BIO 227 Final

expenditures for non-consumptive use of wildlife in the USA

equipment (50%) transportation (11%) food (10%)

biosphere

global processes

relaxation

loss of species over time; large islands should have less relaxation than small ones

"Land Bridge" islands

patches of habitat that once were connected to mainland or each other, but have become fragmented and isolated.

Persecution

persecution, intolerance, and eradication

Recreational exploitation (consumptive)

recreational hunting is a major component of wildlife management in North America (check stations for deers)

For which taxonomic group is the proportion of described species to estimated species richness the highest?

vertebrates

abiotic factors

zone of physiological tolerance, water availability, specific needs (mating sites, minerals)

world population now and in 2050

7.532 billion people; 9.7 billion by 2050

One health initiative

connection between health and natural and man-made environments

beta diversity

"turnover" in the species composition as you go from one site to the next - it is the opposite of overlap between sites. Beta diversity is high when individual sites have different species (In other words, there is high "turnover" as go from one site to the next. This implies that species have small ranges or are highly specialized for local conditions, and that the habitat is fairly heterogeneous); beta diversity is low when individual sites have the same species (There is low "turnover" as go from one site to the next; the same species are found at many sites. This implies that the species have large ranges, or are not specialized for local conditions, or that the overall habitat is pretty homogeneous) beta=gamma/alpha

Top 2 states with the most ESA listed species in the US

1. Hawaii (its an island so that makes sense) 2. California

other fishing methods

-purse seining -long-lining

spiritual or scenic tradition

"Romantic-Transcendental Preservation Ethic"; emphasizes non-consumptive use of resources

Earth's average temperature has risen by _____ since 1901

1.4 degrees F (0.8C)

how do scientists predict species range changes?

"Climate Envelope" or "Bioclimatic Niche" Modeling (species distribution modeling)

Utilitarian tradition

"Resource Conservation Ethic"; emphasizes sustained use of resources; forestry, game management

Hitting the stopping point: When costs exceed benefits (collector value)

(also "status objects" - indicators of wealth, power) As object becomes more and more rare, people are willing to pay more. This creates a tremendous market incentive to harvest the last available units. Rarity leads to greater price and greater profits. Can easily lead to eradication, extinction.

biological control

(biocontrol) -Mongoose introduced to Hawaii in 1883 to control rats (an introduced species) -Cane Toad (aka marine toad or giant toad) introduced to hawaii and australia in 1935 to control beetles

dormancy

(hibernation, etc) temporary reduction in activity and metabolic rate to survive harsh environmental conditions (often related to temperature or food availability)

the global carbon cycle

(numbers are billions of tons of carbon) coal, oil, gas -> fossil fuel burning (6.4); land use (0.5-2.7); photosynthesis (100-120 going in) -> plant respiration (40-50 coming out) and decay of residues (50-60 coming out); sea surface gas exchange (100-115); net ocean uptake (1.6-2.4)

microplastics

- <5mm - 11 billion microbes are released into the nation's waterways each day - affect oyster reproduction -alter feeding preference -fill up organisms

examples of keystone species

- sharks eat coral-eating fish, so the coral can grow more - sea otters eat sea urchins and kelp - sea stars eat mussels (invasive species because they compete with other animals so if you removed sea stars you would reduce the biodiversity in that area) more sea stars = more species richness - they had been wiped out by sea star wasting disease - large mouth bass can indirectly reduce the phytoplankton (bass decrease the abundance of fish that eat zooplankton -> increase in the abundance of zooplankton -> decrease in the abundance of phytoplankton -> phytoplankton blooms under control) - wolves in yellowstone -> more brown bears (compete with elk for berries) more grizzlies (elk carcasses) -> less elk = more vegetation = more beavers and more birds and better stream morphology

5 main extrinsic factors causing species imperilment

-"The Evil Quartet" habitat destruction, climate change, overexploitation, ecological linkages/cascading effects, invasive species and disease

How technical innovation has driven the destruction of fish stocks

-14th century: introduction of trawl nets which could strip the sea bed of life -late 1800s: steam power started the era of industrial fishing 1950s: introduction of factory fishing vessels allowed fishing fleets to operate far from home 1960s" widespread use of sonar to hunt fish shoals with pinpoint accuracy 1980s: deployment of giant nets and lines, up to 40 miles long, which can strip life from huge swathes of sea

removal of non-native ungulates for the conservation and recovery of the channel island fox

-1980's-99: national park service and the nature conservancy: a sheep removal on santa catalina -2007-07: feral pigs removed from santa catalina -deer and elk removed from santa rosa by 2011

American Kestrel population in New Jersey (owl)

68% decline in coastal california from 1966-2008 (potential reasons for decline: west nile virus; habitat changes; cooper's hawk

island fox captive breeding program

-1999-2008: remaining wild foxes on SRI and SMI captured to start captive breeding and releases -14 foxes brought into captivity on both SMI and SRI -1999-2004: Catalina had captive breeding facilities -2002-2007: captive breeding on SCI started to supplement wild population -All captive breeding facilities now discontinued

How many species are listed under the ESA?

-2,141 listed species -1,516 US (71%): 1,188 "endangered" species (78% of listed app in US) = 468 animals, 720 plants; 328 "threatened" species (22% of listed app in US) = 176 animals, 152 plants -625 Foreign (29%): virtually all are animals; very few listed foreign plants

When fragmentation occurs, what happens to species and communities?

-A single species: meta population theory (case study: big horn sheep -> north america past: 1.5-2 million / north america present: about 70,000; california present: 500; in 2015, 11 bighorn sheep hunting tags issued in california; sierra nevada bighorn endangered) -Communities of multiple species: island biogeography theory

recovery progress of the ESA

-A total of 58 species have been delisted through feb 2014 -30 species "recovered" and delisted -10 species have gone extinct -18 species were removed because the original listing data were erroneous (population size, trend, taxonomic status, etc)

studying basic ecology

-Animal location (migration, home range, dispersal) -habitat utilization -finding nesting sites/dens/burrows

"Emergency room medicine" or "too little, too late"

-By the time a species is listed under the ESA, it is already in deep trouble and may be too far gone to recover -Median population size at time of listing: vertebrates (1,075); invertebrates (999); plans (120) -some conservationists argue that there needs to be a mechanisms to address species conservation "pro-actively" - before they have declined to the point that they require listing -there are some efforts in that regard, such as including non-listed species in land management plans and HCPs

dead zones

-rapidly increasing as oceans warm -caused by excess nutrients and warming waters -can suffocate fish, squid and other marine life -there are more than 400 ocean dead zones in the world's seas -waters around Tasmania and near Perth were recently included on the list

CITES

-ESA implements US participation in CITES (convention on international trade in endangered species) -designed to prevent species from becoming endangered or extinct due to international trade -CITES prohibits importing or exporting species listed on its appendices

Listing species under the ESA

-Endangered: in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range -Threatened: likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range -Designation ("or listing") is purely scientific, based on the best available data. You can't use arguments to oppose listing (can't say: this species should be endangered, but it will cost too much or be too inconvenient)

Direct effects

-European Rabbits in Australia in 1880's (lack of vegetation) -Competing for resources -Exotic predators as novel source of mortality for native species (burmese python eating american alligator)

Examples of ESA-listed taxa (regular, subspecies, distinct population segments)

-Giant Kangaroo Rat -Indiana Bat -Subspecies: San Joaquin Kit Fox; Florida Panther -Distinct Population Segments: grizzly bear (lower 48: threatened; alaska: not listed); Gray Wolf (alaksa: not listed; great lakes DPS; delisted due to recovery; northern rocky mans DPS: delisted, recovered; southwest: "experimental non-essential" -> a reintroduced population segment; all other locations: endangered); Southern Resident Killer Whales (resident-primarily eat fish; transient, or Bigg's-primarily feed on other marine mammals; offshore-feed on fish and sharks)

invasive species in New Zealand

-rats preying on nests of native new zealand bird (mammalian carnivore) -more carnivores: weasels, stoats, mongoose, red fox, etc. new zealand: 25 million native birds killed annually; economic costs of 2.3 billion dollars

probability of detection (P)

-How many hippos are present, but not seen? -P ranges from 0 to 1 -Probability that an individual, if present, is actually detected -The proportion of the local population that is detected -Desert Tortoises have extremely low probabilities of detection

The upshot on captive breeding

-It is a very intensive, expensive, invasive process, not to be entered lightly -It can be very valuable, even essential. It may be better than the alternative -But is is no panacea, and does not necessarily "rescue" species from dangerous wild circumstances -Rather, it intentionally puts species into different circumstances, with different risks and dangers, which we hope we are better able to manage -it is not realistic to think that we can put wild species in a "safe deposit box" for 100 years and then put them back in the wild once we've cleaned up our act

Marine Conservation Heroes

-Jane Lubchenco -Sylvia Earle

Mark-Recapture approach

-Lincoln-Petersen estimation -N = estimated size of whole population -M = number of individuals in first sample (these individuals are then marked, then released) -n = size of second sample -m=number of previously-marked individuals in the second sample ("recaptures") - m/ n = M / N - N = (Mn) / m -example: Biologists want to determine the number of Asian carp in a pond. They catch 50 carp, mark them, and release them. Several days later, they catch 60 carp in the same pond. 15 of these are recaptures (already marked). How many carp are in the pond? 200

Threats in marine ecosystems and examples

-Overexploitation (Whaling, Fisheries, Bycatch, Aquarium Trade) -Pollution (Plastics, Oil, Other pollutants) -Habitat Alteration (Bottom Trawling, Infill) -Climate Change (Warming SST, Ocean Acidification)

marking techniques

-Permanent Marking: branding, tattooing, toe clipping, web punching, passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags (microchipping), freeze branding, hot branding, tissue removal -Non-invasive: neck collars, backpacks, bands, dye, ink, paints, bleaching, natural marking, photo IDs, hair traps (DNA analysis -> can analyze DNA in the hair samples to determine sex and get estimates of how many individuals in the area)

Conflicts with private land owners

-Precursors to the ESA (1966 and 1969) prevented "take" of listed species only on National Wildlife Refuges. -1973 law expanded this, making it a federal crime to "take" listed species on any property, including private property -Extent of the issue: approx 90% of listed species occur, to some extent, on private lands; approx 66% of listed species had most of their habitat on private land -protection of listed species on private lands can restrict "otherwise legal" activities such as development and agriculture -this can lead to perverse incentives -private landowners have argued that the government has denied their use for the land, and effectively "taken" the land as a nature preserve for listed species -they demand compensation for this loss, under the "takings clause" of the fifth amendment of the constitution ("private property [shall not] be taken for public use, without just compensation") -these controversies have led to several programs, such as Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) and Safe Harbor Agreements, that are formal compromises between development on some private land and ensuring the conservation of others.

How are species protected?

-Prohibits the "take" of listed animals

What do the effects of global warming mean for wildlife conservation?

-Sea level will rise 1-4 feet by 2100 -impacts to ocean food webs -arctic likely to become ice free

How are species listed?

-Section 4: Biological Status and threats to existence 1. Damage to a species' habitat 2. Overutilization of species (commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes) 3. Disease of predation 4. Inadequacy of existing population 5. Other natural or manmade factors that affect the continued existence of the species

BOFFFF hypothesis

-The Big Old Fat Fecund Female Fish Hypothesis: older fish are bigger, bigger fish have more eggs, more eggs mean more offspring, by targeting Big Female Fish, you decrease the population even more -Rockfish and others (groupers) are slow growing, long-lived (several hundred years old) and older females have higher fecundity

Species-specific approach instead of communities or "functioning ecosystems"

-The ESA has a "single-species" focus. Does not address ecosystems or ecological communities -So can be very inefficient, and can create management conflicts when there are 2 or more listed species in the same area -Some have argued tat we need an "endangered communities" or "endangered ecosystems" act -BUT: there's plenty of debate about the definition of "species". Would be even worse if we had to argue whether a particular habitat type was really a distinct community or ecosystem. There is much less scientific consensus on these concepts, and they are much harder for the general public (=voters) to grasp.

OR-7 "journey"

-The first wolf in california since 1924; left in 2012 and is the alpha male of the Rogue Pack -Batteries expired on GPS collar in 2015 -Trail camera picked up evidence of pups in 2014 and 2015. DNA testing of scat confirmed the pups were OR-7's

Garrett Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons"

-The tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain -In 1968 wrote about the potential of common goods to be exploited and depleted especially as a result of overpopulation.

Federal Agency Cooperation and Enforcement of the ESA

-US fish and wildlife service -National marine fisheries service -Designation of critical habitat (including areas not currently occupied by the species) -Works with states and private landowners (2/3 of federally listed species have some habitat on private land)

collapse of fisheries

-Whales: indiscriminate hunting in the 19th and 20th centuries caused the world's first great fisheries collapse -Grand Banks: the world's richest cod fishery, off Newfoundland, collapsed in the 1990s after a century of uncontrolled exploitation -Dogger Bank: Britain's lucrative herring fishery collapsed in 1960s. Overall North Sea fish populations have fallen to around 5% of natural level -Turbot: once common around Europe, overfishing has made them a rarity Bluefin tuna: Close to extinction - but still being hunted because their flesh is so valuable

satellite telemetry

-allows for following animal movements/migrations over long-distance -can get information without recapturing animal or being in close proximity -does not provide detailed fine scale movements or habitat use

external (extrinsic) factors

-are not characteristics of the species themselves -these are events happening in the environment, usually linked to human action, that affect species, and cause their populations to decline

(think of the curve picture) 3 required levels; what do these mean?

-at the lowest level (level required to maintain critical functions) there is insufficient energy to meet basic life requirements long term. Move soon or die. -at the middle level (level required to maintain organism) there is enough energy to meet basic life requirements, but no "extra" which means no reproduction which means stunted growth. -at the highest level (level required to maintain population) there is "extra" energy available after meeting metabolic needs that the population must decide to allocate (growth vs reproduction?)

point reyes natural sea shore

-axis deer - native to India and Sri Lanka, eradicated in 2009 -Fallow deer - using contraceptives on as many individuals as possible

factors that make some countries grow faster than others

-births (how many births per female --> Total Fertility Rate - TFR; and age of females at reproduction) -mortality

brown headed cowbird

-brood parasites -lay eggs in songbird nest near forest edges -greater forest edge=more cowbirds (and decrease in songbird nest success)

Managing the Threat

-brown tree snakes were poisoned with rats that had acetaminophen, causing over 80% reduction in population -hunting one owl to save another

problems with slash and burn clearing of jungle for Palm Plantations

-caused extensive smoke and haze, affecting human health -adds to carbon emissions, furthering climate change -orangutans in the illegal pet trade -sumatran tiger (only 400 left in the wild; from 2009-2011 2/3 of the habitat was cleared for palm oil plantations)

internal (intrinsic) factors; risk factors that make some kinds of species more likely to become endangered

-characteristics of the species themselves -species that are a resource for humans, or compete with humans for a shared resource (not considered extrinsic because they species themselves have characteristics that cause this, we aren't just destroying their habitat) -generalist species -Specialist Species (the picky species) animals like pandas, who really only eat bamboo. If bamboo forests are gone, pandas are gone -K-selected species ("slow" life history strategy) -Endemic to islands -small or restricted populations

zones in the ocean from top to bottom

-continental shelf -international waters (outside territorial waters) -exclusive economic zone (200 nautical miles) -Contiguous zone (12 nautical miles) -Territorial waters (12 nautical miles) -baseline (mean low water mark) -internal waters -land

Is the ESA a success or a failure?

-critics claim less than 1% of listed species have recovered -defenders say less than 1% of listed species have gone extinct -moreover, most listed species are increasing in population size, and it is likely that many more will be declared "recovered" in the next 10 years

fragmentation by linear barriers: roads

-direct mortality -physical or psychological barrier to movement affects immigration and emigration, restricts gene flow, and restricts access to resources (roadkills are one of the primary causes of adult mortality for the endangered Florida panther) -allow human settlers, hunter and poachers into otherwise inaccessible areas -exotic species -physical effects (erosion, dust, exhaust, heavy metals, pollution, noise)

Shasta Pack

-discovered by camera trap -5 pups in 2015

What kinds of "species" can be listed under the ESA?

-do not have to be in the USA, can be any species worldwide -Can be any kind of living organism (vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, fungi, protists like kelp, lichen like symbiosis or algae and fungus -all species of plants and animals except for PEST INSECTS are eligible for listing -can include subspecies, varieties, and for vertebrates, distinct populations -can be any level in the taxonomic hierarchy: order -> family -> genus -> species -> subspecies -> "distinct population segment" (vertebrates only) -> "evolutionary significant unit" (DSPs are separate geographically and are used widely in ESA; ESUs have been applied almost exclusively to Pacific salmonids)

edge effects

-edges are the boundary between natural habitats and developed or disturbed land -edge effects: microclimate, disturbance (wind, fire), predation from exotic or weedy species -more edge = bad

the problem with plastics

-entanglements -ingestion -don't biodegrade -can photo-degrade into smaller particles (micro plastics; proved a seed for toxic chemicals)

other threats to ocean biodiversity

-estuaries and bays -pollution -dead zones -harmful algal blooms -changes to beaches (hardening of shorelines) -global climate change

Factors that contribute to "Potential for reproduction"

-fecundity: number of offspring per reproductive bout (humans - generally 1; mice - 6-10) -number of reproductive bouts: in general the more reproductive bouts the more offspring -maturity time or age of first reproduction (gorillas, whales, elephants: 10-15 years; fox or goose: 9 months/1 year; lemmings, field mice: 2-3 weeks)

Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project

-formerly known as "Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems project" -From 1980-1991, created 11 forest fragments; matched controls sites in contiguous rain forest; monitored changes in species abundance and ecosystem function

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

-founded in 1948 -IUCN's work is driven by two features of life today: Global production and consumption patterns are destroying our life support system - nature - at persistent and dangerously high rates 1. Valuing and conserving nature 2. Effective and equitable governance of nature's use 3. Deploying nature-based solutions to global changes in climate, food, and development

source-sink dynamics

-high quality patches ("sources") -> reproduction > mortality; emigration > immigration (so net outflow of individuals) -low quality patches ("sinks") -> reproduction < mortality; emigration < immigration (so net inflow of individuals)

effects of climate change

-increased air temperature (GLOBAL WARMING --> melting of glaciers and arctic and antarctic sea ice; sea levels rise) -increased ocean temperature (sea level rise) -Increased ocean acidity (decrease in pH; OCEAN ACIDIFICATION)

Effects of global warming

-increased temps and incidence of heat waves -melting of glaciers and polar ice -rising sea levels -earlier spring activity -shifts in species ranges -population declines in some species -increase ocean temps -decreased ocean pH (more acidic)

Examples of using natural markings

-individual humpback whales can be distinguished by natural markings on flukes -marbled salamander -images of snow leopards -images of tigers and help from a computer

Lion Fish

-introduced through the Aquarium Trade (potentially accidental escape in Hurricane Andrew 1992 and ballast water (egg masses) -No predators in introduced areas -venomous (pain, swelling, redness, bruising) -Voracious predators (generalists) -high reproductive output (r-selected)

Conservation and Recovery of the Channel Island Fox (california)

-live on 6 of the 8 california channel islands -population crashes in mid-1990s (san miguel: 350 to 15; santa rosa: 1200 to 14; santa cruz: 2000 to 135) -2004: federally listed as an endangered species -what they did to help: removal of non-native ungulates; eagle management; island fox captive breeding program

persistent pollutants

-metals (mercury) -> primary source is emissions from coal-burning power plants; illegal gold mines are a significant source of Mercury pollution -DDT (biomagnifies similar to mercury)

solutions to plastic pollution

-microbead-free waters act of 2015 -single use bottle bans -plastic bag bans

other publicly-owned "natural" lands

-national grasslands (bureau of land management) -military bases (department of defense)

major types of "nature reserves" in the USA

-national parks (national park service) -national forests (US forest service) -wildlife refuges (US Fish and Wildlife Service) -Wilderness Area (no specific agency)

solutions to the help the problems with endangered animals/plants

-natures reserves and protected areas -endangered species act

radio telemetry

-need to be in close range -composed of a transmitter and receiving antennas -good for fine scale movements, finding burrows, dens and nest trees

carolina parakeet

-one of only 2 parrot species native to the USA -endemic to the eastern US -formed large social flocks -became an agricultural pest, especially on apples and corn -also suffered from habitat destruction (clearing of forests) and harvesting of their feathers -Largely eradicated by the late 1800's and extinct by 1920 -last known individual died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918

Endangered Species Act (ESA)

-passed in 1973 -Purpose to protect and recover imperiled species and their ecosystems -species can be listed as endangered or threatened -2,054 species listed worldwide, 1,436 in the US -goal is to recover species so they no longer need protection

pollution is commonly caused by

-pesticides -herbicides -sewage -fertilizers (from agricultural fields) -industrial chemicals and wastes -emissions (factories and automobiles) -sediment deposits (from erosion) -trash -medicines

fox rehab on santa cruz island in new zealand

-pig eradication in new zealand (divided island into hunting zones, contained pigs in the zones, trying to make it easier to eradicate the pigs: trapping (16%); ariel/helicopter shooting (77%); ground-based hunting with dogs (5%); for all the ones they couldn't catch, they used Judas pigs -> often sows, with a radio collar on them, other pigs will be attracted to her and the pigs will go into a herd so that hunters can eradicate them) so in 411 days a total of 5,036 pigs were eradicated from Santa Cruz island -Reintroduced bald eagles that competed with golden eagles that eat foxes -Removal of the golden eagle -Captive breeding of foxes

natural sources of greenhouse gasses

-plant and animal respiration -volcanic eruptions -forest fires

double clutching (whopping cranes)

-population declined to 15 individuals by 1940 -listed in 1967 -approx 200 birds today -discontinued in 1989 as the Whooping crane young imprinted on Sandhill cranes and failed to mate with other whooping cranes

effects of brown tree snake on Guam

-power outages (4 million / annually) -property values declined -lizard and bird extinctions led to mosquito borne dengue fever outbreaks and decline in farming -poultry industry decimated-eggs now imported -snake bites to sleeping children common -3 native mammal species (all bats) - 2 extinct -12 native lizard species - 6 extinct -18 native bird species - 9 extirpated, 6 almost gone, 3 in small populations

eagle management for the conservation and recovery of the channel island fox

-remove golden eagles and add bald eagles -bald eagles lost in 1960s due to egg shell thinning from DDT -1999-2004: santa cruz predatory bird research group trapped and relocated 30 golden eagles -2002-06: Bald eagle reintroduction project on santa cruz island: >60 bald eagles reintroduced -currently over 40 bald eagles on the islands -2006: first successful bald eagle nests in over 50 years

why are some species rarer than others?

-restriction to uncommon habitat (species restricted to vernal pools) -limited to small geographic range (islands, lakes, changes in temperature, changes in soil (serpentine) -occur at low population densities (large organisms require more space, if resources are scarce or dispersed and predators compete with them)

traditional management

-set catch limits for some species -in the US, every species for which the government manages has a catch limit (only happened in 2013)

dams

-significant alteration of both upstream and downstream environments -impassible barrier for animals moving either upstream and downstream -significant change in seasonal flow patters (disturbance cycles) -often associated with stocking of exotic sport fish, which prey upon native species

ecological responses to climate change

-species range shifts -changes in phenology -changes in intensity and frequency of disturbance

California grizzly

-subspecies of brown bear which spans northern hemisphere -lived in wide variety of habitats -coexisted with black bears -exact population unknown, but estimated to be 10,000 before 1830 -especially abundant from Monterey county to SLO in mid-1800's -used to be all over the US and now mostly in Canada, Alaska, Montana, and small portion in Idaho and Wyoming

Why are small, highly localized populations very vulnerable?

-they are close to the brink of extinction -they're vulnerable to many stochastic (random) factors: genetic (inbreeding and genetic drift can reduce individual fitness, population persistence, and evolutionary potential) environmental (fire, flood, volcano; other environmental changes) and demographic (random events in the sex and age structure of the population; of final 13 healthy hens, 11 were male; of final 6 dusky seaside sparrows, all were males) -random effects become very important in very small populations

fishing methods: bottom trawling

-trawling raises plumes of sediment from the ocean floor, introducing pollution that has settled on the bottom back into the water (and food chain). These plumes are so big that they are clearly visible from space -the nets used in bottom trawling catch enormous amounts of unwanted fish and other marine life. As bycatch, these animals are discarded back into the sea to die. In shrimp trawls, up to 90% of the catch is bycatch -The trawling apparatus effectively bulldozes the seafloor, destroying fragile coral reefs and other bottom-dwelling life -nets are kept open by a pair of trawl doors dragged along the seafloor. Each weighing up to five tons

human actions increasing greenhouse gasses

-urbanization -deforestation -burning fossil fuels: automobiles, for electricity, for some industry -agriculture: fertilizing crops, raising livestock

Threats to Whales

-whaling -noise pollution -chemical pollution -climate change -boat strikes -harmful algal blooms overexploitation of prey

coral reefs

-will be directly affected by: 1. changes in water temperature (physiological stress); 2. Changes in sea level (2-3 mm per year) (deeper water = less photosynthesis); 3. Changes in ocean chemistry (increased atmospheric CO2 causes pH shift (acidification) in oceans) (implications: harder to extract calcium to make reefs) -indirect or cascading effects: coral reefs are important habitat for thousands of other species

species natural extinction rate (vs actual)

1-5 species per year (humans have accelerated this) there have been approx 500 extinctions in the last 100 years, some estimates that 30-50% of all species will be extinct by 2050

Main three threats to species in regards to land development

1. Agriculture 2. Land Conversion for Commercial Development 3. Water Development

Principles of Reserve Design

1. Bigger is better than smaller 2. 1 big reserve is better than several small reserves of same total area (SLOSS: Single Large or Several Small) 3. Closer is better than spread out 4. Clumped is better than linear 5. Connected is better than not 6. Circular is better than linear 7. Buffer zones are better than not (inner buffer zones could be strictly protected, while outer zones could allow a wider range of compatible human uses.)

federal agencies with the most lands

1. Bureau of land management (104.4 million ha) 2. US Forest Service (78.1 million ha) 3. US Fish and Wildlife Service (38.8 million ha)

2 ways that wildlife biologists determine population size?

1. Census: a complete count of all individuals. Rarely practical 2. Use random samples and extrapolate. Much less effort

changes in phenology (timing of biological activity)

1. Changes in animal migration and hibernation patterns 2. Changes in plant flowering and fruiting times; length of growing season

types of pollution as habitat degradation

1. Classic pollution - plastic trash and microplastics 2. Nutrient pollution: Eutrophication and "dead zones" (clear blue lakes have very low productivity = nutrient poor) 3. Persistent pollutants - mercury and DDT 4. Hormone mimics - endocrine-disruptive chemicals (atrazine which is an herbicide primarily used on corn, bisphenol-A (BPA)

Key steps to recover imperiled species

1. Document that the species is truly declining (population estimates) 2. Study its basic ecology and natural history 3. Identify the factors causing its decline 4. Address or correct these factors

changes in intensity and frequency of disturbance

1. Extreme weather events likely to become more common 2. Increased wildfires, especially in Mediterranean (shrub woodland) climates 3. Increase insect outbreak in forests

How does human use impact the natural world?

1. Habitat alteration: Conversion of forests to crop and cattle production (humans now use 35-40% of local terrestrial plant growth) 2. Habitat Degradation and Pollution (trash, toxins, chemicals, noise, light, nutrients, etc.) 3. Climate Change: increased atmospheric CO2 (26% increase since 1960) 4. Overexploitation: harvesting wildlife and plants for food and other uses (harvesting great whales, tuna, rhino shot for its horn) 5.Invasive species: globalization has increased the number of species introduced into a new area or region

Primary Threats to Biodiversity

1. Habitat loss and degradation (more than 80% of species affected) 2. exotic species 3. pollution 4. overexploitation 5. disease

Key Concepts for metapopulations

1. Habitat occurs in patches. Between patches is the matrix 2. Each patch has a local population ("deme") 3. Demes are connected by dispersal (migration) 4. If a deme is extirpated, the patch can be re-colonized by immigrants from another patch: "Rescue Effect"

Key Concept for metapopulations

1. Habitat occurs in patches. Between patches is the matrix, which is uninhabitable but not impermeable 2. Each patch has a local population ("deme") with its own dynamics: carrying capacity, population size, and probability of extinction 3. Demes are connected by dispersal (migration). If a deme is extirpated, the patch can be re-colonized by immigrants from another patch. "Rescue Effect"

limitations of captive breeding

1. Is often very hard to establish self-sustaining captive populations 2. Captive populations are usually small: High risk of genetic effects 3. Captivity leads to domestication 4. Disease and other factors related to high density 5. Limitation of human resources: $$, personnel, facilities, priorities 6. Is not a substitute for addressing the limiting factor

Why do larger habitat fragments have more species?

1. Larger areas have more habitats = more species 2. Smaller areas have smaller populations = higher extinction 3. Larger areas have more "area sensitive" species 4. Low density species are statistically more likely to occur in large patches (example: an uncommon tree = 1 per 1000 hectares. So the probability of encountering it is 0.1% per hectare)

4 fundamental patterns of species richness

1. Latitude (species richness increases as latitude decreases toward tropics) 2. Area (larger areas have more species) 3. Structural complexity (species richness increases with structural complexity of the environment) 4. Isolation (isolated areas have lower richness but higher endemism (fewer species, but more uniqueness))

Basic Steps in "Climate Envelope Modeling" (aka species distribution or bioclimatic niche modeling)

1. Map the distribution of the species (point locations) 2. Map the climate conditions across its range 3. Note the climate conditions where the species does and does no currently occur (this is the species "climate envelope" or "climatic niche") 4. Map how the on-the-ground climate will be in the future (usually via a General Circulation Model) 5. Based on the relationship in Step 3, determine how the species range will change to maintain the same "climatic niche." In other words, its geographic distribution changes, but its "Climatic niche" does not.

3 main types of Meta-populations

1. Patchy Population 2. Core-Satellite (or mainland-island, or source-sink) 3. Stepping stone

characteristics of populations

1. Quantity (abundance or density) 2. Composition (proportion of kinds within) 3. Spatial extent (geographic extent) 4. Dynamics (change over time)

Recovered species have:

1. Self-sustaining wild populations 2. resumed their ecological roles: predators, prey, nutrient cycling, etc. -They are fully functional members of their ecological communities

climatic niche (remaining within niche, shifting outside, or shifting inside)

1. Site remains within climatic niche of the species despite climate change, allowing individuals to continue occupying it 2. the local environment may shift outside of the climatic niche, leading to extinction at the site through reduced survival or reproductive success or emigration 3. the local environment may shift inside the climatic inside, allowing colonization if dispersal occurs

What gives a meta population resiliency to extinction?

1. Size of demes. (Keep local populations big, and maintain the big populations) 2. Number of demes. (Maintain the individual patches; even unoccupied ones) 3. Connected between demes. (maintain connectivity which allows for flow of genes) 4. Independence of demes. (Keep the populations independent -> one deem does not need another as a source)

Benefits of Captive Breeding

1. Temporarily remove populations from threats in wild environment 2. Offspring from captive populations can be released to the wild to supplement existing populations, restore extirpated population, or establish new populations in new areas 3. Research possibilities 4. Promote public education, awareness of conservation issues

Conservation traditions / ethics and the origin of Conservation Biology

1. Utilitarian tradition (Gifford Pinchot) 2. Spiritual or scenic tradition (John Muir) 3. "The Land Ethic" (Aldo Leopold)

large vs small fragments

1. large fragments have a greater variety of environments 2. large fragments likely to have both common and uncommon species 3. small fragments have smaller populations (more susceptible to going extinct)

threats posed by habitat fragmentation

1. limits species dispersal and colonization 2. restricts access to food and mates 3. creates smaller populations 4. changes interspecies interactions 5. increase edge effects

Rules for managing and eradication invasive species

1. prevention is the best strategy 2. address the established populations when still small and localized. Once they become widespread, eradication becomes virtually impossible 3. use a suite of control methods, as no method works perfectly for all individuals 4. removal rate must exceed reproduction (spread) rate in order to really do any good 5. if a population is reduced to just a few individuals, they usually have very high fitness and massive reproductive output. The population can quickly bounce back to its former abundance -Therefore, if eradication is the objective, then exhaustive efforts must be taken to remove every remaining individual. Removing the last 5% of the population may well take 50% of the time, effort, cost, etc.

Impact of habitat destruction

1. reduces habitat area which causes loss of species (pattern: species area relationship -> S=cA^z) 2. fragments habitat into smaller patches

what constitutes a "good habitat" for a given organism?

1. within the organism's "physiological tolerances" 2. meets the organism's critical life needs (key resources) 3. Low abundance of competitors, predators, etc -good habitat is indicated by high fitness and poor habitat is indicated by low fitness

current annual growth rate

1.11%

ppm of monthly co2 10 years ago, 1 year ago, february 12,2017

10 years ago: 384.99ppm 1 year ago: 403.45ppm 2/12/17: 405.91 ppm

1 hectare

100m x 100m or 2.5 acres (1 square mile = 260 hectares)

1 square mile of wetlands ($)

15,860,000/yr; 220 million acres (1960) = 3.43 trillion dollars/yr

international whaling commission

1982 International Whaling Commission (IWC) Adopted a moratorium on commercial whaling, allowing the taking and killing of whales for research purposes only (88 member countries)

What TFR is needed in the US to replace the population

2.1

how many species are actually probably there?

2001 study estimates 8.7 million (6.5 million terrestrial and 2.2 million marine); 5.8 million is the most accepted value for multicellular organisms (not bacteria)

atmospheric CO2 concentrations at Mauna Loa, HI

29% increase in atmospheric co2 concentrations since 1960 (315ppm in 1960 to 406.67ppm in feb 2017)

projected surface temperature change for late 21st century (2090-2099), compared to the period 1980-1999

4.5 to 6.3 degree increase in F for coastal CA (surface temperature is projected to rise another 2 to 11.5 degrees F over the next hundred years)

Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (fish stocks)

44% -> fully-heavily exploited 23% -> moderately exploited 16% -> overexploited 9% -> underexploited 6% depleted 3% recovering

_____% of land in the Western US is owned by the federal govenment

50% (lots of people aren't happy about this -> protests in alaska)

% of decline in vertebrate populations from 1970-2012

58%; if current trends continue the world could lose more than 2/3 of wildlife by 2020

total US land area

920 million hectares (ha) -federal lands: 264+ million ha (29%)

Benefits of recreational hunting of "game species"

A. Creates a "user group" interested in conserving the species as a resource B. "user pays" - license, fees, etc. This generates income to support management, buy habitat, conduct research, etc. C. Habitat protection for "game species" can also benefit non-game species that use the same habitat; these other species otherwise would not get much attention

techniques for recovery

A. Manage the Threat B. Protect Habitat C. Increase population

Anthropocene

A new global age of humans that some scientists are recognizing

Meta-Population

A regional group of connected populations of a species (depends on a network of habitat patches, each with its own local population dynamics) -glandville fritillaries (butterflies) live in patches of meadow in Finland. A meta population is made up of small, isolated populations. Although some populations go extinct over time, migration can restore or establish populations.

Meta-Population Theory

A single species: The proportion of occupied patches in a meta population represents a balance between Colonization (Immigration) and extinction of patch-level populations (demes).

Problems and Criticisms of the ESA

A. "Emergency Room Medicine" or "too little, too late" B. Species-specific approach instead of communities or "functioning ecosystems" C. conflicts with private land owners

traits of successful invaders

A. "weedy" species are more likely to become invasive: r-selected life history strategy (high repro output, vegetative spread, repro (fragments)); generalists; early-successional / disturbance / human-associated; good competitors; lack of predators / disease in new area B. Larger groups are more likely to establish C. Few predators / parasites in introduced area

Determining the factors causing decline: What is the limiting factor?

A. Brainstorm all likely potential causes, focusing on the usual suspects: habitat destruction, over harvesting, exotic species, disease B. Measure each factor where the species still persists and where it has been eradicated or highly reduced C. Develop hypotheses for the causes of the decline D. Test hypotheses using manipulations or experiments -case studies: california condor; red wolf (50 in the wild, approx 200 in captivity, breeds with coyote); marina crow; brown tree snake

How do exotic species get involved?

A. By accident (stowaways on ships, cargo, boats (hulls and ballast), planes, soil, shoes, horses, packaging, etc.) B. Intentional introductions: Domesticated animals and plants; exotic pet/aquarium trade; sport animals and fish (game); biological control; and acclimatization societies C. Range Expansion

How do species get "listed" under the ESA?

A. Management agency proposes them (US Fish and Wildlife Service (terrestrial, aquatic); National Marine Fisheries Service (marine)) B. Public Petition (Either way, the petition evaluation is a public decision making process. Agency creates a "rule" which has the authority of law. "Statuses" are passed by legislatures (Congress, etc) and "regulations" are more specific and are enacted by government agencies

Protections for listed species

A. No federal actions may "jeopardize" the survival of a listed species (this includes any action authorized, funded, or carried out by the federal government) B. No person may "take" listed species. (or harm) C. Government must develop a recovery plan for each listed species. (the government reviews the scientific data and develops a formal plan or guidelines that will recover a species population to the point where it no longer requires protection under the ESA. When these guidelines are met, the species is "down-listed" or "de-listed")

What is the primary cause of habitat destruction worldwide?

A. Urban Sprawl B. Dams and other water development C. Agriculture D. Roads E. Other

factors affecting edge effects in a patch

A. patch shape: edge area increase as patch gets less circular (i.e. as perimeter increases) B. Patch size: as patch gets smaller, a greater proportion becomes edge C. Patch contrast (with matrix): edge effects increase with greater structural contrast between adjacent communities. (an abrupt transition (tall forest trees next to cut down patch) would be high contrast; a gradual transition from tall to shorter would be lower contrast)

Wilderness

An area of undeveloped federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvement of human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which: 1. Generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the imprint of man's work substantively unnoticeable 2. has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation 3. 5,000 acres or more in size 4. may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value

Hitting the stopping point: When costs exceed benefits (Commodity value)

As object becomes more and more rare, people are unwilling to pay more. Extraction becomes more difficult and less profitable. This leads to supply switching for a cheaper/easier alternative. "Commercial extinction" - depletion, but not necessarily eradication

Hitting the stopping point: When costs exceed benefits (recreational value)

As the resource (species) becomes more and more rare, it becomes more difficult to find. Each "unit" requires more work: time, effort, etc. Fairly quickly, this ceases to be "fun." Most people give up and go do something else. Same amount of "fun: can be acquired through some other activity, with less cost and effort.

Biodiversity in a diversity index

Biodiversity can mean either species richness or the combo of species richness and evenness in a diversity index

the 3 primary GHGs

CO2 (carbon dioxide), NH4 (methane), N2O (nitrous oxide)

the main consumers of ivory

China (status symbol) and Philippines (catholics)

3 most populated countries in the world now / and in 2100

China, India, US; in 2100: india, china, nigeria

What is the fastest-developing area of environmental science

Climate change

conclusion on climate change

Climate change is happening. Human choices have a significant role. Climate change will have significant impacts upon wild species. Predicting the direct impacts is pretty complicated. Predicting the indirect impacts (ecological cascades) is EXTREMELY complicated. A lot of research is being done to better understand this.

factors that affect TFR and Fertility Rates

Cultural, Educational, economic, social, medical; children in the labor force, pensions, age of marriage, availability of contraceptives, infant mortality, urbanization, cost of raising and educating children, educational and job opportunities for women, religion, cultural, societal beliefs and norms

Impact of climate change on human health

Cycle: rising temp -> more extreme weather -> rising sea levels -> increasing CO2 levels -> rising temps -> and so on. -severe weather: injuries, fatalities, mental health impacts -air pollution: asthma, cardiovascular disease -changes in vector ecology: malaria, dengue, encephalitis, hantavirus, Rift valley fever, lyme disease, chikungunya, west nile virus -increasing allergens: respiratory allergies, asthma -water quality impacts: cholera, cryptosporidiosis, campylobacter, leptospirosis, harmful algal blooms -water and food supply impacts: malnutrition, diarrheal disease -environmental degradation: forced migration, civil conflict, mental health impacts -extreme heat: heat-related illness and death, cardiovascular failure

implications of changes in phenology

Decoupling (temporal): migratory species arrive at non-optimal times, because cues on wintering grounds are no longer correct indicators of conditions on breeding grounds or migratory route (same may be due for emergence of hibernators). Plasticity (timing, resource use) and resilience will be key to survival

What is biodiversity? A. The variety of life in all its forms, and at all levels of organization B. The range of genetic variation within a species C. The different types of ecosystems within an area D. The number and species of bacteria that live within your body E. All of the above

E

What is causing climate change?

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) (the 3 primaries plus some others like water vapor, CFCs, etc); Deforestation

climate change cycle

Heat comes in from the sun and bounces off atmosphere but can't go back out because of greenhouse gasses like methane, CO2, water vapor, and nitrous oxide. Leads to climate change: warmer oceans, rising oceans, more acidic oceans, shrinking glaciers, melting arctic sea ice, rising global temps, melting arctic sheet ice, increasingly severe US heat waves

"Compensation" approach

If Giant Pandas went extinct, how much should you be compensated?

Island isolation (in island biogeography theory)

Island isolation determines how many species can arrive on the island. Islands that are close to the mainland will be easy to reach by lots of species but islands that are very far away from the mainland will be very difficult to reach.

Island size (in island biogeography theory)

Island size determines how many of these species can persist on the island. Large islands will likely have many habitats and support large populations. Small islands will have few habitat types and support smaller populations.

Islands and invasive species

Islands are especially vulnerable to invasive species -both in vertebrates and plants, islands have more extinction that mainland species (no extinction on mainlands for invasive plants, some for animals; on islands there are both) -introduced predators have a high potential (esp on islands) to send native species to extinction (mostly because species on islands are naive, they haven't been exposed to predators) -Mammalian herbivores introduced to islands: rabbits, goats, sheep, pigs, etc.

Isolation effects on a species

Isolation reduces richness (# of species) but increases endemism (# of unique species). Islands have fewer species but a higher proportion are found nowhere else.

Habitat destruction and degradation

contamination, roads, dams, and other structures, fire and erosion, desertification, draining and dredging, deforestation

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

It is the only treaty to ensure that international trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival in the wild (there are 191 member countries)

General pattern of patches in island biogeography

Large habitat patches close to other blocks of the same habitat will usually have the most species, whereas small habitat patches far from other blocks of the same habitat will have the least species

Japanese Whaling

March 2014: International Court of Justice ruled that Japan must stop "scientific whaling" in international waters

norway and iceland take what kind of whales?

Minke whales

Is sport hunting likely to drive species to extinction?

No, sport hunting (for recreation, not subsistence or market) is very unlikely to drive species to extinction. It may reduce populations, but these can recover when people give up.

stepping stones

Patches are connected sequentially, like links in a chain. Local extinction is easily recolonized by adjacent patches (resilient) but loss of connection severs the network into 2 smaller isolated populations (much less resilient)

Patchy Population

Patches have varying sizes, shapes, and local population sizes. Migration rate is very high. Any patch that goes extinct is almost immediately recolonized by immigration from another patch. As a result, virtually all patches are occupied (ex: cattails)

impediments to habitat corridors

Physical: roads, fences, developed land Behavioral: pipes, old fences (pronghorn video that we watched)

top 5 countries with the biggest ecological footprint

Qatar, Kuwait, UAE, Denmark, US

Who regulates fisheries?

RFMOs (Regional Fisheries Management Organization)

what lead to the development of the EPA

Rachel Carlson's book "Silent Spring" which is considered the start of the "environmental movement" of the 1960s and 1970s

What can you do?

Reduce your carbon footprint: eat less meat, buy local, walk/ride bike, carpool, take the bus, turn off lights/electronics, buy sustainably grown products, need less

Commercial harvest for Medicinal or Status Value

Rhinos -> traditional Asian medicines claim to contain Rhino horn (use is medicinal, not an aphrodisiac) horns are removed to reduce poaching -> synthetic horns: worked for orchids, yew tree, but synthetic ivory didn't curtail ivory poaching Elephant poaching for ivory (harvested in Africa but exported to Japan and China for carving)

Core/satellite

Satellites receive dispersers from Core. Dispersal from satellites back to core or to other satellites is very rare. Persistence of the core population is what maintains the entire network. (ex: Morgan Hill in Santa Clara County, CA for the Bay Checkerspot Butterfly -> morgan hill is the core area but there are small satellites around it)

Management of commercial exploitation

Simple bans on harvesting or sale are often ineffective, and may actually make the problem worse by creating a black market (poaching, smuggling) - especially for status goods. To be successful, management must simultaneously address: local harvesting (limit or prohibit); supply chain and transportation; and end-user demand (not just purchasing)

common diversity indices

Simpson's Index (D): D=Σpi2; (1 = only 1 species present; species richness and evenness increase as it moves closer to 0); Simpson's index of diversity =1-D (0= only 1 species present; species richness and evenness increase as it moves closer to 1)

area-based sampling

count the number of individuals in a random subset of the total study area (aerial sampling for Florida Manatees ; whale transects)

The Land Ethic

Stewardship of ecological community; "if the land mechanism as a whole is good, then every part is good, whether we understand it or not"; "A thing is right when it tends to conserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise"

density of imperiled species on federal lands

The DOD lands play a disproportionate role in sustaining the nations biodiversity. Military lands have 3X higher densities of ESA status and imperiled species than do lands of the NPS, the second-ranked agency for densities of both ESA and imperiled species

invasion curve

The best time to get rid of an invasive species is when they are first introduced or first being established (prevention or eradication is feasible) -after detection, eradication is feasible -after public awareness begins, eradication is unlikely because intense effort is required -after this, only local control and management are feasible

The most important aspect of the Endangered Species Act of 1973

The most important aspect of the ESA is often overlooked in the details of how the act is administered: THE ESA SPECIFICALLY GRANTS ALL SPECIES THE INTRINSIC RIGHT TO EXIST. It says that humans may not wantonly cause the extinction of species. Not just charismatic "warm and fuzzy" species but also frogs, harvest mice, cave spiders, dune flies. The cold and slimy have a right to exist too.

Island biogeography applied to mainland conservation

The number of species in a habitat patch is a balance between the area of the patch and its isolation from other patches of the same kind. The isolation of the patch determines how well organisms can move in and out of the patch. The area of the patch determines how likely populations are to persist in the patch (sufficient resources, etc.)

Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography

The number of species on an island represents a balance between Colonization (immigration) and Extinction (extirpation) processes. The number of species on an island is a balance between isolation and area. Large islands close to the mainland will usually have the most species, whereas small islands far form the mainland will have the least species.

what 2 things determine the human impact?

Total Human Population Size TIMES Per Capita Resource Use

examples of animals killed by bycatch

Totoaba -> a critically endangered fish found in Mexico Vaquita -> a small endangered Mexican porpoise Terrestrial bycatch: wire snares (bushmeat harvest, usually for local sale (especially a/w truck routes, mining, or forestry camps, etc)) Zebras and juvenile elephants killed in poaching snare

average ecological footprint for the US vs the world

US = 9.6 ha (24 acres) World = 2.2 ha (5.4 acres)

What countries have the most CO2 emissions?

USA and China, followed by Russia, India, Japan, and Germany (development in China and India in the coming decades is expected to significantly increase their emissions)

fisheries bycatch rate by technique

Worst: shrimp trawls (46.9%), bottom trawls (25.1%) hook and line (7.2%)

subsistence

bushmeat: aka wild meat and game meat, refers to meat from non-domesticated mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds hunted for food in tropical rainforests (cameroon in Africa; fruit bat soup in Palau)

is climate actually changing?

Yes! Temp is increased

ecosystem

a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment

evolutionary species concept

a group of individuals that share unique similarities in their DNA and therefore, their evolutionary past

meta-population

a group of populations that are separated by space, but consist of the same species. These spatially separated populations interact as individual members move from one population to another

biological species concept

a group that can reproduce among themselves in the wild and do not breed with individuals of other groups

percentage of species collapse

a major study in the journal of science predicts global collapse of the worlds major fisheries by 2053

exotic

a species living outside its native range

keystone species

a species whose presence and role within an ecosystem has a disproportionate effect on other organisms within the system. Often a dominant predator, their removal allows a prey population to explode, altering the ecosystem and limiting diversity

Why do reserve networks typically focus on large mammalian carnivores?

a) Large body size b) low density c) highly mobile d) predators are at the "top of the food chain" and are highly vulnerable to changes in ecosystems. Maintaining large predators requires maintaining sufficient populations of prey species and environments e) many of them are umbrella species

2 major estimation approaches to determine population size

a) area-based sampling b) mark-recapture

what can you do to help atrazine pollution

a. Carbon Filtration b. Bacteria c. know your drinking water (well water in an "atrazine free area" tested high after 20 years of ban)

how do exotic species affect native species?

a. direct effects upon native species: competition, predation, hybridization, etc, b. indirect effects upon native species by changing ecosystem properties: hydrology, fire regime, nutrient cycling, etc. c. indirect effects that facilitate other non-native species

3 ways to study a species basic ecology and natural history

a. distribution and geographic b. demographic information: population size, age of first reproduction, sex ration, breeding style (monogamy, polygyny, polyandry), reproductive output, mortality rates c. resource utilization: habitat use, food, other critical resources

Intensive management techniques to recover endangered species

a. double-clutching b. head-starting (sea turtles) c. cross-fostering (whooping cranes; mexican gray wolves) d. captive breeding (whooping cranes; california condor) e. de-extinction?

what species are particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction and fragmentation?

a. highly localized endemics b. species that require large areas, or are highly mobile c. poor-mobility species d. species that depend on a patchy or unpredictable resource e. interior-obligate species f. species with low fecundity

exploitation as a resource:

a. subsistence b. recreational c. incidental d. commercial

how many species have been described by science?

about 1.9 million (but due to redundancy, these likely represent 1.6 million unique species)

snakes on a plane

accidental introduction; accidentally introduced by US Military around 1950; Native to Australia, Paupa new Guinea, and Solomon Islands; brown tree snake (exotic to Guam; has extirpated native birds from Guam) and flower pot snakes: only snake native to Guam

3 main causes of habitat destruction and fragmentation

agriculture, land conversion for commercial development, and water development -98% of land suitable for agriculture has already been transformed for human use; world farmers will have to increase output by 30-50% over the next 30 years to sustain growing population

US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

all along the edges of the US, around Alaska, around many island in the western pacific

zones of physiological tolerance

all organisms have optimal environment conditions. Departure from these conditions (higher or lower) causes reduction in fitness (individual or population)

zones of physiological tolerance

all organisms have optimal environmental conditions. Departure from these conditions (higher or lower) causes reduced fitness and increased stress (see graph thing about optimum fitness and stuff)

Extinction vortex

allee effects can cause a "snowball effect" (positive feedback loop) spiraling down to extinction: below a critical threshold population size, the small population has low fitness, so survival and reproduction decline. Due to low survival and reproduction, the population gets even smaller. This retreats itself, with the population getting smaller and smaller every time step, until extinction. -small population = reduced fitness = smaller population...

harm

an act which actually kills or injures wildlife by significantly impairing essential behavior patterns like breeding, feeding, and sheltering

habitat corridors (wildlife corridor, green corridor)

an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities or structures

"Wilderness" as defined by the Wilderness Act of 1964

an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain

climate

an area's long-term atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitation, wind, humidity, etc.)

invasive

an established species (or one likely to invade) that causes significant ecological, economic, or human health problems

introduced

an exotic species that has been released into the wild

established

an introduced species that maintains its local populations; self-perpetuating populations

commercial harvest for food

annual shark harvest: 100 million sharks (shark finning -> scientists estimate that more than 100 million sharks are harvested annually, mostly for their fins. Most of this harvest is illegal) -bushmeat (live pangolin; bushmeat stew for tourists in Sambava, Madagascar) market hunting (for waterfowl, herons, etc.)

Rapoport's Rule

as latitude decreases, the geographic ranges of individual species shrink steadily. Species at higher latitudes tend to extend across greater geographic area. Species near the tropics tend to be more highly localized. The result: a given area of tropical habitat has many more species than the same area in a more temperate climate. Tropical biodiversity is highly diverse, and also highly localized. In other words, tropical areas have high alpha, beta, and gamma diversity.

incidental exploitation (bycatch)

bycatch is when animals are caught unintentionally

umbrella species

ensuring their conservation provides a protective "umbrella" for all the other species in the ecosystem (mountain lions on the central coast)

atmospheric carbon dioxide and ice

atmospheric CO2 measurements are at almost 400 now (from about 300 in past years)

the hierarchy of biotic organization

atoms --> molecules --> cells --> tissues --> organism (survival and reproduction; the unit of natural selection) --> population (population dynamics; the unit of evolution) --> community (interactions among populations) -> ecosystem (energy flux and cycling of nutrients) -> biome -> biosphere (global processes) -every level of organization contains all the lower levels but also has its own properties -Principal units of ecology are population, community, and ecosystem

instrumental values

benefit to humans; Consumptive benefits (food, medicine, other products) and non-consumptive benefits (recreational: bird watching, whale watching, tree climbing; spiritual benefits: symbolic, aesthetic) and service benefits (pollination, pest control, and erosion control)

what affects spatial extent or geographic distribution?

biotic and abiotic factors

population levels are controlled by:

birth rate, death rate, immigration, and emigration

habitat fragmentation

breaking into discontinuous pieces or parts; the process whereby a large, continuous area of habitat is both reduced in area and divided into two or more fragments

de-extinction

bringing back species that are extinct

solutions

catch shares (quota-based and area-based (TURF)) -Quota-Based: Individuals (a portion of shares (or in rare cases, areas) can be allocated to individual entities, which can be a person of a vessel; Set-Aside (a portion of the shares can be reserved to meet specific goals such as encouraging conservation, accommodating new entrants or managing adaptively); Groups (areas or a portion of shares can be allocated to a group. Often called Cooperatives, groups are commonly communities or fishermen with something in common, such as the similar area) -Area-based (TURF): No-take reserve (a portion of the marine area can be set aside as a no-take reserve to meet specific conservation goals such as replenishing fish stocks and protecting natural habitat)

stock assessment process

catch, abundance, and biology -> population model -> status of stock and annual catch limit -catch: retained and discarded catch from commercial and recreational fisheries; age and size of caught fish -abundance: time series of standardized index of stock abundance from NOAA vessels and charter vessels; includes age and size data, and associated ecosystem observations where possible biology: age, growth, maturity, natural mortality, movement -population model: calibrated from data inputs; estimates time series of fish abundance and fishing mortality -status of stock: overfished? overfishing occurring? -annual catch limit: forecast catch level that implements harvest policy

endocrine disruptors

chemicals that may interfere with the body's endocrine system and produce adverse development, reproductive, neurological, and immune effects in both humans and wildlife (atrazine turns male frogs into female frogs)

habitat destruction

degradation to the point of unusability; loss

Global climate change

described modifications in Earth's climate (changes in temp, precipitation, storm frequency)

habitat degradation

diminished quality for a given species. Manifests as a reduction in fitness (survival or reproduction); processes of human origin that make habitats less suitable or less available to species and reduce species fitness

Changes in hibernation (breaking life cycles)

disturbance of hibernation patterns can endanger species and mess up entire ecosystems; global warming causes animals all over the globe to emerge earlier because of higher temps or some even stop hibernation altogether

trophic levels

each of several hierarchal levels of an ecosystem, comprising organisms that share the same function in the food chain and the same nutritional relationship to primary sources of energy

3 scales of biodiversity

ecosystem, species, and genetic

Acclimatisation Societies

encourages the introduction of non-native species to enrich the flora and fauna of a region (european starling)

why are rare species more vulnerable to extinction

environmental change, very specific habitat, demographic problems such as unbalanced sex ration, genetic problems

expenditures for consumptive use of wildlife in the USA

equipment (41%), transportation (14%), food (9%)

what does population growth look like?

exponential growth: J-curve; but not all populations can grow exponentially for long, eventually it can even out (logistic growth -> logistic curve/s-shaped curve)

what causes species to become endangered?

extrinsic and intrinsic factors

successful invaders associated with humans

feral cats and free-ranging house cats: cats are listed among the worlds most problematic invasive species (IUCN) --> annual kill in US alone: 1.5-3.7 billion birds; 7-20 billion small mammals; 250-800 million reptiles; and 100-300 million amphibians

Pelican Island, FL

first national wildlife refuge (1903) Established by Teddy Roosevelt to protect breeding habitat for egrets, herons, pelicans that were being over harvested for their eggs and feathers.

critical resources habitat provides

food, water, cover (protective from a harsh environment vs escape or concealment from other species), special needs (any requirement not covered by above categories such as: dirt baths, display grounds, etc)

wildlife

free-ranging vertebrates, especially terrestrial birds and mammals (so not domestic animals, or bugs/snails)

individual fitness

genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation's gene pool

genetic diversity

genetic variability within a species

oligotrophic

having a deficiency of plant nutrients that is usually accompanied by an abundance of dissolved oxygen

"Willingness to pay" (WTP) approach

how much would you be willing to pay to save Giant Pandas? (quantifying the intrinsic value of biodiversity)

changes in greenhouse gases over last 10,000 years (documented by ice cores and atmosphere)

huge dramatic increase in CO2, CH4, and N2O

global overshoot

humanity's demand on nature exceeds the biosphere's supply, or regenerative capacity

what is the leading threat to wildlife

humans

vostok ice core

ice here is 420,000 years old

What is management?

implies human manipulation and requires planning (goal (desired outcome), process, fundamental assumption); the role of science? (to inform the process of management for desired outcomes; but management is socio-political and is dependent on societal values)

Community A has 17 yellow mushrooms, 1 purple, 1 red, and 1 brown. Community B has 5 yellow, 5 purple, 5 red, and 5 brown. What does this mean in regards to evenness?

in community A, the abundance of one species is high relative to the other species, so this community has low species evenness. In community B, each species has the same abundance, so this community has high species evenness.

imperiled

in danger of extinction

Can recreational hunting benefit endangered species conservation?

in some circumstances; managed hunting can raise $10,000s for conservation programs in developing nations. (CAMPFIRE program, Zimbabwe -> Communal Areas Management Program for Indigenous Resources)

overexploitation

increase in direct human-caused mortality of a species to an extent that threatens its viability

what taxonomic group has the most described species?

insects

IPCC

intergovernmental panel on climate change; a large group (2000+) of scientists, convened by the United Nations, and tasked with summarizing the science related to climate change. The IPCC does not do research itself, it prepares large summary reports to policymakers. (prior reports: 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2014 --> increasingly more time in between reports)

sport animals (fish and game)

introduced sport fish affect native amphibians in Sierra Nevada (when fish are removed, the amount of tadpoles and frogs significantly increase)

intrinsic value

irrespective of humans

Conservation Biology

is an applied branch of biology aimed at informing management of nature and Earth's biodiversity in order to protect species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions; -several disciplines (mostly ecology and applied management services) -goal is preserving biological diversity -applied science (versus basic science) -considered a crisis discipline -implies that biological diversity should and can be conserved (intrinsic value)

why is genetic diversity important to conservation?

it decreases inbreeding,

do scientists agree on climate change?

it went from 100% down to 91% up to 97% in 2015 ; the higher level of expertise in climate science, the higher the agreement that global warming is caused by humans

Why does most poaching for international trade happen?

its done by local people trying to feed their families. They receive a tiny fraction of the final "street value" of what they harvest, which is typically purchased by wealthy individuals in developed nations (USA, Japan, Germany, Saudi Arabia, etc)

perverse incentives

kill the species or destroy the habitat before the government finds out

evidence of inbreeding depression in florida panthers

kinked tail (heritable physical defect); deformed sperm; cryptorchidism (undescended testes)

number of imperiled species on federal lands

lands of the DOD and USDA forest service harbor the greatest number of species with status under the ESA (23%) while forest service lands support the largest number of NatureServe-assessed imperiled species (27%)

k-selected species

large body size, high annual survival, long time to maturity, low litter size, high parental care per offspring -example: elephants

extirpated

locally extinct

where does 90% of the worlds palm oil production occur?

malaysia and indonesia

the mercury cycle

mercury (Hg) cycles from Earth to atmosphere to oceans and back to earth. In the ocean, mercury is converted to mono methyl mercury (MMHg), a neurotoxin that moves up the food chain and becomes highly concentrated in tuna, swordfish, and other fish that people eat

Commercial Harvest

most important categories of commercial trade in natural products: seafood ($85 billion/yr -> 100 million tons); timber ($400 billion / yr -> > 1 billion cubic meters)

down-listed

moved from endangered to threatened

RFMOs that regulate highly migratory fish stocks (like Blue Fin Tuna)

much more regulated than the fish stocks by region -IATTC, ICCAT, IOTC, CCSBT, WCPFC

population

multiple individuals of the same species in the same general geographic location

Purple Loosestrife

native to Europe, Asia, northwest Africa, and southeastern Australia; introduced through ballast and ornamental cultivar; a single plant may produce up to 2.7 million tiny seeds annually

Zebra Mussels

native to southern russia; introduced through ballast water in great lakes; encrust native mussels, water inflow pipes (cost the power industry $3.1 billion from 1993-1999), damselfly larva, crayfish, etc

higher priority species

native, endemic, localized, rare, threatened/declining, taxonomic uniqueness, key ecological role, value to humans

did conservation biology derive from utilitarian tradition or spiritual or scenic tradition?

neither; instead, it arose from the science of field ecology. It is the application of various biological disciplines (mostly ecology and its sub-disciplines) toward the goal of preserving biological diversity

are global warning and climate change the same?

no

can the observed changes be explained by "natural forcing" such as solar cycles, volcanoes, etc?

no its probs just humans (if you look at the models using both natural and anthropogenic forcings, the natural forcings seem to fluctuate whereas the anthropogenic forcings are gradually increasing)

extinct

no living individuals of that species (or subspecies) in the world

do all species have the same "weight" (priority) for conservation?

no; not all species have the same conservation value

lower priority species

not native, not endemic, widespread, abundant, not threatened/declining, redundancy

ecosystem engineer

organisms that create, modify or maintain habitats (or microhabitats) by causing physical state changes in biotic and abiotic materials that, directly or indirectly, modulate the availability of resources to other species (different from keystone species because they don't change their ecosystem by being a predator) -> whales poop provides nutrients

abundance curve

population size vs time

trophic cascades

powerful INDIRECT interactions that can control entire ecosystems; occur when predators limit the density and/or behavior of their prey and thereby enhance survival of the next lower trophic level

biotic

predators, competitors, food availability, disease

trophic levels from largest (bottom) to smallest (top)

primary producers (phytoplankton, seaweed) -> herbivorous consumers (zooplankton) -> 1st level carnivorous consumers (juvenile stages of fish and jellyfish as well as small fish, crustaceans, and sea stars) -> second level carnivorous consumers (larger fish) -> third level carnivorous consumers (squid) -> top carnivores (sharks, dolphins, albatross) -primary producers get energy from the sun and energy is lost by each trophic level

radio and satellite telemetry

provide information about animal movements and habitat use

Pope Francis

pushed for crackdown on ivory trafficking

organisms in trophic levels from top to bottom

quaternary consumers (carnivores like large birds and orcas) -> tertiary consumer (carnivores like snakes and large fish) -> secondary consumers (carnivores like frogs, rats, smaller birds, smaller fish) -> primary consumers (herbivores like bugs, and zooplankton) -> primary producers (plants and phytoplankton)

life history strategies

r-selected and k-selected species

Preventing extinction is not good enough, the ultimate goal must be _____

recovery

region X has 2 sites, both with 5 species that are the same; region Y has 2 sites, both with 3 different species and no overlap. Which has a greater beta diversity

region Y (because in region x there are 5 different species and in region Y there are 6)

de-listed

removed from the ESA lists entirely ("recovered")

richness vs evenness

richness is a simple count of species; evenness is a weighted count of species

migration

round-trip movement, usually seasonal, to escape harsh environmental conditions (often related to temperature or food availability)

science in relation to conservation

science can inform of probable outcomes, but cannot itself enact conservation

otters as a keystone species

sea otters feed on urchins (a direct negative interaction) and sea urchins feed on kelp (a direct negative interaction); by reducing urchin abundance, otters have an indirect positive effect on kelp

head-starting "sea turtle"

sea turtle nests and hatchlings are subject to tremendous mortality so people find nests and incubate and hatch the eggs in captivity, and then older juveniles are released near surf, to minimize predation

RFMOs that regulate fish stocks by region

seems like there is a lot of open ocean where its not regulated -CCBSP, NEAFC, NASCO, NAFO, GFCM, SPRFMO, SEAFO, SIOFA, CCAMLR

weather

short-term conditions at localized sites

site 1 has 5 different species, site 2 has 3 different species, which has the greatest alpha diversity?

site 1

r-selected species

small body size, low annual survival, short time to maturity, high litter size (fecundity), little to no parental care per offspring -example: mice

main idea of climate change

small changes in the average temperature of the planet can translate to large and potentially dangerous shifts in climate and weather

Commercial Harvest: Exotic Pet Trade

small reptiles, parrot eggs, smuggling birds; sedated tiger cub in carry-on luggage

steps of the extinction vortex

small, isolated population -> inbreeding & drift reduce genetic variability & individual fitness; population declines -> demographic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity, allee affect further reduce population size -> smaller population -> repeat

biological species concept (BSC)

species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations, which are reproductively isolated from such other groups. Shortcomings: not applicable to asexual species (bacteria, etc); not work for chronospecies (fossil record); hard to use with taxa that hybridize easily (like many plants); some species look very similar but don't successfully interbreed (eastern vs western meadowlark) but other species can look different and be considered separate species but can interbreed (lion and tiger)

morphological species concept

species are morphologically distinct-distinguished exclusively by visual traits as form and structure

Species area relationship

species richness increases with area (all else being equal, larger areas have more species than smaller areas) Doubling the area = 10% increase in species; 10X increase in area = 2X increase in species; 50% reduction in area = 10% reduction of species; 90% reduction in area = 50% reduction in species

implications of species range shifts

species that cannot shift will do poorly and may go extinct, cold-adapted (polar and alpine) species may "run out of room", "decoupling" (spatial) of interspecific interactions (pollination, dispersal, etc) Especially important for obligate interactions

species range shifts

species will shift their geographic distributions to stay within their optimal conditions. These shifts will largely be toward higher latitudes (polewards) and to higher elevations

commercial harvest: the fur trade

still happening now (bobcats, other furred animals)

how do we quantify biodiversity?

the "currency problem" - there are multiple ways to count and measure biodiversity, using different units. They can lead to different conclusions about priorities. RICHNESS and EVENNESS (note: these currencies are not restricted to the species level. They can be applied to higher taxonomic levels (Family, Order, Phylum) or to ecological levels (community diversity).

In the USA, the primary mechanism to protect and recover endangered species is

the Endangered Species Act of 1973

population fitness

the ability of a population to maintain or increase its numbers in succeeding generations (high stress = low fitness)

bioaccumulation

the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other chemicals in an organism. -persistent pollutants accumulate in the tissues of living organisms, usually starting with plants, algae, etc

ecosystem services

the benefits for humans that arise from healthily functioning ecosystems`

Biocapacity

the capacity of an area to generate renewable resources and absorb -unsustainability occurs if the area's ecological footprint exceeds its biocapacity

Carrying Capacity (K)

the carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the max population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment

gamma diversity

the cumulative species richness across multiple areas within a region (# spa in a state, country, continent, etc)

ecological footprint

the impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of LAND required to sustain their use of natural resources; the impact of human activities measured in terms of the area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the goods consumed and to assimilate the waste generated

biomagnification

the increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain -pollutants magnify as move up the food chain. Each predator gets exposed to a higher dose from the food it eats; "top predators" end up with a much higher exposure to the pollutant (the higher up the food chain the more mercury it could contain)

Recovery

the law's ultimate goal is to "recover" species so they no longer need protection

neretic

the neurotic zone ("near shore") extends fro the high tide mark to the edge of the continental shelf

alpha diversity

the number of species in a locality or habitat example: 4 sites, each containing the 5 same species; total = 5 (low alpha diversity); 4 sites, each containing 5 different species; total = 20 (high alpha diversity)

Wildlife Conservation

the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitats with the goal of ensuring that these plants and animals will be protected for future generations to enjoy -it is a SOCIAL act that depends on SOCIAL DECISIONS and SOCIAL VALUES -most issues arise as a result of human activity -it is an activity in which people make conscious efforts to protest earth's biological diversity

eutrophication

the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen

oceanic

the region of open sea beyond the edge of the continental shelf and includes 65% of the ocean's completely open water

habitat

the resources and conditions present in an area that produce occupancy - including survival and reproduction - by a given organism; habitat is organism-specific (it related the presence of a species, population, or individual (plant or animal) to an area's physical and biological characteristics.); habitat implies more than vegetation or vegetation structure: it is the sum of the specific resources that are needed by organisms

biodiversity

the variation of life at all scales; the variety and variability of life; the variety of life in all its forms, and at all levels of organization; the richness, abundance, and variability of plant and animal species and communities and the ecological processes that link them with one another and with soil, air and water

Recreational exploitation (non-consumptive)

these activities can still can disturbance, stress, and fitness reduction

Threatened Birds, Mammals, and Amphibians

threatened means either vulnerable (yellow), endangered (orange), or critically endangered (red) Birds: of 10,000 species, 13% are threatened Mammals: of 5,500 species, 25% are threatened Amphibians: of 6,800 species, 41% are threatened

Take

to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect or attempt to engage in any such conduct

estimated population size

total number of individuals counted / (proportion of study area you surveyed * probability of detection) C / (A*P) -Example: biologist are looking for brown tree snakes on an air force base in guam. They randomly survey 10% of the base looking for Brown Tree Snakes. The probability of detection for Brown Tree Snakes is 0.3. They find 300 snakes on their survey sites. Estimate the total population. C = 300 / A = 10% or .10 / P= 0.3 10,000

endemic

unique to a geographic locale

localized

unique to a habitat or ecosystem

Mammal species diversity in North America

west coast has more than east coast; in addition to the latitudinal gradient (increase toward tropics) there are more mammal species in the structurally diverse western mountains and fewer in the homologous east. There is also a decline in diversity down the Baja Peninsula, due to the effect of dispersal distance.

hybrid vigor

when hybrids exhibit excellent survival characteristics

extinction debt

when new islands temporarily have more species than they can support; the difference is called extinction debt (current amount - equilibrium amount)

allee effect

when small populations have lower fitness; populations that fall below a certain "critical minimum" may have diminished survival and reproduction (individuals may be unable to find and acquire mates; critical group behaviors become impossible (ex: group defense from predators, predator swamping); inadequate social cues for key behaviors)

outbreeding depression

when successive generations of hybrids rapidly fall off in fitness

desertification

where grasslands and woodlands become deserts (due to overgrazing, agriculture (adding too much water to soil), cutting trees for fuel) -35% of the earth's land surface is desert and it is increasing due to desertification

wolf control in Alaska

wolves are killed to increase populations of Moose and Caribou, primarily for big-game hunters from other states