame of the codons in the mRNA, - may lead to the alteration in the amino acid sequence at protein translation.

Klinefelter's syndrome?

A genetic disorder in males caused by having an extra x chromosome

A diploid cell that produces haploid products by going through two consecutive rounds of nuclear division is best described as which of the following?

A germ cell

characteristics of a good hypothesis?

A good hypothesis must be consistent with and explain the data already obtained. A good hypothesis must be falsifiable through its predictions; that is, results must be obtainable that can clearly demonstrate whether the hypothesis is untrue.

A clade is:

A group of species in cladogram consisting of one ancestor and ALL its descendants

Tay Sachs disease is generally caused by:

A mutation in a gene coding for a lysosomal enzyme that breaks down a particular fatty material in the neurons of the brain and spinal cord

One estimate of the average mutation rate in the human nuclear genome is 0.5 mutations out of every 1010 base pairs per replication. How is the mutation rate expressed in scientific notation?

A mutation rate in the human nuclear genome of 0.5 mutations out of every 1010 base pairs per replication is the same as a mutation rate of 5 × 10-11.

In operon control, repressor protein function is controlled by:

A negative feedback loop --> depletion of substrate so it no longer binds to repressor protein and can instead bind to enhancer region to stop transcription

nuclear lamina

A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.

nucleosomes

A nucleosome is a basic unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes, consisting of a segment of DNA wound in sequence around eight[1] histone protein cores.[2] This structure is often compared to thread wrapped around a spool.[3] Nucleosomes form the fundamental repeating units of eukaryotic chromatin,[4] which is used to pack the large eukaryotic genomes into the nucleus while still ensuring appropriate access to it

Which of the following mutations in the genome of a fertilized ovum is likely to have the most deleterious effect on the early development of an embryo?

A point mutation in a gene encoding a ribosomal RNA- Ribosomes are composed of specific ribosomal RNAs and proteins. A mutation of a gene encoding a ribosomal protein may alter the structure of the ribosomal protein and thus of all ribosomes in the ovum. This will, in turn, affect the synthesis of all proteins in the ovum. Such a deletion therefore is likely to have a more deleterious effect than a mutation of any other single gene in the ovum.

What is photorespiration?

A process in plants in which oxygen reacts with RuBP in the dark reactions; oxygen can react with RuBP in the same way that CO2 can, but no energy is produced so this is a wasteful process the plant needs to avoid. Plants use up to 40% of the stored E to deal with this oxygen fixing problem. Plants go through a complex series of reactions to remove O2 from phosphoglycolate and reclaim the 2 carbons needed to make PGA.

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

prokaryotic chromosome structure

A prokaryotic chromosome is circular and resides in a cell region called the nucleoid. The types of proteins found in prokaryotic chromosomes, known as the nucleoid-associated proteins, differ from the histone proteins that appear in eukaryotic chromosomes and cause the prokaryotic chromosomes to form looped structures.

Genetic Drift: Bottleneck Effect

A rapid decrease in population size due to a disturbance or natural disaster reduces the abundance of a species and removes individuals with some alleles from the population, altering gene frequencies through drift.

What is creatine phosphate?

A reservoir of phosphate groups; when ATP is needed quickly, the phosphate group is transferred to ADP.

In C4 plants the initial products of carbon fixation are:

A single 4 carbon molecule synthesized through the intermediate enzyme phosphoenol pyruvic acid (PEP)

Degeneracy (aka) redundancy in the genetic code?

A single amino acid can be coded for by more than one codon.

morula

A solid ball of cells that makes up an embryo; in humans, this stage occurs within four days of fertilization.

The H+ concentration of a solution is 10-4 M. By how many times must the H+ concentration decrease for the solution to reach a pH of 7.0 ?

A solution with a pH of 7.0 has an H+ concentration of 10-7. The difference in magnitude between a concentration of 10-4 and a concentration of 10-7 is 103.

Which of the following is most likely to cause a species to become extinct in an environment undergoing change?

A species is most likely to survive in an environment undergoing change if there is genetic diversity among members of the species. Those individuals with a genetic background that best enables them to survive and reproduce in the changing environment will do so. If the species instead has low genetic diversity, there is a greater chance that a change in the environment will impact the species more severely, and the species may become extinct.

Which of the following substances should be added to an acid spilled on a lab bench in order to safely neutralize the acid before cleaning up the spill?

A spill of most acids used in school laboratories can be neutralized by shaking sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) onto the spill. After any bubbling or fizzing has stopped, the pH of the solution can be checked with pH paper. When neutralized, the spill should be carefully wiped up and the surface cleaned thoroughly.

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.

light independent reactions

ATP and NADPH from light dependent reactions are used to produce high energy sugars

An organism that weighs 1 pound produces ____________ heat per pound than an organism that weighs 1000 pounds

About 10 times more!

Greenhouse gases, especially water vapor, CO2, and to a lesser extent, methane and ozone do this:

Absorb infrared radiation emitted by earth and reflect some of it back to warm the planet

Tay Sachs disease is characterized by:

Accumulation of fatty materials in the lysosomes of brain and spinal cord neurons leading to destruction and progressive deterioration of the CNS

accuracy

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value. For example, if in lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then your measurement is not accurate. In this case, your measurement is not close to the known value

Which of the following is most likely to increase transcription of a particular gene?

Acetylation of histone proteins associated with the gene. DNA is negatively charged because of its phosphate groups and so readily bonds with positively charged histone proteins that contribute to the nucleosome structure of DNA in eukaryotic cells. When DNA is tightly bound by histone proteins, the transcription machinery of a cell cannot gain access to the DNA, and transcription is blocked. However, many transcription factors are associated with proteins that add negatively charged acetyl groups to the histones, which loosens the interactions between the DNA and histones and thus facilitates transcription of particular genes.

prezygotic barrier to successful hybridization between two species

Acrosomal proteins--The acrosome is a caplike structure on the head of a sperm. It contains enzymes used in the acrosomal reaction when the sperm digests its way through the zona pellucida that covers and protects the surface of an ovum, so that the plasma membrane of the sperm can fuse with the plasma membrane of the ovum. The acrosomal proteins and zona pellucida usually differ between species. If the ovum and sperm are of different species, an acrosomal reaction will not occur between the sperm and the ovum, preventing fertilization. Thus a difference in the acrosomal proteins of two species is a prezygotic isolating mechanism.

RNA polymerase does this in DNA replication

Adds RNA primers to the parent strand at the base of the replication fork, then DNA polymerase can build on these primers by adding dNTPs

Describe characteristics of Acoelomates:

Animal has no coelom at all

What are the 2 superclasses of the subphylum Vertebrata?

Aganatha - animals with no jaws Gnathostomata - animals with jaws

On a global level, 90% of all freshwater is used annually by:

Agriculture

developmental evidence for evolution

Animal life cycles have the same patterns of division and sequence of events.

Aluminum cans should be recycled because processing of aluminum ore requires a lot of energy.

Aluminum is refined from bauxite in a process that requires a tremendous amount of energy and also releases a lot of CO2 into the atmosphere. Recycling aluminum cans saves energy, reduces CO2 emissions, and decreases the amount of waste entering landfills.

Energy metabolism: How are proteins used for energy?

Amino acids from proteins ultimately enter the citric acid cycle as pyruvate and acetyl CoA

Describe characteristics of pseudocoelomates:

Animal possesses a body cavity not completely lined by a mesoderm

human taxonomic levels?

Animalia, chordata, Mammalia, primatae, hominidae, homo sapiens "All cool men prefer heavy sideburns"

gastrula

An embryonic stage in animal development encompassing the formation of three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

rough endoplasmic reticulum

An endomembrane system covered with ribosomes where many proteins for transport are assembled.

Each branch or separation on a cladogram represents:

An evolutionary change or difference !

adaptive radiation

An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species

parallel evolution?

An evolutionary process by which two or more separate species in the same environment develop similar adaptation or characteristic for survival.

Name this major plant division based on the following reproduction: Wind or animal pollinated; diploid sporophyte is dominant generation: heterosporous

Angiosperms

Name this plant division based on the following structure: Vascular; produce flowers and fruit:

Angiosperms

centrosomes?

Animal cell organelles that contain microtubules contain 2 centrioles which are made of ring of 9 groups of microtubules that are perpendicular to each other Centrosomes in plant cells - has centrosomes but no centrioles

Based on the the following characteristics: bilateral symmetry, metanephridia removes waste from blood and coelomic fluid, and internal body segmentation, this species should belong to which animal phyla?

Annelida (segmented worms)

what causes burning sensation after strenuous work out?

As our bodies perform strenuous exercise, we begin to breathe faster as we attempt to shuttle more oxygen to our working muscles. The body prefers to generate most of its energy using aerobic methods, meaning with oxygen. Some circumstances, however—such as evading the historical saber tooth tiger or lifting heavy weights—require energy production faster than our bodies can adequately deliver oxygen. In those cases, the working muscles generate energy anaerobically. This energy comes from glucose through a process called glycolysis, in which glucose is broken down or metabolized into a substance called pyruvate through a series of steps. When the body has plenty of oxygen, pyruvate is shuttled to an aerobic pathway to be further broken down for more energy. But when oxygen is limited, the body temporarily converts pyruvate into a substance called lactate, which allows glucose breakdown—and thus energy production—to continue. The working muscle cells can continue this type of anaerobic energy production at high rates for one to three minutes, during which time lactate can accumulate to high levels. A side effect of high lactate levels is an increase in the acidity of the muscle cells, along with disruptions of other metabolites. The same metabolic pathways that permit the breakdown of glucose to energy perform poorly in this acidic environment. On the surface, it seems counterproductive that a working muscle would produce something that would slow its capacity for more work. In reality, this is a natural defense mechanism for the body; it prevents permanent damage during extreme exertion by slowing the key systems needed to maintain muscle contraction. Once the body slows down, oxygen becomes available and lactate reverts back to pyruvate, allowing continued aerobic metabolism and energy for the body's recovery from the strenuous event. Contrary to popular opinion, lactate or, as it is often called, lactic acid buildup is not responsible for the muscle soreness felt in the days following strenuous exercise. Rather, the production of lactate and other metabolites during extreme exertion results in the burning sensation often felt in active muscles, though which exact metabolites are involved remains unclear. This often painful sensation also gets us to stop overworking the body, thus forcing a recovery period in which the body clears the lactate and other metabolites.

A type of selection that exists between certain inherited conditions and environmental pressures (such as between sickle cell anemia and malaria) that stabilizes the frequency of both alleles is called:

Balanced polymorphism

postzygotic barriers

Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.

There are two examples of why two different species cannot breed with one another:

Barriers: 1.) postzygotic 2.) prezygotic

Why is drought an example of a density-independent factor that affects population?

Because drought can cause the poor growth or death of a population without the original density of the plant population affecting the outcome

DNA replication?

Because the two strands of a DNA molecule run antiparallel to each other, and because a single polymerase simultaneously adds nucleotides to the 3' ends of each of the two new strands, one new strand of DNA is synthesized in a continuous fashion, and the other new strand is synthesized in a discontinuous fashion in a series of Okazaki fragments that are ligated together after synthesis. DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to a preexisting 3' end, but RNA polymerases do not have this requirement. Thus an RNA polymerase lays down an RNA primer with an available 3' end to which the DNA polymerase can attach deoxynucleotides (dNTPs) for the start of both continuous synthesis and the synthesis of each Okazaki fragment. Another DNA polymerase later replaces the RNA primers with dNTPs.

Panspermia Hypothesis

Building blocks for life came from an asteroid or meteor.

How are nucleotides linked?

By dehydration synthesis

if an individual is stranded in a lifeboat on an ocean why is drinking seawater more harmful to the individual than drinking no water at all

By drinking salt water, the concentration of solutes outside the cells will increase causing the water inside the cell to move out making the cell shrink. The solution outside the cell is hypertonic and can cause dehydration.

Translocation

Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.

What are the 6 classes of Gnathostomata?

Chondrichthyes - fish with a cartilaginous endoskeleton (sharks, rays) Osteichthyes - fish with bony skeleton (herring, carp, tuna) Amphibia - animals with bony skeleton, cold blooded (salamanders, frogs) Reptilia - animals with horny epidermal scales, cold-blooded (snakes, lizards, alligators) Aves - birds Mammalia - warm-blooded, body covered with hair, 4 limbs, etc.

The direct transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells is called:

Conjugation

What does the unique R group do?

Dictates how the protein interacts with other substances.

This is the part of a flowering plant embryo that typically becomes the first leaf of the seedling: This, however is not a _______ leaf

Cotyledons "True"

The role of denitrifying bacteria in the nitrogen cycle is to:

Covert NO3- (nitrate) to atmospheric N2 (nitrogen)

promotor regions?

DNA sequences which are recognised (directly or indirectly) and bound by a dNA-dependent rNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription

What are the components of a chromosome?

DNA, histones, small amount of RNA and enzymes necessary for DNA and RNA synthesis.

According to evolutionary theory, which of the following individuals has the greatest Darwinian fitness?

Darwinian fitness is largely defined by the ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on one's genes. Despite the fact that the woman is in poor health most of her life, she has more children than any of the other individuals has. Because she also has 30 grandchildren, the woman has made a large contribution to the gene pool of two generations.

monocytes?

Defend against bacteria and viruses

What is deficiency?

Deficiency is a deletion of part of a chromosome due to unequal crossing over. Example disease: cri-du-chat disease caused by deletion on chromosome 5

denitrifying bacteria function?

Denitrifying bacteria form a necessary part of the process known as denitrification as part of the nitrogen cycle, their primary purpose being to metabolise nitrogenous compounds, with the assistance of the nitrate reductase enzyme, to turn oxides back to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxides for energy generation. This process takes place only in the absence of oxygen

nucleotide?

Deoxyribose phosphate plus a single base pair is called a nucleotide

Accumulation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere has led to:

Depletion of the ozone layer

What determines how likely genes on same chromosome with recombine via crossing over?

Distance between the genes on the chromosome: more distance = higher chance of a crossing over event between them and therefore the occurrence of recombinants will be higher than if the genes were closer together.

Carolus Linnaeus' work was:

Designating classification for organisms based on similar characteristics

Isolation of human embryonic stem cells requires:

Destruction of the embryo

What is a protease enzyme?

Digestive enzymes that digest proteins Pepsin in an example

How is ATP involved in the transfer of usable energy between molecules?

Energy is usually liberated from the ATP molecule to do work in the cell by a reaction that removes one of the phosphate-oxygen groups, leaving adenosine diphosphate (ADP). When the ATP converts to ADP, the ATP is said to be spent.

apical meristem

Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length.

Endocytosis vs. exocytosis?

Endo - transport of macromolecules into the cell Exo - opposite through a vesicle that fuses with the plasma membrane

what happens to the electrons as they move down the electron transport chain?

Energy from the electrons is used by the proteins in the chain to pump H+ ions from the stroma into the thylakoid space. At the end of the electron transport chain the electrons themselves pass to a second photosystem called photosystem I.

Photosystem 1 (P700)

Energy, with an average wavelength of 700 nm, is absorbed in this photosystem and transferred to electrons that move to a higher energy level

What is duplication?

Extra copy of piece of chromosome; might be due to unequal crossing over. Example disease: down's syndrome when one band of chromosome 21 is in triplicate.

Which intermediate enzyme, in carbon fixation during dark reactions in photosynthesis, has a greater affinity for CO2? (Think C3, C4, CAM plants)

PEP

Dicots (Eudicots)

Flowering plant whose embryos have 2 cotyledons.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Four protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane form the electron transport chain. These complexes exist in a descending order of energy. -Here the electron carriers come along to drop off all their electron and proton cargo that they picked up during the glycolysis and citric acid cycle stages. - NADH + H+ and FADH2 become oxidized, donating electrons to the first and second protein complex respectively. -The slinky will continue to move down the steps, just like an electron moves down energy levels, until it hits the bottom. -The last 'stair' of the electron transport chain is oxygen.

Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics

French scientist proposed that organisms acquire traits over their life span that equip them to survive within their environment and pass on those traits to their offspring. Has since been discredited.

somatic vs germ cells

Gametes, or sex cells, are created from germ cells, and somatic cells are all the other cells besides sex cells. ... When a mutation occurs within germ cells, it is called a germline mutation. Germline mutations affect every cell in an organism and are passed on to offspring.

Haploid

Gametes: half the number of chromosomes

Concerning map units on a gene, higher crossover frequency between two genes means they are:

Further apart from each other on the chromosome

genome sequencing projects

Genome projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus) and to annotate protein-coding genes and other important genome-encoded features.[1] The genome sequence of an organism includes the collective DNA sequences of each chromosome in the organism. For a bacterium containing a single chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that chromosome. For the human species, whose genome includes 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, a complete genome sequence will involve 46 separate chromosome sequences. The Human Genome Project was a landmark genome project that is already having a major impact on research across the life sciences, with potential for spurring numerous medical and commercial developments.

Heterozygous cross (non linked) of one set of alleles results in what ratio?

Gg x Gg = 1 GG: 2 Gg: 1 gg

Two functions of carbohydrates:

Glucose --> energy Cellulose --> provides structure/ support in plant cells (cell wall)

Fungi reproduce via:

Haploid spores (or dikaryotic)

Hormone H binds to both liver and lung cells. It causes liver cells to release glucose but does not cause any response by lung cells. Of the following, which is the most likely explanation?

Hormone H binding activates a glucose transporter gene‑specific transcription factor in liver cells but not in lung cells. The binding of a hormone to its receptor on the plasma membrane of a cell typically signals the cell to make a specific response.

Conjugation

In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.

enhancer

In genetics, an enhancer is a short (50-1500 bp) region of DNA that can be bound by proteins (activators) to increase the likelihood that transcription of a particular gene will occur

Which of the following is true about nonvascular plants, such as mosses?

In nonvascular plants, the gametophyte is the dominant form of the plant, and the sporophyte remains attached to the parent gametophyte and depends on the gametophyte for nutrients and water. This contrasts with vascular plants, where the sporophyte is the dominant form of the plant. In gymnosperms and angiosperms the gametophyte is dependent on the sporophyte for protection and nutrients.

In an inducible operon, when will transcription continuously occur in the presence and absence of an inducer?

In the absence of a repressor protein (any situation where the repressor protein is either lacking or is not functioning properly)

What happens in glycolysis?

In the cytoplasm, w/ E from 2 ATP, glucose is broken down into 2 PGAL molecules that are converted to 2 PYRUVATE molecules and ATP is produced. -glucose molecule is phosphorylated

Where is pyruvate converted to Acetyl-Co-A and how does it happen?

In the mitochondria by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase; Acetyl-Co-A then enters the krebs cycle that takes place in the matrix

What is incomplete dominance?

Incomplete dominant flowers turn pink: Heterozygous allele results in expression of both traits so no recessive: •Red expressed: RR •White expressed: R'R' •Pink (both expressed, not blended): RR'

First law of thermodynamics:

Increase in internal energy of a closed system is equal to the difference of the heat supplied to the system and the work done by the system (Energy can't be created or destroyed; only changes form)

Different sponges are characterized by the composition of their:

Internal spicules; composed of calcium carbonate, silica, or a soft protein called "spongin"

Interphase is the part of the cell cycle that includes which of the following?

Interphase is the nonmitotic part of the cell cycle when a cell is growing and carrying out its normal metabolic processes. Replication of DNA occurs during interphase, specifically during S phase of the cell cycle.

Tight junctions are most typically found in this part of the body:

Intestines thereby promoting one way flow of materials to the blood without passing between the spaces in between cells

INtrons verses EXtrons in gene expression?

Introns are "IN THE WAY" and need to be removed; EXtrons are Expressed

What is ionizing radiation?

Ions can break a chromosome by breaking bonds btw atoms by knocking out e's.

Lactated Ringer's is a salt solution that is used by physicians and veterinarians to restore fluid levels in the body in instances of injury or illness. A 500 mL preparation of Lactated Ringer's includes 3 g of NaCl. If the formula weight of NaCl is 58.44, the molarity of NaCl in Lactated Ringer's is approximately

Lactated Ringer's is a salt solution that is used by physicians and veterinarians to restore fluid levels in the body in instances of injury or illness. A 500 mL preparation of Lactated Ringer's includes 3 g of NaCl. If the formula weight of NaCl is 58.44, the molarity of NaCl in Lactated Ringer's is approximately

abiotic synthesis of macromolecules

Miller Urey experiment -RNA monomers have been produced spontaneously from simple molecules -small organic molecules polymerize when they are concentrated on hot sand, clay, or rock

Parapatric speciation occurs with:

Limited interbreeding between two groups

Scientists use this in order to identify organisms based on their relationships to one another:

Linnaean system of binomial nomenclature (Ex./ Homo sapiens)

why are fats insoluble in water?

Lipids are nonpolar molecules, which means their ends are not charged. Because they are nonpolar and water is polar, lipids are not soluble in water. That means the lipid molecules and water molecules do not bond or share electrons in any way. The lipids just float in the water without blending into it. You've probably heard the old adage, "oil and water don't mix." Well, oil is a liquid lipid. Butter and lard are examples of solid lipids.

What characteristics form the bases for a species to dominate in varying ecosystems?

Long maturation time Longer life spans Sexual reproduction Fewer offspring which are parented Tend to stay within established borders (non-dispersing)

Homologous pair of chromosomes?

Male and female chromosomes that pair up Genes occur at the same locus on each chromosome

Release of prostaglandins from the hypothalamus will result in:

Metabolic heat production and a raise in body temperature

What is the forked line method?

Method used to show the offspring genotypes when you have 3 or more traits crossing

microscopy

Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy.

metaphase

Middle- chromosomes line up in middle of cell

karyotype technique for studying individual chromosomes?

Mitosis stopped at metaphase; cells are fixed and spread on slide; dyes added for banding and is photographed; from photograph, chromosomes are cut out and arranged; banding patterns are studied. G and Q bands R and T bands

A particular anticancer drug binds to microtubules‚ preventing disassembly of microtubules into individual tubulin dimers.

Mitotic spindles are composed of microtubules. Aligning the chromosomes at the equator of a mitotic cell requires both microtubule assembly and disassembly. Additionally, separating the chromatids to daughter cells involves microtubule disassembly. If the drug blocks microtubule disassembly, then it interferes with spindle formation and chromosome alignment and separation, blocking cell division. Such a drug typically manifests its greatest toxicity on rapidly dividing cells, including cancer cells.

What is polyploidy?

More than two sets of chromosomes - common in plants and plants with it are bigger etc. Polyploidy in animals usually results in sterility

Describe some diagnostic features of the phylum "Mollusca":

Muscular foot, visceral mass containing gut, and has a mantle (shell)

Inversion (DNA)

Mutation where a segment of chromosome is reversed, because of a breakage and then rearrangement

Which of the following best explains why silent mutations in the coding region of a gene do not change the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene?

Most, although not all, amino acids are encoded by more than one mRNA codon, with the difference between the codons frequently in the third base, the wobble position. A nucleotide change in this position is referred to as a silent mutation because it does not change the coded amino acid.

What are the attributes of living organisms?

Movement: the motions within the organisms or movement of the organisms from one place to another (locomotion) Irritability: the capacity of organisms to respond in a characteristic manner to changes—known as stimuli—in the internal and external environments Growth: the ability of organisms to increase their mass of living material by assimilating new materials from the environment Adaptation: the tendency of organisms to undergo or institute changes in their structure, function, or behavior that improve their capacity to survive in a particular environment Reproduction: the ability of organisms to produce new individuals like themselves

Gametophyte is:

Multicellular haploid stage of plant development in alternating generations

NADPH or NADP is in photosynthesis?

NADPH - P stands for photosynthesis

Plants primarily acquire nitrogen in the form of:

NO3- (nitrate)

Cells naturally have _______ -charged cytoplasm

Negatively

order of white blood cells from most abundant to least abundant?

Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils

What is a nucleotide?

Nitrogen base + sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and phosphate group

What is a nucleoside?

Nitrogen base and sugar

What happens to PGAL (in glycolysis) to turn it into pyruvate?

PGAL is oxidized and phosphorylated and NAD gets reduced to NADH+; then the molecule is converted to PEP; the phosphate group is transferred to ADP to make ATP and pyruvate is formed!

What is the hypothesis of the development of primitive cells?

Once organic compounds had been synthesized, primitive prokaryotic cells developed containing genetic material in form of RNA - cells used ATP energy. Cells were similar to some bacteria found today.

If a population is subject to directional selection then:

One extreme phenotype, of the two, is selected against but not the other; the average in the population moves in single direction

In an inducible operon, the repressor protein binds to the: Inducers bind to the:

Operator region of the operon (thereby blocking transcription) Repressor protein

Plant dermal tissue

Outer coating of plants

This type of reaction converts ethanol to acetic acid thereby using up water and releasing 4 protons:

Oxidation - reduction Half reaction

If electrons are given off during a chemical reaction in the formation of a product , then the reactant was:

Oxidized

what are major molecules in Krebs cycle?

PACO = pyruvate to Acetyl CoA to citric Acid to oxaloacetic acid

what kind of reaction is used during a "half-reaction" converting ethanol to acetic acid? (this reaction yields 4 electrons and uses water)

Part of a whole oxidation-reduction reaction; this half-reaction involves the oxidation of ethanol

Steroid hormones can:

Pass through cell membrane and act directly on the DNA in the nucleus; often my binding first to an intracellular receptor. Steroid-receptor complex is the transcription factor

adaptive radiation (divergent evolution)

Pattern of evolution where one species gives rise to many species in response to creation of new habitat or another ecological opportunity

what does phloem transport?

Ph stands for food - phloem transports food and flows down from the leaves

What are the sources of Carbon dioxide, oxygen and water used by a plant in photosynthesis or cellular respiration?

Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then turned back into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. While water is broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. It is the released oxygen that is used by us and most other organisms for cellular respiration. We breathe in that oxygen, which is carried through our blood to all our cells. In our cells, oxygen allows cellular respiration to proceed. Cellular respiration works best in the presence of oxygen. Without oxygen, much less ATP would be produced. Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the pathways through which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during photosynthesis (Figure below) and cellular respiration worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable levels.

This is a plant cells' equivalent of gap junctions:

Plasmodesmata

Which of the following experimental methods is most appropriate for separating pigments extracted from plant leaves?

Pigments extracted from plant leaves are typically separated from each other by chromatography. A drop of liquid from an extract of ground leaves is placed on a strip of chromatography paper close to the bottom, and the very bottom of the paper, below the extract drop, is placed in an organic solvent. As the solvent travels up the strip, the pigments in the extract separate based on their solubility in the solvent and their attraction to the hydrated cellulose in the chromatography paper.

The first species to appear after a severe disturbance removes all existing vegetation from an ecosystem:

Pioneer species

Primary succession

Pioneer species are the first species to appear after a severe disturbance, such as a volcanic eruption accompanied by lava flow, removes all existing vegetation from an ecosystem. Because the soil is nutrient-poor, lichens and mosses or hardy plants with extensive root systems are common pioneer species.

Which of the following is the most accurate way to prepare the solution, using only the items available?

Place the weigh boat on the balance → tare the balance → use the scoop to add NaCl to the weigh boat

Meristem

Plant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth.

Meristems

Plant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth.

Translation

Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced

Missed, gymnosperms, and angiosperms are examples of:

Plantae Kingdom of the Eukarya Domain

The role of denitrifying bacteria in the nitrogen cycle is to

Plants primarily acquire nitrogen in the form of NO3- that is formed in the soil by nitrifying bacteria. Denitrifying bacteria are facultative anaerobes that generally live deep in the soil or in stagnant water and return nitrogen to the atmosphere by converting nitrogen oxides to atmospheric nitrogen, N2.

What are vascular plants?

Plants that have tissue organized so that food and water can be circulated throughout the plant.

Hermaphroditic plant?

Plants with perfect flowers (apples, tulips) - has male and female parts on same flower; but the flower is not always complete (can be missing other whorls)

Plant cell in hypertonic solution?

Plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall; this is called plasmolysis

RNA splicing

Process by which the introns (junk) are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together. SNURPS (start and end) Spliceosome: what does the actual editing

The Inviability or sterility of hybrid organisms from the interbreeding of two species is known as a

Postzygotic barrier

Marine protists developed during which period?

Precambrian period - 700 million years ago. Why no fossils? animals had only soft parts - no hard parts that could be fossilized.

Evaporation exceeds ___________ over the oceans.

Precipitation

___________ exceeds evaporation over the land.

Precipitation

Precision

Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other. Using the example above, if you weigh a given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg each time, then your measurement is very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy. You can be very precise but inaccurate, as described above. You can also be accurate but imprecise.

What does y chromosome cause in development?

Presence of y stimulates the gonadal medulla to grow male sex organs Absence of y results in female organs

Isolation of species due to ecological, temporal, behavioral, or mechanical actors, or physiological incompatibility of gametes are all examples of:

Prezygotic barriers

When ecological succession begins in a virtually lifeless area with no soil formed yet, it is called:

Primary successikn

gel electrophoresis

Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel

promoters

Promoter sequences are DNA sequences that define where transcription of a gene by RNA polymerase begins.

In this stage of cell division, chromosomes form tetrads by synapsis, and crossing over occurs at chiasmata

Prophase I of Meiosis

New species has: chloroplasts, mitochondria, a defined nucleus, and a cellulose based cell wall. Which kingdom is this species most likely to belong?

Protista (Species described is algae, which is a protist)

What 4 kingdoms exist in domain Eukaryota?

Protista - algae & protozoa Fungi - mold, mushrooms, yeast, etc. Animalia - everything else Plantae - all plants

Reproduce asexually; have no embryo:

Protoctista

Name the kingdoms of the Eukarya Domain:

Protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia

What is a translocation?

Rearrangement of genetic material between nonhomologous chromosomes. Bad: person can be phenotypically normal but can pass on problem in sex genes resulting in translocation downs syndrome (for ex.). Good: mutation that may result in antibiotic resistance in a bacteria, for ex., or lead to evolution

Most of the solar radiation that strikes Earth is:

Reflected back to space

Increase in CO2 has contributed to an increase in greenhouse gases, thereby causing an increase in:

Reflected infrared radiation and this an increase in temperature

What is the term for an animal, such as starfish, lizard and crab, than can regenerate a body part?

Regeneration - duh!

Centromere

Region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach

What is allosteric control of enzymes?

Regulation of activity of an enzyme by the binding of a molecule at a site other than the active site causing the conformation of the enzyme to change, thus changing the activity of the enzyme - called feedback control

translation

Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains. The process of decoding of an mRNA message into a protein p

What does RuBP stand for and why is it called a CO2 acceptor?

Ribulose biphosphate; called this because it bonds with CO2 - RuBP is carboxylated which is catalyzed by Rubisco enzyme

In 1665 this scientist studied cork using microscopy and noticed tiny empty chambers that he designated: "cells"

Robert Hooke

Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)

Second step of photosynthesis where atmospheric 3 molecules of carbon dioxide, ATP and NADPH to make glucose

When ecological succession begins after a disturbance clears out an existing community but left the soil intact, it is called

Secondary succession

By which of the following processes is newly synthesized albumin typically transferred from the cytosol of a hepatocyte to the blood?

Secreted proteins such as serum albumin are released from cells by exocytosis. A protein that is destined for secretion enters the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as it is translated, then is moved in a vesicle from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, where it is transported in vesicles from one cisterna to the next, and finally a secretory vesicle that contains the protein fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing the protein from the cell.

11 human body systems?

Skeletal Lymphatic Integumentary Circulatory Muscular Endocrine Nervous Respiratory Reproductive Excretory Digestive

Miller‑Urey experiment

Spontaneous assembly of organic molecules from inorganic molecules. combined CH4, NH3, and H2 above a flask of boiling water as a source of water vapor and used electrical sparks as an energy source. After a period of time, the water became cloudy and red and contained carbon‑containing (organic) compounds such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and formaldehyde (H2CO) and some simple amino acids.

Covalent disulfide bonds are important in determining:

The 3D shape of the protein

This is one thing that is exclusive to the exterior of cell membranes:

Sugar residues will not be found on the interior of cell membranes

This functional group on an amino acid allows the formation of covalent disulfide bonds:

Sulfhydryl (-SH ) group

This is an example of a physiological response to help reduce body temperature:

Sweat glands activation releases sweat into skin surface thereby allowing for evaporative cooling

This occurs when populations within the same environment adapt to fill different niches:

Sympatric speciation

Goal of the Calvin-Benson Cycle, aka dark reactions or light-INdependent reactions?

Take the recently created NADPH and ATP and store their energy by constructing sugars from CO2 •Where: in the stroma of the chloroplast •Where does the CO2 come from? ◦The atmosphere - the leaf opens up its stoma and lets CO2 in ◦When this happens, H2O is inadvertently released

Explain how temperature, pH, and competitive or non competitive inhibitors influence enzyme activity

Temperature: can affect enzyme activity because enzymes are made of proteins. If the temp raises, the proteins molecular structure become more unstable until it denatures it and breaks apart. pH: is essentially the same where the enzyme will denature if it is too acidic or too basic an environment Enzyme inhibitors: cofactors are molecules that fit into the active site of an enzyme that will activate and deactivate. Therefore, enzyme and prevent the cofactor from reaching it and activating it.

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation is most useful for which of the following?

The Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium equation can be applied to such a population to calculate the frequency of a particular allele of a gene that has only two alleles. The equation states that p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, where p is the frequency of one allele of the gene and q is the frequency of the other allele of the gene. p2 is the percent of individuals that are homozygous for the first allele, q2 is the percent of individuals that are homozygous for the second allele, and 2pq is the percent of heterozygous individuals. If the percent of the population that expresses a particular allele (e.g., q2) is known, then the frequency of the allele in the population can be determined.

mRNA

The RNA molecules that carry copies of these instructions are known as mRNA. They carry information from DNA to other parts of the cell.

Pleiotropy

The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.

pleiotropy

The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.

Darwinian fitness is largely defined by:

The ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on one's genes

The sciatic nerve from a frog was isolated and placed into a nerve chamber. A recording of an action potential was measured when the nerve was bathed in a solution that mimics the extracellular fluid typically surrounding a cell, and the nerve was stimulated. The recording is shown above. If the toxin TTX, a potent sodium-channel blocker, is added to the bathing solution and the nerve is stimulated using a stimulus of the same strength, what will be the most likely change in the action potential?

The action potential will not occur, because depolarization will not occur.. When a neuron is given a threshold stimulus, an action potential is generated. The initial depolarization of the membrane is caused by a rapid influx of sodium ions into the cell, which makes the intracellular charge positive. If the sodium channels in the neuronal membrane are blocked, sodium ions cannot enter the cell and the action potential cannot be generated.

sugar-phosphate backbone

The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached

Which of the following amino acids can contribute to the three-dimensional structure of a protein by forming covalent bonds with an identical amino acid in another part of the protein?

The amino acid represented in (B) is cysteine. Covalent disulfide bonds that form between the sulfhydryl (-SH) groups of cysteines in different parts of a protein are very important in determining the three-dimensional shape of the protein.

Hormones travel in the bloodstream indefinitely until:

The appropriate receptor protein binds the hormone

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

The condition describing a non-evolving population (one that is in genetic equilibrium).

What is the antenna complex of the light reactions?

The conglomeration of pigment molecules and the "reaction center" which is where the photon is ultimately absorbed by an e'

adaptive radiation?

The diversification of several new species from a recent ancestral source, each adapted to utilize or occupy a vacant adaptive zone

In embryonic development the endoderm gives rise to:

The epithelial lining of many organs and body systems: liver, pancreas, thyroid gland, urinary bladder, digestive tract, respiratory system, and reproductive system

Third law of thermodynamics:

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero (At absolute zero entropy reaches its minimum value)

environmental influences

The expression of genes in an organism can be influenced by the environment, including the external world in which the organism is located or develops, as well as the organism's internal world, which includes such factors as its hormones and metabolism.

What evidence is produced by F1 generation according to the Law of Dominance?

The fact that F1 generation produced NO recessive TRAITS is evidence of the Law of Dominance

What evidence is produced by F1 generation according to the Law of Dominance?

The fact that the F1 generation produced no recessive traits is evidence of law of dominance.

What is nondisjunction?

The failure of paired chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate and go to different cells during meiosis.

Meiosis I

The first division, meiosis I, is preceded by DNA replication, just like mitosis. Meiosis I is sometimes referred to as a reductional division because this is the division that's going to reduce the DNA content in the cell by half. In meiosis I, the homologs segregate to opposite poles. In our example, the diploid (2n) genome is reduced to a haploid (n) genome during this division. Note that replication occurred before meiosis, so each of the resulting daughter cells has two chromatids that are linked together at the centromere.

light reactions

The first of two major stages in photosynthesis (preceding the Calvin cycle). These reactions, which occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast or on membranes of certain prokaryotes, and using water, convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen in the process.

What is a prophage?

The genome of a (virus) bacteriophage that is integrated into the chromosome of the bacterium - the prophage is replicated as part of the host chromosome.

In genetics a Testcross is used to determine:

The genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype

what structures are likely to be found in plant cells but not animal cells?

The lysosomes are the animal cell's "garbage disposal", while in plant cells the same function takes place in vacuoles. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a large central vacuole, which are not found within animal cells.

What is the frequency of an autosomal dominant disorder in the children of an affected parent?

The majority of the time an affected person only has one affected parent. Each child of an affected person has a 50% chance of inheriting the mutated gene.

Which of the following characteristics of a material found on the bark of a tree will most likely prove that the material is a living thing?

The material appears to reproduce on its own.

Accuracy describes how close: Precision describes how close:

The measurements you take are to the literature value The measurements you take are to each other

Which of the following structures is typically found in eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotic cells?

The mitochondrion is a membrane‑bound organelle that is required for aerobic cellular respiration in eukaryotes. Depending on the type of cell, the number of mitochondria per cell can vary from only one to a couple of thousand.

describe structural and functional differences between startch and cellulose

The most important difference in the way the two polymers behave is this: You can eat starch, but you can't digest cellulose. Your body contains enzymes that break starch down into glucose to fuel your body. But we humans don't have enzymes that can break down cellulose.

Which of the following must take place for ecological succession to occur in a given area?

The organisms living there at a given time must alter the environment.. As succession continues, organic matter increases in the soil, which allows the environment to support a larger, more diverse group of organisms. Seeds blown from nearby regions or brought by animals will germinate, and grasses, shrubs, and trees may grow. Depending upon the location of the region, trees may eventually crowd out lower-growing plants that need more light.

cleaning up acid spills?

The pH of the acid should be neutralized before handling, but never by increasing the volume of the spill with a strong base. Laboratory safety kits typically include absorbent pads or baking soda to help neutralize and absorb acid spills.

The site on the antibody where antigens physically bind is called:

The paratope

Punctuated equilibrium refers to:

The pattern of change in the fossil record of some species and is typically defined as long periods of evolutionary stability followed by short periods of rapid speciation

If a messenger RNA contains the codon 5'-UCA- 3', the corresponding nucleotide sequence in the DNA template strand is most likely which of the following?

The template strand for transcription of a DNA sequence to mRNA runs antiparallel to the mRNA and utilizes thymine (T) in the place of the uracil (U) found in RNA. If the sequence 5'−UCA− 3' is found in an mRNA, then the template DNA sequence must be 5'−TGA− 3'.

cloning

The term cloning describes a number of different processes that can be used to produce genetically identical copies of a biological entity. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone. Researchers have cloned a wide range of biological materials, including genes, cells, tissues and even entire organisms, such as a sheep.

Describe animals with indeterminant cleavage:

They are called "Deuterosomes" ; they have early developmental cells that can go on to produce a whole animal; this is what makes identical twins possible

Describe animals with determinant cleavage:

They are called "protosomes" ; they have early development cells with predetermined fate; if you separate a cell after initial cleavage it will not develop into a complete animal-- it will be missing parts

Are diseases resulting from genetic disorders rare or common?

They are very rare because they are mostly derived from abnormalities of a single gene.

Describe the aclassical pathway in complement activation

This occurs independently of antigen antibody binding. Cell surface molecules of many bacteria, yeasts, viruses, and protozoan parasites can cause membrane attack complexes to form without the help of anti-bodies

What are the 3 subphyla of phylum Chordata?

Urochordata - animals with a tail cord; tunicates Cephalochordata - animals with a head cord; lampreys Vertebrata - animals with a backbone

disruptive selection?

This type of selection favors both the extremes at the expense of the average because the extremes are more adaptive

carbon fixation

Three CO2 molecules are used in carbon fixation by the enzyme RuBisCO. One carbon dioxide is used at a time, resulting in steps that fix, rearrange, and energize carbon molecules, eventually forming one 3-carbon molecule called G3P, or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which is released.

codon?

Three base pairs that code for a specific amino acid

Analogous to protons moving into the inner mitochondrial membrane space in animal cells, in plant cells this structure is used instead during photo phosphorylation:

Thylakoid space

Plasmodesmata?

Tiny holes in cell walls; extremely small and do not interfere with cell wall function of turgor pressure (equal and opposite pressure)

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify small amounts of DNA for further study. Which of the following is (are) a key component used in PCR?

To amplify a specific region of DNA in a sample, DNA primers that are complementary to sequences flanking the region of interest are added to the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture is heated to denature the double-stranded DNA, and then cooled to allow annealing of the primers to the sample DNA. After the primers anneal, Taq polymerase or another heat-stable DNA polymerase extends the DNA from the 3' end of each primer across the region of interest.

Why build up H+ concentration in the lumen?

To generate ATP - the H+ pass thru ATP synthase embedded in the thylakoid membrane which results in the photophosphorylation of ADP

What does it mean to have a "true coelom"?

To have a mesoderm-lined cavity in the body between the gut and the outer body wall)

This model predicts that removing the top predictors will increase the biomass of lower tropic levels in a cascade fashion:

Top-down model

The growth hormone (GH) receptor is a cell surface transmembrane protein with a cytosolic domain that becomes phosphorylated in response to growth hormone binding to the extracellular domain. Which of the following is correct about the location of the GH receptor protein during its synthesis?

Translation of proteins such as the GH receptor that will be embedded in the plasma membrane is carried out by ribosomes on the cytosolic surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). During translation of the protein, it starts (from its amino‑terminus end) to enter the ER through pores in the ER membrane. The amino terminus of the protein is typically the domain to which a ligand such as GH will bind. Insertion of the protein into the ER is halted when amino acids of the transmembrane portion of the protein form bonds with components of the ER membrane; the cytosolic domain of the protein that contains the phosphorylation sites remains in the cytosol of the cell. Vesicles that contain the receptor protein pinch off the ER and fuse with the membrane of the Golgi apparatus such that the extracellular ligand‑binding domain of the receptor is located in the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus, while the cytosolic domain remains in the cytosol. When vesicles containing the receptor pinch off the Golgi apparatus and fuse with the plasma membrane, the receptor becomes incorporated into the membrane with the ligand‑binding domain on the extracellular surface of the cell and the cytosolic phosphorylation sites in the cytosol.

Biopsies of malignant tumors often include a karyotype, and the results sometimes reveal a chromosomal translocation. Which of the following best explains why translocations can cause cancer?

Translocations can result in the coding sequence of a gene being adjacent to the regulatory sequence of a different gene.

endoplasmic reticulum function?

Transport channels in the cell -transports synthesized proteins and lipids to other parts of the cell

Ca 2+ -ATPase pump is a:

Uniport pump: only one ion moves through this pump (calcium)

In C3 plants the initial products of carbon fixation are:

Two 3 carbon molecules that are synthesized through the intermediate enzyme rubisco

What is the "head to tail" arrangement of a protein?

Two ends: 1. amino group called the N-Terminus 2. carboxyl group called the C Terminus

coevolution?

Two or more species having a close ecological relationship evolve together such that one species adapt to the changes of the other, thereby affecting each other's evolution.

pollination and seed dispersal

Two things plants depend on animals for. Examples: Bees pollinate using pollen from a flower. Birds carry seeds from location to location. Wind, insect, bird droppings, animal fur

Describe the relationship between UV radiation, CFCs, and the stratospheric Ozone layer:

Ultraviolet radiation breaks down CFCs resulting in liberation of chlorine atoms that remain in the atmosphere ; while in the atmosphere these chlorine atoms catalyze the destruction of ozone molecules causing an increase in the penetration of UV light through the atmosphere

In the lysogenic cycle:

Viral DNA becomes integrated into the host cell DNA and remains there indefinitely

Which TWO of the following features distinguish viruses from prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Viral genomes are composed of DNA or RNA, in contrast to the genomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes that are always composed of DNA. Viruses do not contain ribosomes or any materials required for translation and cannot synthesize their own proteins, in contrast to prokaryotes and eukaryotes that synthesize their own proteins.

Phosphorus-32 and Sulfur-35 were used in an experiment that proved:

Viruses infect bacteria cells with their genetic material, and that genetic material is DNA and not protein.

How allopolyploidy may take place?

When 2 different species breed so lack of matching or homologs.

How autopolyploidy may take place?

When 2 sperms fertilize one egg; When mitosis fails to separate chromosomes

speciation event

When a physical barrier completely separates members of a single population into two separate populations, speciation may occur. If the environmental influences and selective pressures differ for the two populations, the organisms may sufficiently change over time such that when organisms from the two populations are brought together, they can no longer produce fertile offspring and are considered to be separate species.

When translation ends?

When a ribosome reaches a terminator codon in the mRNA by a terminator codon in the A site of the ribosome.

What is hemizygous mean?

When a trait has an allele on the x chromosome but there is no match on the y chromosome (this is normal, not a mutation)

What is synapsis?

When homologous chromosomes pair up in prophase 1 of meiosis; crossing-over takes place at this time

What is epistasis?

When the genotype of one gene determines whether another is expressed. Example: 2 independently assorting loci (c) and (a) control coat color in mice. If cc then the mouse's cells cannot produce pigment regardless of the other allelles.

What happens when the sperm nuclei reach the ovule?

When the sperm nuclei reach the ovule, one will join with an egg cell, fertilizing it to become a zygote. The other merges with the polar bodies to form endosperm.

cristae of mitochondria

Where does the electron transport chain occur?

Leukocytes; 3 types?

White blood cells made in bone marrow stem cells - 1st line of defense 3 types: 1. Lymphocytes, 2. Phagocytes, and 3. Auxiliary Cells.

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Equilibrium

With random mating in a population, gene frequencies and genotype ratios will remain constant from generation to generation. Shows why recessive genes do not disappear over time from a population.

Is the range a dynamic characteristic? What type of change can affect the size and location of a range?

Yes. Environmental changes can affect the size and location of a range

zygote to morula to blastocyst?

Zygote --> morula (up to 16 cells) differentiation begins and forms blastocyst in humans--> embryoblast (inner cells of blastocyst) becomes the organism

carrying capacity

a limited number of organisms that can be supported by an ecosystem - usually designated by the letter K.

X-linked dominant

a mode of genetic inheritance by which a dominant gene is carried on the X chromosome. A female who expresses the trait in any generation passes it on to approximately half her children, irrespective of the child's sex. A male who expresses the trait passes it on to all of his female children but not to any of his male children.

What is punctuated equilibrium?

a model in which proposed speciation events are interspersed within periods of relative stasis. Occurs over tens/hundreds of thousands of years.

convergent evolution?

describes the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action.

Charles Darwin

developed a scientific theory of biological evolution that explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of time through descent from common ancestors

Carolus Linneaus

developed a two word naming system called binomial nomenclature--each species is assigned a two part scientific name

According to the theory of evolution, what was the key factor to the survival of land plants?

development of seeds.

Example of Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics

giraffes developed longer necks during their lifetime from their efforts to reach higher branches, and passed the longer necks to their children.

where do light reactions take place in the chloroplast?

on the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast

Chromatid

one of two identical "sister" parts of a duplicated chromosome

commensalism?

one organism [the commensal] benefits, and the other [the host] is apparently unaffected.

haploid cell

one set combination of chromosomes from mom and dad

What is Cro-Magnon man?

the oldest fossil to be designated Homo SApiens - thought to have evolved in Africa and migrated in Europe and Asia approximately 100K years ago.

What opportunities were presented by mass extinctions?

the opening of ecological situations, which in turn encouraged adaptive radiation