Bio Final Exam Study Guide
Describe Pinocytosis:
"cell drinking", the cell engulfs large amounts of liquid.
Vascular Tissue System:
- Transport of water and minerals - Transport of food - "Xylem & Phloem Tissues"
If a frog has 9 chromosomes in its egg cells, how many chromosomes would be found in a skin cell?
18 chromosomes would be found in a skin cell.
How many "n's" in a diploid cell?
2
How many cells are produced at the end of mitosis?
2
Fermentation: What are the two results:
2 pyruvates and 2 ATP.
How many different kinds of amino acids make up proteins?
20
How many cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
4
If the eyepiece (ocular lens) has a magnification of 10x and the objective lens you choose has a magnification of 45x, what is the total magnification?
450
How many codons exist?
64.
What is a centriole and what do they do?
Are the organelles that produce the spindle fiber and what they do is produce the spindle fiber.
_____ selection occurs when humans deliberately breed for certain characteristics.
Artificial
How can a phylogeny be shown?
As a branching tree diagram
Is DNA replicated (copied) before or after cell division?
Before
What is similar and different between mitosis and meiosis?
Both mitosis and meiosis are processes of cell division. They use the same steps for cell division, including prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Differences between mitosis and meiosis: Mitosis is the process of asexual reproduction, while meiosis involves sexual reproduction.
Cellular Respiration: Equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Cellular Respiration: Please write out the entire equation (with correct numbers and letters) for this process:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
The idea that volcanoes, floods, earthquakes, and other such events caused mass extinctions and the formation of all landforms
Catastrophism
What does haploid mean?
Cells have one copy of every chromosome.
What does diploid mean?
Cells have two copies of every chromosomes.
What is a mutation?
Change in the DNA sequence.
The words cladistics and cladogram are both related to the word _____.
Clade
Process that occurs when similar characteristics develop in unrelated species
Convergent evolution
What phase shows daughter cells being produced?
Cytokinesis
What happens in the cytokinesis stage of the cell cycle?
Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm between the two cells.
Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA Sugar: Deoxyribose Nitrogen Bases: A, T, C, G Strands: Double Location: Nucleus RNA Sugar: Ribose Nitrogen Bases: A, U, C, G Strands: Single Location: Nucleus, Cytoplasm
Where is DNA found?
DNA is found in the nucleus.
Evolution that occurs when related species evolve in different directions
Divergent evolution
A person who is a carrier differs from a person who has a genetic disorder. A carrier _____ show symptoms of a disorder but _____ pass the disorder to offspring.
Does not, Can
An organism with a QQ genotype has _____ alleles.
Dominant
Mendel bred flowers resulting in F1 generation with _____ phenotype. He then allowed the F1 generation offspring to self-pollinate. This resulted in an F2 generation with _____.
Dominant, Both dominant and recessive phenotypes
The model of DNA is known as a ___ _____________
Double Helix
Both TEM and SEM use
Electrons to view images
Two different species may have larvae that are very similar.
Embryology
Show phenotypes similarly to autosomal gene expression.
Females
With X chromosome inactivation, which occurs in _____, one of the two X chromosomes in every cell is randomly "_____."
Females, Turned off
Which part would you use for the fine, detailed focusing?
Fine adjustment knob
Traces of ancient animals are found in rock layers.
Fossils
What is the result of meiosis?
Four daughter cells.
Roots:
Functions: to anchor a plant in the ground and absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil.
In the law of independent assortment, _____ are independent.
Gene pairs
Mendel concluded that traits are inherited as "discrete units." Today, we call these discrete units _____.
Genes
Segregation means "Separation." In Mendel's law of segregation, it is the _____ that are segregated, or separated.
Genes
The opposite of homozygous is _____. The opposite of dominant is _____.
Heterozygous, Recessive
Why must selected traits be heritable?
If a selected trait is not heritable, it cannot be passed down to the next generation.
Explain how cytokinesis differs between animal and plant cells.
In animals cells, the membrane pinches closed. In plant cells, a cell plate forms.
Photosynthesis: Where does it happen:
In the chloroplast
Photosynthesis: Where it occurs:
In the chloroplasts.
Cellular Respiration: Where it occurs:
In the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria.
Genetics is the study of biological _____ patterns and variation in organisms.
Inheritance
What does it mean for solution to be hypotonic to another solution?
It has fewer solutes than the other.
What does it mean for a solution to be hypertonic to another solution?
It has more solutes than the other
What type of objective lens should you always start with? (high or low)
Low power
Main Ideas/Key Concepts:
Main Idea: Linnaeus developed the scientific naming system still used today. Main idea: Linnaeus' classification system has seven levels. Main idea: The Linnaean classification system has limitations. Key Concept:Modern classification is based on evolutionary relationships. Main Idea: Cladistics is classification based on common ancestry. Main Idea: Molecular evidence reveals species' relatedness. Key Concept:The current tree of life has three domains. Main Idea: Classification is always a work in progress. Main Idea: The three domains in the tree of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
The genes on the Y chromosome are responsible for _____ characteristics.
Male
Show phenotypes from all sex-linked genes.
Males
What is meiosis needed for?
Meiosis is needed for sexual reproduction.
What is meiosis and why does it happen?
Meiosis produces four genetically distinct haploid daughter cells from a single diploid parent cell. These germ cells can then combine in sexual reproduction to form a diploid zygote.
Each parent contributes only one allele to the offspring, because the alleles segregated during gamete formation, which is called _____. During this process, the _____ chromosomes separated.
Meiosis, Homologous
To calculate the probability that two independent events will happen together, _____ the probability of each individual event.
Multiply
List the 2 electron acceptors/carriers involved with photosynthesis: What do they do?
NADPH/NADP+ Carry 2 high energy electrons to the 2nd part of photosynthesis.
Are both strands of DNA copied during transcription?
No.
What are the repeating subunits called that make up DNA?
Nucleotides
Cellular Respiration: What goes in:
Oxygen and Glucose
What is the backbone of DNA made up of?
Phosphate and Deoxyribose are held together by covalent bonds.
Name the 3 parts of a DNA nucleotide
Phosphate, Sugar, Nitrogen Base
Vascular vs. Non Vascular
Plants: - Non Vascular - Vascular Nonvascular:- Bryophytes Vascular: - Seedless - Seeds - Flowering
How is translation done?
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced How it is done: - tRNA binds to a start codon and signals the ribosome to assemble. - A complementary tRNA molecule binds to the exposed codon, bringing its amino acid close to the first amino acid. - The ribosome helps form a polypeptide bond between the amino acids. - The ribosome pulls the mRNA strand the length of one codon. - The now empty tRNA molecule exits the ribosome releases the protein and disassembles.
What is translation? Where does it occur?
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced How it is done: - tRNA binds to a start codon and signals the ribosome to assemble. - A complementary tRNA molecule binds to the exposed codon, bringing its amino acid close to the first amino acid. - The ribosome helps form a polypeptide bond between the amino acids. - The ribosome pulls the mRNA strand the length of one codon. - The now empty tRNA molecule exits the ribosome releases the protein and disassembles. It occurs in the cytoplasm.
How is transcription done?
Process of copying a nucleotide sequence of DNA to form a complementary strand of mRNA How it is done: - RNA polymerase and other proteins form a transcription complex. - The transcription complex recognizes the start of a gene and unwinds a segment of it. - Nucleotides pair with one strand of the DNA. - RNA polymerase bonds the nucleotides together. - The DNA helix winds again as the gene is transcribed. - The RNA strand detaches from the DNA once the gene is transcribed.
What does it mean to anaerobic:
Process that doesn't not need oxygen to take place.
Bacteria belong to this group
Prokaryote
Lived at least 3.5 Billion years ago
Prokaryote
What does SEM stand for?
Scanning electron microscope
What is a codon & what does each codon code for?
Sequence of 3 nucleotides that codes for one amino acid.
What kind of cells go through meiosis?
Sex cells
What are spindles and what do they do?
Spindle fibers are a cage-like structure that forms during cell division that helps to separate the chromosomes during cell division.
Photosynthesis: What goes in:
Sun light, carbon dioxide, water
Which phase shoes a cleavage furrow?
Telophase
What type of bonds are used to hold molecule together?
The backbone is connected by covalent bonds and the bases are connected by hydrogen bonds.
What do ratios mean?
The bigger the ratio is the smaller the cell is and the more efficient it becomes. The smaller the ratio is the bigger the cell is and the less efficient it becomes.
. What is a concentration gradient?
The difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another (division between high and low concentration).
What is a phylogeny?
The evolutionary history for a group of species
What letter does a clade look like on a cladogram?
The letter V
When does replication occur?
The nucleus.
Where does transcription occur?
The nucleus.
Where is DNA found in eukaryotes?
The nucleus.
Describe the purpose of cellular respiration in our bodies:
The process that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen.
In natural selection, what must be true of traits that are passed down through generations?
The trait must be one that gives an advantage to certain individuals.
Genotype: Analogy:
The underlying genetics of an organism. A person's thoughts that you can't read.
How has the kingdom system changed over the last three hundred years?
There are four more kingdoms than there were 300 years ago.
Early Ideas about Evolution: Key Concept: Main Idea:
There were theories of biological and geologic change before Darwin. Early scientists proposed ideas about evolution.
How do plants take in CO2?
They absorb it from the atmosphere through holes in the bottom of the leaves called "stromata"
The idea that geologic processes add up over long periods of time to produce great change
Uniformitarianism
_____ can be summarized by the phrase "the present is the key to the past."
Uniformitarianism
Individual differences that may be heritable
Variation
ATP/ADP: How energy is released:
When a phosphate group is removed.
When does alcoholic fermentation take place (type of condition) and what does it produce?
When oxygen is not available/anaerobic; ethanol alcohol & CO2
When does lactic acid fermentation take place (type of condition) and what does it produce?
When oxygen is not available/anaerobic; lactic acid
How is energy released from an ATP molecule?
When the bond is broken between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate
A trace of an organism that existed in the past is called a _____
fossil
The effects of _____ add up over many generations.
natural selection
Describe Phagocytosis:
"cell eating", the cell engulfs large particles.
Name the 4 nitrogen bases on DNA (not abbreviations).
- Adenine - Guanine - Cytosine - Thymine
Animal-Like Protist:
- All are heterotrophs - All single celled (unlike animal kingdom) - Largest division in Protist Kingdom - Examples are Protozoans like zooflagellates, amoeba & paramecium
What are the two kingdoms of Bacteria?
- Archaebacteria - Eubacteria
Shapes of Bacteria:
- Bacilli - Cocci - Spirilla
Eubacteria:
- Cell wall that protects them & contains peptidoglycan - Examples: E.coli & streptococcus
Leaf Structure:
- Cuticle: waxy layer, water proofing upper leaves - Epidermis: upper and lower layer of cells; no chloroplasts; for protection - Vascular Bundle: bundle of xylem and phloem - Xylem: carries water and minerals - Phloem: carries dissolved sugars and organic compounds - Guard Cells: controls rate of gas & water exchange thru stomata - Stomata: opening for gas exchange
Virus Structure:
- DNA is located in the head - Capsid is the outer protein coat - Bacteriophage - virus that infects bacteria
Fungus-Like Protist:
- Decompose dead organisms - Can move during a part of their life cycle - Have reproductive cycles very similar to the fungus group - Examples include Slime Molds and Water Molds
Plant Tissue Types:
- Dermal Tissue System - Ground Tissue System - Vascular Tissue System
Main players to help transcription:
- Enzymes - Complementary Base Pairing
Main players to help replication:
- Enzymes - Proteins - Complementary Base Pairing
Kingdoms:
- Eubacteria - Archaebacteria
Protist Kindgom General Characteristics:
- Group of "misfit" organisms that don't exactly go in any other kingdom - All Eukaryotes (that don't exactly fit with plants, animals or fungus - Single or Multicellular - Microscopic or very large - Different ways of moving - Reproduce asexually or sexually or both - Divided up by the way they get their food: 1.Animal-like Protist 2.Plant-like Protist 3.Fungus-like Protist
Archaebacteria:
- Lack peptidoglycan in their cell wall - DNA is more like eukaryotes - Examples: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles
Plant-Like Protist:
- Make their own food by photosynthesis - They do not have roots, stems, or leaves - Single celled, colonial, or multicellular - Most are free living aquatic organisms - Examples of groups are Algae, Dinoflagellates, Euglena
Plant Kingdom General Characteristics:
- Multi-cellular Eukaryotes - Perform Photosynthesis - Vascular vs. Non Vascular - 4 Divisions: 1.Bryophytes 2.Seedless Vascular Plants 3.Seed Plants 4.Flowering Plants
Nutrients:
- Nitrogen - Phosphorus - Potassium - Magnesium - Calcium
1. Passive Immunity:
- Occurs without the body's undergoing an immune response - Given antibodies to treat a disease - Transferred between generations - mother & child - Immediate - Short term (few weeks or months)
Two types of immunity:
- Passive Immunity - Active immunity
Ground Tissue System:
- Photosynthesis - Food storage - Regeneration - Support - Protection
Leaf Functions:
- Photosynthesis - Transpiration - Gas Exchange
Plant Life Cycle:
- Plant life cycles have two alternating phases "alternation of generations" - Sporophyte - spore producing plant "2N phase" -Gametophyte - gamete producing plant "N phase"
Bacteria are:
- Prokaryotic - Do not have membrane bound organelles - Have ribosomes, one chromosome (often circular) - Unicellular & smaller then heterotrophs - Both autotrophic & heterotrophic (mostly heterotrophic) - Move by cilia, flagella or not at all - Maintain homeostasis through diffusion & osmosis - Reproduce by binary fission, conjugation, and sport formation
Dermal Tissue System:
- Protection - Prevention of water loss
Plant Facts:
- Provide a base for food chains - Provide shade shelter, and oxygen of every size & kind - Oldest fossil dates back about 470 million years - Plants can be found almost everywhere on the earth.
Name several things that can cause DNA mutations
- Replication errors can cause mutation. - Mutagens, such as UV ray and chemicals, can cause mutations. - Some cancer drugs use mutagenic properties to kill cancer cells.
Fungus Kingdom General Characteristics:
- Single Celled and Multicellular - Absorb their food from the environment: decomposers/heterotrophs - Cell walls made of chitin- Come in many shapes and sizes - Reproduce sexually and asexually - Many live in on plant an animals - Three groups:single celled yeasts, the molds, and the true fungi
Immune System:
- The body system that fights off infection and pathogens - First line of defense: • Relies on physical barriers to keep pathogens out • Skin, mucus, sweat & tears - Second Line of defense: • When pathogens get past physical barriers, warrior cells of the immune system travel to fight the infection • Inflammatory response, white blood cells • Specially phagocytes - engulf and destroys other cells
Viruses are considered nonliving by many biologist because . . .
- They do not have all the characteristics of life - They must reproduce inside another organism (the host) - They do not grow or develop - They are not composed of cells - They do not maintain their internal environment
Why is it difficult to make vaccines for viruses such as HIV, influenza and the virus that causes the common cold?
- Too many types - Viruses can mutate and change
What bases pair with each other during transcription?
- Uracil pairs with Adenine - Adenine pairs Thymine - Cytosine pairs with Guanine - Guanine pairs with Cytosine
Main players to help translation:
- tRNA - mRNA - rRNA - Ribosome
Describe the steps that occur in DNA replication
- tRNA binds to a start codon and signals the ribosome to assemble. - A complementary tRNA molecule binds to the exposed codon, bringing its amino acid close to the first amino acid. - The ribosome helps form a polypeptide bond between the amino acids. - The ribosome pulls the mRNA strand the length of one codon. - The now empty tRNA molecule exits the ribosome releases the protein and disassembles.
How many "n's" in a haploid cell?
1
Parts that make up the cell theory:
1. All organisms are made of cells. 2. All existing cells are produced by other living cells. 3. The cell is the most basic unit of life.
Microscope Parts:
1. Body tube 2. Nose piece 3. Low objective 4. Medium objective 5. High objective 6. Stage clips 7. Diaphragm 8. Lamp 9. Eyepiece 10. Arm 11. Stage 12. Coarse adjustment knob 13. Fine adjustment knob 14. Base
Cellular Respiration: 3 parts of Cellular Respiration:
1. Glycolysis 2. The Krebs Cycle 3. The Electron Transport Chain
Photosynthesis: 2 parts of Photosynthesis:
1. Grana(thylakoids) - absorbs light 2. Stroma - jelly like fluid in the chloroplast.
The seven taxa of the Linnaean classification system:
1. Kingdom 2. Phylum 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family 6. Genus 7. Species
Plant Requirements:
1.Sunlight 2.Water and Minerals 3.Gas Exchange 4.Movement of Water and Nutrients
If a horse has 32 chromosomes in its diploid, somatic cells, how many chromosomes would be found in a horse gamete?
16 chromosomes would be found in a horse gamete.
Photosynthesis: Please write out the entire equation (including all numbers and letters) for this process:
6 H2O + 6 CO2 → 6O2 + C6H12O6 - remember you need sunlight to start the whole process
Photosynthesis: Equation:
6CO2 + 6H20 = C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Why is crossing over important/beneficial?
A benefit of crossing over is that it maintains genetic diversity within a population, allowing for millions of different genetic combinations to be passed from parents to offspring. Genetic variability is very important to the long-term survival of a species.
On a cladogram, what is a node?
A place where a branch splits off from the rest of the cladogram
Fermentation: Why does it happen:
A process that allows glycolysis to continue when there is not enough oxygen for CR to occur.
What happens to a cell in an isotonic solution?
A solution is isotonic to a cell if it has the same concentration of solutes as the cell. Equal amounts of water enter and exit the cell, so its size stays constant.
Darwin saw populations of various species that seemed well-suited to their environment. What did this suggest?
A. Species might be able to adapt to their surroundings over time.
Suppose an organism has the genotype AABB. Two types of gametes could result from this allele combination: _____ and _____.
AB, Ab
ATP/ADP: Structure:
ATP has three phosphates and ADP has two.
ATP/ADP: What it is:
ATP is a molecule that transfers energy from the breakdown of food molecules to cell processes and ADP is a lower-energy molecule that can be converted into ATP by the addition of a phosphate group.
What does chlorophyll do?
Absorb the sunlight
Which one transports molecules "against/up the concentration gradient?"
Active transport
What is the difference between active and passive transport?
Active transport - needs energy to force materials into a high concentrated area. Passive transport - Does not require energy input from cell and is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
A certain variation well-suited for the environment
Adaptation
_____ a feature that allows an organism to better survive in its environment
Adaptation
Diversification of one ancestral species into many species
Adaptive radiation
Name the complementary base pairs on DNA
Adenine always bond with Thymine Guanine always bond with Cytosine
What are the 3 parts of an ATP molecule?
Adenine-Ribose-Phosphate Tail
Which type of respiration is more efficient (makes more ATP): aerobic OR anaerobic?
Aerobic
. What type of respiration occurs when oxygen is available? What comes after glycolysis in this situation? How many ATP are made?
Aerobic Krebs cycle & electron transport chain Up to 38 ATPs
ATP/ADP: What it does for the body:
All cells need chemical energy and the chemical energy used for most cell processes is carried by ATP.
An alternative form of a gene is called an _____.
Allele
Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the father) that have the same length, overall appearance, and _____, although the _____ may differ.
Alleles, Genes
What types of organisms can go through cellular respiration?
Almost ALL organisms undergo cellular respiration: Bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals
What types of organisms can produce ATP (and contain mitochondria?)
Almost ALL organisms undergo cellular respiration: Bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals. Organisms with Eukaryotic Cells
What are proteins made of?
Amino acids.
What does tRNA transport?
Amino acids.
What type of respiration occurs when oxygen is not available? What comes after glycolysis in this situation? How many ATP are made?
Anaerobic Fermentation 2 ATPs
How is anaphase 1 different from anaphase 2?
Anaphase 1: The sister chromatids remain attached. Anaphase 2: The sister chromatids are pulled apart from each other and move to opposite sides of the cell.
The body parts of different species may have homologous structures.
Anatomy
1753:
Animalia and Plantae
1977:
Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi
1938:
Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Monera
1959:
Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Monera, Fungi
1866:
Animalia, Plantae, and Protista
Probability predicts the _____ number of occurrences, not the _____ of occurrences.
Average, Exact number
How are the seven levels of Linnaeus' classification system organized?
Based on their physical similarities.
Why is classification considered a work in progress?
Because it must be corrected when new knowledge becomes available.
How can an amino acid be specified by more than one codon?
Because there are only 20 different amino acids but 64 possible codons, most amino acids are indicated by more than one codon.
What kind of cell goes through mitosis?
Body cells
What types of cells go through mitosis?
Body cells (Somatic cells)
Similarities between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:
Both cells tend to be microscopic. Both cells are enclosed by a membrane. Both cells are filed with cytoplasm.
Cellular Respiration: What are the products of this process?
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Water (H2O) - ATP is also released throughout the proces
Which scientist developed a system for classifying organisms that is still used today?
Carolus Linnaeus
Domain: Archaea Characteristics: Kingdoms Included:
Characteristics: - Different organisms from bacteria - Known for their ability to survive in extreme environments Kingdoms Included: Also single-celled prokaryotes, but from the kingdom Archaea
Domain: Eukarya Characteristics: Kingdoms Included:
Characteristics: - Organisms that have cells containing a distinct nucleus - Organelles within eukaryotic cells are surrounded by membrane - Can be colonial or multicellular Kingdoms Included: - All organisms with eukaryotic cells - Includes the kingdoms of Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.
Domain: Bacteria Characteristics: Kingdoms Included:
Characteristics: One of the largest groups of organisms on Earth Kingdoms Included: Single-celled prokaryotes in the kingdom Bacteria
Which part would you use for the major focusing (always use first)
Coarse adjustment knob
Process in which species evolve in response to changes in each other
Coevolution
Why is RNA created?
DNA cannot leave the nucleus but RNA can. RNA carries DNA's instructions on how to make proteins out into the cytoplasm from the nucleus. RNA is a nucleic acid molecule that allows for the transmission of genetic information and protein synthesis.
Why is an RNA copy of DNA made?
DNA cannot leave the nucleus but RNA can. RNA carries DNA's instructions on how to make proteins out into the cytoplasm from the nucleus.RNA is a nucleic acid molecule that allows for the transmission of genetic information and protein synthesis.
Theory of Natural Selection: Key Concept: Main Idea:
Darwin proposed natural selection as a mechanism for evolution. Several key insights led to Darwin's idea for natural selection.
Darwin's Observations: Key Concept: Main Idea:
Darwin's voyage provided insights into evolution. Darwin observed differences among island species.
What does DNA stand for?
Deoxyribonucleic acid
How is cancer treated?
Depending on the type and stage of cancer, treatments to eradicate the tumor or slow its growth may include some combination of surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy or immunotherapy.
SEM gives you the best _____ out of any microscope, so you end up with something that looks _____
Depth, Three dimensional
Traits that are shared by some species of a group being studied, which other species in that group do not have, are called _____ characters.
Derived
A heritable trait becoming common in a population
Descent with modification
Fibrous Root:
Description: No single root grows larger than the rest Examples: grasses
Taproot:
Description: Primary roots with secondary smaller roots Examples: oak and hickory trees
Alleles are represented on paper by letters. Uppercase letters indicate _____ alleles, and lowercase letters indicate _____ alleles.
Dominant, Recessive
In humans, a gamete from a male determines the sex of the offspring, because a male can pass on _____ chromosomes. In contrast, a female passes on _____ chromosomes.
Either X or Y, Only X
Which one of the stages, (3 main steps to respiration), produces the most ATP?
Electron Transport Chain = up to 34 ATPs
ATP/ADP: How energy is stored:
Energy is stored between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups
Genotype is not the only factor that affects phenotype. The _____ can affect gene expression, which will influence phenotype.
Environment
Animal cells and plant cells are of this group
Eukaryote
Contains organelles that carry out specific functions
Eukaryote
Evolved at least 1.5 billion years ago
Eukaryote
First cells with internal compartments
Eukaryote
Organism whose cells each have a nucleus
Eukaryote
Difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and have membrane-bond organelles, and Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus and do not have membrane-bond organelles.
Theory of Natural Selection: Key Concept: Main Idea:
Evidence of common ancestry among species comes from many sources. Evidence for evolution in Darwin's time came from several sources.
_____ is the process of biological change by which descendants come to differ from their ancestors.
Evolution
Patterns of Natural Selection: Key Concept: Main Idea:
Evolution occurs in patterns. Evolution through natural selection is not random.
Phylo- comes from the Greek word meaning "class," and the suffix -geny means "origin." From this, it is possible to see that phylogeny refers to a species' _____.
Evolutionary history
Epistasis is the term for one gene affecting the _____ of other genes involved in a [articular trait. One example is albinism.
Expression
Elimination of a species from Earth
Extinction
Linnaeus' classification system contains no mistakes.
False
Molecular data always agree with the classification of species based on physical similarities.
False
Once an evolutionary tree is established, it can never be changed.
False
How is interphase divided up & what happens in those divisions.
Gap 1: Cell growth and normal functions. Synthesis: Copies DNA. Gap 2: Additional growth.
What part of a cell dictates what type of cell a particular cell will become differentiated into?
Gene - What genes are turned on and off.
There is a relationship between genes and proteins: A _____ provides instructions for a cell to make a certain _____.
Gene, Protein
An allele is any of the alternative forms of a _____ that may occur at a _____.
Gene, Specific locus
A segment of a chromosome that codes for a particular protein is called a ______________________________.
Gene.
Polygenic traits are produced by two or more _____ and show a continuous range of _____. One example is eye color.
Genes, Phenotypes
Are the cells produced at the end of mitosis genetically alike or different?
Genetically alike
Are the cells produced at the end of meiosis genetically alike or different?
Genetically different.
"Purebred" means a line of organisms that has uniform _____.
Genetics
An organism's phenotype is affected both by alleles and by _____.
Genotype
You know a ratio is a comparison that tells how two or more things relate. Therefore, a genotypic ratio is a comparison that tells the proportion of offspring that have a particular _____. A phenotypic ratio is a comparison that tells the proportion of offspring that have a particular _____.
Genotype, Phenotype
Species in one area may match species in another area that is separate but still nearby.
Geography
The solar energy from the sun is used to make the chemical energy stored in which molecule (a product of photosynthesis)?
Glucose (C6 H12 O6)
Photosynthesis: What are the products of this process?
Glucose (C6 H12 O6) and Oxygen (O2)
Cellular Respiration: What are the reactants of this process?
Glucose (C6H12O6) and Oxygen (O2)
Photosynthesis: What comes out:
Glucose and oxygen
Cellular Respiration: Where does it happen:
Glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm The Krebs Cycle happens in the mitochondria The Electron Transport Chain happens in the mitochondria.
The idea that changes on Earth occurred by small steps over long periods of time
Gradualism
What is incorrect about Lamarck's theory of how organisms evolve?
He did not explain why changes in the environment caused an organism's behavior to change.
Use of purebred plants:
He experimented with self-pollinating, purebred pea plants.
Why did artificial selection interest Darwin?
He had noticed that humans could breed for certain characteristics in animals.
Study of "either-or" traits:
He looked at traits that did not have intermediate characteristics such as pea shape, pea color, flower color, pod shape, pod color, flower position, and plant height.
Control over breeding:
He removed the stamens and fertilized the pistil with pollen from a pea plant of his choice.
If a pair of alleles is the same, they are called _____. If a pair of alleles is different, they are called _____.
Homozygous, Heterozygous
Scientist that help with discoveries of the cell:
Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow.
5 scientists that helped with discoveries of the cell - what did they do and when
Hooke: 1665 - First to identify cells and named them. Leeuwenhoek: 1674 - Improved microscope to see better detail Schleiden: 1838 - Discovered plant cells. Schwann: 1839 - Discovered animal cells. Virchow: 1855 - Proposed all cells come from cells.
What phase shows DNA in its chromatin state?
Interphase
What is interphase?
Interphase refers to all stages of the cell cycle other than mitosis. During interphase, cellular organelles double in number, the DNA replicates, and protein synthesis occurs. The chromosomes are not visible and the DNA appears as uncoiled chromatin.
TEM: Function: Max Magnification: Best For: Disadvantages:
Lets you look at a very thin cross-section of an object (such as a cell) Approximately 5000000x Looking at internal structure of objects Looking at objects at very high resolution Looking at relationships between structures at high resolution Can't be used to look at living things (samples need to be prepared extensively before visualizing) Costly to run
SEM: Function: Max Magnification: Best For: Disadvantages:
Lets you look at the surface of objects at high resolution Approximately 500000x Looking at surfaces of objects Looking at objects in 3D Resolution often not as high as the transmission electron microscope. Can't be used to look at living things (samples need to be dried and coated in metal before visualizing) Costly to run
A man named Gregor _____ did early work that is the basis for much of our current understanding of genetics.
Mendel
Explain what happens in cancer.
Metaphase 1: The spindle fibers align the homologous chromosomes along the cell equator. Metaphase 2: The spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the cell equator.
How is metaphase 1 different from metaphase 2?
Metaphase 1: The spindle fibers align the homologous chromosomes along the cell equator. Metaphase 2: The spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the cell equator.
What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis during the cytokinesis stage?
Mitosis Function: Is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.Location of the cells in the body: Body cellsNumber of daughter cells: 2Change in chromosomes: DiploidNumber of phases: 4Number of cell divisions: 1Difference in DNA from parent: No Meiosis: Function: The production of gametes. Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell.Location of the cells in the body: Sex cellsNumber of daughter cells: 4Change in chromosomes: HaploidNumber of phases: 8Number of cell divisions: 2Difference in DNA from parent: Yes
List two reasons that mitosis is needed.
Mitosis is needed to replace damaged cells and is needed for helping and organism grow.
What is mitosis and why does it happen?
Mitosis is the reproduction of cells and it happens because the body needs new cells and replaces old, lost or damaged cells.
Two Classes of Angiosperms (Flowering Plants):
Moncots: Seeds: Single cotyledon Petal Arrangement: 3's Leaf Veins: Parallel Vascular Tissue: Scattered Roots: Fibrous Examples: Grass, Palm, Orchid Dicots: Seeds: Two Cotyledons Petal Arrangement: 4's and 5's Leaf Veins: Net Vascular Tissue: Ring Roots: Taproot Examples: Oaks, Roses, Sunflowers
_____ selection occurs when individuals with beneficial adaptations produce more surviving offspring than other individuals of the same species.
Natural
Main Idea:
Natural selection explains how evolution can occur.
Main idea:
Natural selection works on existing variation.
Are all mutations harmful?
No
Cell Organelles:
Nucleus - Stores genetic information. Endoplasmic Reticulum - Interconnected network of thin, folded membranes that produce, process, and distribute proteins. Golgi Body/Apparatus - Processes, sorts, and delivers proteins. Vesicles - Are membrane-bound sacs that hold materials. Mitochondria - Supplies energy to the cell.
In humans, height is affected by both genes and factors such as _____.
Nutrition and healthcare
The verb carry means "to transport." This meaning is related to the term carrier in genetics, because a carrier is a person who "transports" a disease-causing allele to _____.
Offspring
Producing many offspring, some of which may not survive
Overproduction
What is one of the main factors that dictates how much ATP can be produced? (what is respiration dependent on?)
Oxygen
Which one transports molecules "down the gradient?"
Passive transport
Homozygous Dominant:
Phenotype: Dominant Alleles: TT
Heterozygous:
Phenotype: Dominant Alleles: Tt
Homozygous Recessive:
Phenotype: Recessive Alleles: tt
What are the differences & similarities of a plant and animal cell?
Plant Cells: Plant cells have a cell wall Plant cells are more square and angular Plant cells have chloroplasts Plant cells have a vacuole Plant cells do not have a lysosome Both: They both have a nucleolus, ribosomes, mitochondria, cell membrane, cytoskeleton, golgi bodies, and an ER They both keep things living They are both eukaryotic Animal Cells: Animal cells do not have a cell wall Animal cells are more free-formed and round Animal cells don't have a vacuole, or chloroplasts Animal cells have lysosomes.
What is transcription? Where does it occur? Briefly describe the steps.
Process of copying a nucleotide sequence of DNA to form a complementary strand of mRNA How it is done: - RNA polymerase and other proteins form a transcription complex. - The transcription complex recognizes the start of a gene and unwinds a segment of it. - Nucleotides pair with one strand of the DNA. - RNA polymerase bonds the nucleotides together. - The DNA helix winds again as the gene is transcribed. - The RNA strand detaches from the DNA once the gene is transcribed. It occurs in the nucleus.
Single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus
Prokaryote
The smallest and simplest cells
Prokaryote
What part of meiosis does crossing over occur?
Prophase 1
What are the stages of meiosis and what happens in each?
Prophase 1: The nuclear membrane breaks down. The centrosomes and centrioles begin to move, and spindle fibers start to assemble. The duplicated chromosomes condense, and homologous chromosomes begin to pair up. Metaphase 1: Spindle fibers align the homologous chromosomes along the cell equator. Each side of the equator has chromosomes from both parents. Anaphase 1: The paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other and move toward opposite sides of the cell. Sister chromatids remain attached. Telophase 1: The spindle fiber disassemble, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis. Prophase 2: The centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell, and spindle fibers start to assemble. Metaphase 2: Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the cell equator. Anaphase 2: The sister chromatids are pulled apart from each other and move to opposite sides of the cell. Telophase 2: The nuclear membranes form again around the chromosomes, the spindle fibers break apart, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis.
What phases are part of mitosis?
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
What are the stages of mitosis and what happens in each?
Prophase: Chromosomes condense and spindle fibers form. Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate to opposite sides of the cell. Telophase: The new nuclei form and chromosomes begin to uncoil.
What is the end result of translation?
Protein
For what does all DNA code?
Proteins.
Episodes of speciation that occur suddenly in geologic time
Punctuated equilibrium
Mendel used pea plants, because they reproduce _____, and he could control how they _____.
Quickly, Mate
A test cross is done between an organism with a _____ phenotype and an organism with a(n) _____ genotype.
Recessive, Unknown
How is replication done?
Replication is a process by which a double strand DNA is used as a template & copied to produce 2 identical DNA molecules. How it is done: - A single strand of DNA serves as a template for the new strand. - Enzyme unzip the double helix. - Free-floating nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with the template strand. - DNA polymerase enzymes bond the nucleotides together to form the double helix. - Polymerase enzymes form covalent bonds between nucleotides in the new strand.
What sugar is found on RNA?
Ribose.
In what part of a cell are proteins made?
Ribosomes.
What types of cells go through meiosis?
Sex cells (Germ cells or gametes)
Sex-linked genes are located on the _____.
Sex chromosomes
Sex chromosomes determine an organism's _____. All other chromosomes, which do not directly affect an organism's sex, are called _____.
Sex, Autosomes
The similarities and differences between asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction just means combining genetic material from two parents. Because of the genetic diversity the offspring survive longer. Both are a form of reproduction. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to the one parent.
Is RNA double or single stranded?
Single stranded.
What is the difference between sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes?
Sister chromatid is replicated DNA (mirror images X) Homologous chromosomes are matching sister chromatids (two X's)
Why do cells need to stay small?
So they can maximize their ratio of surface area to volume.
How do you calculate surface area to volume ratios?
Surface area (length • width • number of sides) divided by volume (length • width • height)
If the sequence of nucleotides on the original DNA strand was A - G - G - C - T - A, what would be the nucleotide sequence on the complementary strand of DNA?
T - C - C - G - A - T
In sea turtles, sex determination depends on both genes and the _____ at which sea turtle eggs mature.
Temperature
What do the hash marks for the derived characters in a cladogram indicate?
That all of the organisms above and below the hash mark share that characteristic
What island chain in South America was the source of many of Darwin's insights?
The Galápagos Islands
Describe what stem cells are, and list some of their potential uses.
The daughter cells have the same DNA, but different genes may be turned on or off. Embryonic Stem Cells: Differentiates into any cell type. Adult Stem Cells: Exists in some tissues but can only form specific types of cells. E.g., bone marrow stem cells form white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets.
What is crossing over?
The exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring. Exchanging of genetic information between homologous chromosomes. "Recombination" of genes. Helps to create a greater genetic diversity within a species.
Describe the trend in the levels, or taxa, as you move down from kingdom to species.
The levels move from more general to more specific.
Phenotype: Analogy:
The observable traits of an organism. A person's words that tell you what they're thinking about.
How does the nucleotide sequence in one chain of DNA compared with the other chain of DNA?
They are complementary.
How many chromosomes do the cells produced at the end of meiosis have as compared to the parent cell?
They have half the cells produced at the end of meiosis compared to the parent cell. 4 haploid cells.
How many chromosomes do the cells produced at the end of mitosis have as compared to the parent cell?
They have the exact same number of chromosomes as the parent cell at the end of mitosis. 2 diploid cells.
Where do the light dependent reactions occur in a chloroplast?
Thylakoid Membranes
What base is missing on RNA, & what other base replaces it?
Thymine, Uracil.
What is the main goal of cladistics?
To show how members of different species are related
Mendel's views on inheritance differed from the views of many scientists of his time. Mendel recognized that _____ are inherited as discrete units.
Traits
Difference in base pairing with transcription
Transcription copies a gene and can make many copies.
What does TEM stand for?
Transmission electron microscope
Bacteria and archaea can transfer genes across species, back and forth to each other outside of ordinary reproduction.
True
DNA evidence can help scientists to learn how two species are related to each other.
True
The more similar the genes of two species are, the more closely related the species are likely to be.
True
Today, scientists use genetic similarities between species to help classify them as related species, rather than focusing on physical or structural similarities.
True
When Linnaeus set up his classification system, it was not yet possible for scientists to do molecular or genetic research.
True
Mendel's law of segregation has two conclusions: i. Organisms inherit _____ of each gene, one from each parent. ii. Genes segregate during gamete formation, so organisms donate _____ of each gene in their gametes.
Two copies, One copy
What is the result of mitosis?
Two identical daughter cells.
A dihybrid cross examines the inheritance of _____.
Two traits
Describe what happens in the process of photosynthesis (what is the purpose?)
Uses the energy of sunlight to covert water and carbon dioxide into high-energy sugars and oxygen.
_____ the difference in the physical traits of an individual from those of other individuals in the group to which it belongs
Variation
Photosynthesis: What are the reactants of this process?
Water (H2O) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Cellular Respiration: What goes out:
Water and Carbon dioxide
(1) Write the 3 main steps to respiration, (2) where in the cell they occur and (3) whether they're aerobic or anaerobic:
a. 1) Glycolysis 2) Krebs Cycle 3) Electron Transport Chain b. 1) Cytoplasm 2) Mitochondria (Matrix) 3) Mitochondria (Inner Membrane Space) c. 1) Anaerobic 2) Aerobic 3) Aerobic
Name the amino acid coded for by each of these codons: a. UUA - c. UGU - b. AUU- d. AAA -
a. Leucine (Leu) b. Isoleucine (Ile) c. Cysteine (Cys) d. Lysine (Lys)
List the 2 main stages of photosynthesis and where in the chloroplast they occur:
a. Light-dependent reaction; Thylakoid b. Light Independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle) / Stroma
A tortoise population lives in an area with high grass. These tortoises have longer necks than tortoises that live in other areas. The long necks of the tortoises are an example of _____
adaptation
Humans are the selective agent in _____
artificial selection
Events such as volcanoes, floods, and earthquakes are the basis of _____.
catastrophism
After several years, the supply of large seeds went down after an unusually wet period. The increase in small, soft seeds brought a(n) in the number of large-beaked hatchlings the following year.
decrease
Divergent _____ occurs when closely related species evolve in _____ directions.
evolution, different
The measure of the ability to survive and produce more offspring relative to other members of the population is called _____
fitness
The ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next is called ______
heritability
Peter and Rosemary Grant observed natural selection acting on traits within a population of finches on the Galápagos Islands. A drought reduced the number of small, soft seeds but left plenty of large, tough-shelled seeds intact. The next year there was a(n) _____ in the number of large-beaked hatchlings.
increase
What is variation among members of different species called?
interspecific variation
What is variation among members of the same species called?
intraspecific variation
Describe Endocytosis:
is the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules into a cell by engulfing them in the membrane.
Describe Exocytosis:
is the release of substances out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane.
What happens to the newly made mRNA molecule following transcription in the nucleus?
mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Name the 3 types of RNA
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.
The environment is the selective agent in ______
natural selection
All the individuals of a species that live in an area are called the _____
population
To be considered members of the same species, organisms must be able to
reproduce together and have fertile offspring.
Natural _____ moves in a direction that is controlled by the _____.
selection, environment
Convergent evolution: occurs when _____ species must adapt to similar environments.
unrelated
One bird in a population has a slightly thicker beak than its relatives. The bird's thicker beak is an example of _____ in the population
variation
2. Active immunity:
• Exposure to disease triggers an immune response • Can occur naturally (exposure to the disease • Through vaccination (intro of weakened/dead form of the disease) • Immune system recognizes it in the future • Long lasting
