BIO OCR A LEVEL AS + A2 + PRACTICAL TERMS

Lysis

'breaking'

Common vectors in genetic engineering

(Recombinant) bacterial plasmids, viruses

Factors affecting population size

(abiotic and biotic) limiting factors, migration (immigration and emigration), density dependent and density independent factors

The main seral stages of an ecological succession

(barren land) -> pioneer community -> intermediate community -> climax community

Vectors

(living/non-living) things that transmit pathogens from organism to organism

net gain of ATP from glycolysis

-2 used + 4 made = 2 net gain

resting potential value

-70mV

Adrenaline

...

Noradrenaline

...

how does a pregnancy test work?

1. wick dipped in urine, 2. urine travels up and hCG if present binds to monoclonal antibodies with colour markers, 3. if hCG present binds to fixed antibodies in first antibodies in first window to make a cross, 4. excess unbinded antibodies bind to different fixed antibodies regardless of hCG and create a line in second window to prove that test works properly

number of hydrogen bonds between thymine/uracil and adenine

2

bronchus

2 divisions of the trachea one into each lung with catilaginous C rings and ciliated epithelial cells

number of hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine

3

pyruvate/pyruvic acid

3C compound formed from the double dephosphorylation and dehydrogenation of triose bisphosphate

triose bisphosphate

3C compound formed from the phosphorylation of triose phosphate

triose phosphate

3C compounds formed by the lysis of hexose bisphosphate

Triose phosphate (TP)

3C molecule formed from the hydrogenation of GP by reduced NADP used to make organic molecules

Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP)

3C molecule in Calvin cycle formed from the lysis of the unstable 6C compound formed from the carboxylation of RuBP

creation of a resting potential

3Na+ are actively transported out of axon cytoplasm and 2K+ are actively transported in, Na+ slightly diffuse in more K+ diffuse out due to their conc gradient being higher than their electrochemical gradient, so inside -ve and outside +ve

% of erythrocytes, platelets and leucocytes in blood

45%

How is CO2 transported in blood?

5% carried dissolved in plasma, 10-20% forms carbaminohaemoglobin, 75-85% converted in to carbonic acid them to hydrogen carbonate ions in rbc cytoplasm

% of blood that is blood plasma in blood

55%

Temperature of annealing stage of PCR

55'C

Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)

5C Regenerate of the Calvin cycle that fixes carbon from carbon dioxide

hexose bisphosphate

6C unstable compound formed by the double phosphorylation of glucose

Temperature of elongation/synthesis stage of PCR

72'C

width of phospholipid bilayer

7nm

Normal blood glucose concentration

90mg per cm^3

Temperature of denaturation stage of PCR

95'C

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

A beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen and focused to produce a 2D image

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

A beam of electrons sent across the surface of a specimen and detected to produce a 3D image

Phosphodiester bond

A bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3rd carbon of another. Formed by a condensation reaction.

Dorsal root ganglion

A bulge in the dorsal root that contains the cell bodoes of the sensory neurones

Capsule slime layer

A capsule of slime that helps prokaryotes move and stick together in colonies

Polysaccharide

A carbohydrate long molecule made by condensation reaction of many sugars

Hydrolysis reaction

A catobolic biological reaction that needs water to break down molecules

Haploid

A cell with half the normal amount of genetic material (n)

Vacuole

A cell's water store. In plants contains a solution of sugars and salts called cell sap. Responsible for a plants turgor

Discontinuous variation

A characteristic that can only appear in specific/discrete values

Discontinuous/discrete variation

A characteristic that can only result in certain values, qualitative

Continuous variation

A characteristic that can take any value in a range, quantitative

Continuous variation

A characteristic that can take any value within a range

Adaptation

A characteristic that increases an organisms chance of survival and reproduction in its environment

Tissue

A collection of differentiated cells that have a specialised function/s

Organ system

A collection of organs working together to carry out a major function in the body

Species evenness

A comparison of the number of individuals of each species living in a community

Diabetes mellitus

A condition where the body cannot effectively respond to insulin produced

Artificial twinning

A cow with desirable traits is treated with hormones and made to super-ovulate, Ova may be fertilised or artificially inseminated in lab by a bull with good traits, after a couple of days whilst all the cells are still totipotent, the embryo is split into several smaller embryos, each separate embryo is grown in the lab for a few days before being implanted into surrogate mothers and embryos develop into clones of each other

Body plans

A cross-sectional representation of an organism showing its fundamental arrangement of tissue layers

Nucleolus

A dark area in the nucleus containing chromatin where ribosomes are made

Phylogenetic/evolutionary tree

A diagram used to represent the evolutionary relationships between orgnisms

Cell plasma membrane

A double layer of phospholipids, glycoproteins and cholesterol, which is selectively permeable

Nuclear envelope

A double membrane surrounding the nucleus

Limiting factor

A factor that prevents the rate of an enzyme's activity not increase by any more

Zygote

A fertilised egg, the source of all cells that an organism develops

Point quadrat

A frame with a horizontal bar with holes for a long pin that can be oushed through and each species it touches can be recorded

Cell wall

A freely permeable structure of the cytoskeleton in some cells.

Regulatory gene

A gene involved in controlling the expression of one or more other genes

Enzyme

A globuar protein with a specific tertiary structure that acts as a catalyst to biological reactions

Insulin

A globular peptide hormone synthesised and released by the Beta cells of the pancreas causing glycogenesis and glucose to fat conversion

Insulin

A globular protein that acts as a hormone to convert glucose into glycogen. Nearly all cells (apart from rbcs) have insulin receptors. Insulin binds to glycoprotein receptor causes a change in the glucose transport protein channels which allows glucose to enter the cell. Insulin also activates enzymes within some cells to convert glucose to glycogen and fat

Cortisol

A glucocortoid that helps regulate metabolism by controlling how the body converts fats, proteins and catbohydrates to energy

Corticosterone

A glucocoticoid that helps regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function as well as regulate immune response and surpress inflammatory reactions

Growth curve

A graph of number of microorganisms against time

Normal distribution curve

A graphical representation of of continuous variation of frequency against a quantitative trait creating a bell shaped curve

Operon

A group of genes that are under the control of the same regulatory mechanism and are expressed at the same time

Homeobox genes

A group of genes which all contain a homeobox

Lac operon

A group of three structural genes: lacZ, lacY, and lacA involved in the metabolism of lactose in E. coli

Gamete

A haploid sex cell produced by meiosis II

Coarse focusing knob

A knob used to move the specimen stage in large increments to put it in focus

Fine focusing knob

A knob used to move the specimen stage up or down in small increments to put it in focus

Tree beating

A large white cloth is stretched out under a tree, the tree is shaken or beaten to dislodge any insects which fall onto cloth

Laser scanning confocal microscope

A laser of high intensity light illuminates a specimen with fluorescent dye, which is absorbed and re-radiated as light of a longer wavelength and lower energy, focused to produce a magnified image of a single point in a focus plane

Compound light microscope

A light microscope consisting of an eyepiece and objective lenses

Polynucleotide

A long chain of nucleotides joined in condensation reactions, forming phosphodiester bonds between the 3rd carbon of the pentose sugar and a phosphate group

Thermal cycler

A machine that varies the temperature of a sample rapidly over 3 stages for PCR

Temperature coefficient, Q10

A measure of how much the the rate of reaction increases with a 10'C rise in temp

Species biodiversity

A measure of the different types of species in an area

Validity (as applied to a measurement)

A measurement that measures what it is supposed to measure is valid

Vesicle

A membranous sac with proteins destined for exocytosis

Gel electrophoresis

A method of separation of DNA fragments from a mixture based on their length (number of base pairs) and therefore mass

Aldosterone

A mineralocorticoid which helps control blood pressure by maintaining the balance between salt and water concentrationsin the blood and bodily fluids

Dichroic mirror

A mirror which only allows one wavelength of light to be reflected e.g. laser

Antigen

A molecule capable of inducing an immune response on the part of the host organism

Non competitive inhibitor

A molecule with a different structure to the substrate that binds to an allosteric site, inducing a change in the shape of the active site preventing the substrate from fitting complementarily

Reversible inhibitor

A non permanent inhibitor that only affects enzyme action momentarily

Diploid

A normal cell containing two chromosomes of each type (2n)

Homologous chromosomes

A pair of identical matching chromosomes one from each parent

Phase 2 as a stage of a population growth curve

A period of rapid growth where the population multiplies exponentially because the number of breeding individuals increases. No limiting factors act to limit the population exponential growth

Phase 1 as a stage of a population growth curve

A period of slow growth when a small number of individuals that are initially reproduce increasing the total population. Birth rate is higher than death rate so number of organisms increases

Nucleotide

A phosphate, pentose sugar and nitrogenous base known collectively

Potometer

A piece of apparatus used to measure transpiration rate

cholesterol

A polar molecule like a phospholipid, that adds structural support by being in the bilayer and preventing the phospholipids from clumping, crystallising and becoming solid.

Phospholipid

A polar molecule with a hydrophyllic phosphate head and two hydrophillic fatty acid tails ester bonded to the glycerol backbone.

Mass potometer

A potometer that is constantly on a set of scales and the mass recorded over time

Graduated potometer

A potometer that uses a tube and a trapped bubble with a graduated scale from which difference is measured

Secretion

A process by which substances are produced and discharged from a cell, gland or organ for a particular function in the organism or for excretion

First tropic level is always

A producer

operculum

A protective flap that covers the gills

Electrocardiograms (ECG)

A recording of the electrical activity of the heart, detected as tiny electrical differences in the skin

Repressor protein

A regulatory protein that binds to a structural gene and prevents transcription of that gene under certain conditions

Isolated enzymes

A relatively pure preparations of an enzyme which has been extracted and purified from a biological source.

Clinostat

A rotating motor that hilds a plant used to investigate geotropism

Vaccine

A sample of a pathogen that has been attenuated but triggers an active immune response resulting in immunity

Stage graticule

A scale placed on the specimen stage to calibrate the eyepiece graticule

Food web

A schematic often pictorial representation of the interactions between organisms in a given ecosystem with arrows showing the transfer of energy/biomass from one organism to another

Homeobox

A section of DNA 180 pairs long coding for a part of the protein 60 amino acids long that is highly conserved in animals, plants and fungi

Metabolic pathways

A series of biological reactions to give a necessary product

Monosaccharides

A single carbon ring sugar/simple sugar

Nitrogenous base

A single or double carbon ring attached to the 1st carbon of the pentose sugar.

Allosteric site

A site different to the active site to which non competitive inhibitors bind to

Plasmid

A small circular strand of DNA

Pitfall traps

A small hole in ground with roof to catch small crawling invertibrates. Hole must be deep enough so it doesnt crawl out amd roo to prevent rainwater from drowning insects. Left overnight to also nocturnal insects

Microsatellites/ short tandem repeats (STRs)

A smaller region of just 2-4 base pairs repeated only 5-15 times.

Frame quadrat

A square frame divided into a grid with smaller squares of equal area. Species number or percentage coverage can be measured

Chi-squared test

A statistical test to measure the size of difference between the observed results and expected results

Potency

A stem cell's ability to differentiate into different cell types

seed bank

A store of samples of seeds from both wild type and domesticated varieties

Homologous structures.

A structure that appears superficially different in different organisms but has the same underlying structure

Substrate

A substance that interacts with an enzyme to produce product/s

The specific/active/acquired immune system

A subsystem of the overall immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogen growth.

DNA profiling

A technique to assist identification of individuals or familial relationships

Capture-mark-release-capture

A technique to estimate population size. Animals are caught, marked then released and recaptured based on the number recaptured that are marked the population size can be estimated

Circulatory system

A transport system used to transport gases, nutrients, waste products and hormones around the body

Codon

A triplet of bases on mRNA coding for one amino acid

Pooter

A two tubed jar used to catch insects, by sucking on mouthpiece you suck insect into holding chamber via inlet tube

Lysosome

A vesicle containing proteins that break down old organelles

Artefact

A visible structural detail caused by processing the specimen, which is not a feature of the specimen

Flagellum

A whip like tail extension protruding from cells responsible for cell mobility and a chemical sensory organelle

ATP + H20 =

ADP + Pi + energy (30.6kJmol^-1)

substrate level phosphorylation of Kreb's Cycle

ADP is phosphorylated by the removal of a phosphate group from the 4C compound

2 Types of limiting factors

Abiotic limiting factors and biotic limiting factors

Carotenoids

Accessory pigments responsible for yellow/orange colour in plant leaves

Physiological adaptations

Adaptations of internal processes of an organism

Connective tissue

Adapted either to hold other tissues together or as a transport medium

Vascular tissue

Adapted for transport of water and nutrients

Muscle tissue

Adapted to contract

Squamous Epithelial tissue

Adapted to cover body surfaces, internal and external, very thin flat only one cell thick reduces diffusion distance

Epidermis tissue

Adapted to cover plant surfaces, thin single layer covered by waxy, hydrophobic cuticle to reduce transpiration

Nervous tissue

Adapted to support the transmission of electrical impulses

Inoculation

Adding microorganisms to a culture medium using aseptic techniques

Acylation during histone modification

Addition of acetyl groups to histone making them less -ve so they coil DNA less tightly

Methylation during histone modification

Addition of methyl groups to histones making them less +ve so they coil DNA more tightly

Types of post-translational control

Addition of non-protein groups (carbohydrate, lipids, phosphates), modifying amino acids and the formation of bonds (disulfide bonds), folding or shortening of proteins, modification by cAMP

Phosphorylation during histone modification

Addition of phosphate groups to histones making them less -ve so they coil DNA less tightly

Purines

Adenine and Guanine. Double ring carbon, nitrogenous bases

3 main groups for the reasons for maintaining biodiversity

Aesthetic, economic, ecological

Growth hormones

Affect the growth of bones and muscles of mammals in humans called HGH

Thyroxine

Affects metabolic rate released by the thyroid gland

Melatonin

Affects reproduction and daily cycles eg circadian rhythm

Enzyme-product complex

After the substrate reacts the products form this before being released

Ecological reasons for maintaining biodiversity

All organisms interdependent on others can cause large-scale damage eg keystone species and pollinators,

Genome of eukaryotes

All the DNA in the nucleus and mitochondria combined

motor unit

All the fibres supplied by a single motor neurone - the fibres act as a single unit

Genome of an organism

All the genetic material that the organism contains

Solvent

Allows water to act as a transport medium causing dissociation. Removes metabolic wastes like urea and ammonia

Types of cells in the islets of Langerhans

Alpha cells amd beta cells

Snowdonia National Park plants present

Alpine plants: Snowdon Lily, Oak and elm forests in lower altitude areas

Loci of micro- and minisatellites

Always appear in the same positions on the chromosomes the number of repeats of each varies between individuals because different lengths of repeats are inherited from both parents

Residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

3 important types of digestive enzymes produced by pancreas

Amylases, proteases, lipases

ADP (adenisine diphosphate)

An ATP molecule that has had one of its inorganic phosphate groups removed by hydrolysis releasing energy. Can be phosphorylated back to ATP

Tachycardia

An abnormally high heart rate, beats evenly spaced, rate > 100bpm

Bradycardia

An abnormally low heart rate < 60bpm, beats evenly spaced, may need a pacemaker in extreme cases

Condensation reaction

An anabolic biological reaction that produces a product and water

Active site

An area within the tertiary structure of an enzyme having a complementary shape to a specific shape of a substrate

Spliceosome

An enzyme complex that loops introns cuts them out of pre-mRNA then sticks the exons together

Denatured

An enzyme with a disrupted tertiary structure, which affects the shape of its active site deactivating it permanently

Founder effect

An extreme example of genetic drift where an isolated part of a population forms a new population which has a different allele frequency to the original population but its is constant with the founder population

Stage 1 of a predator-prey relationship graph

An increase in the prey population provides more food for the predators, allowing more of them to survive and reproduce, which causes a slightly delayed increase in the predator population

Irriversible inhibitor

An inhibitor that permanently deactivates an enzyme

manual sphygmomanometer

An instrument for measuring blood pressure in the arteries, especially one consisting of a pressure gauge and a nylon or rubber cuff that wraps around the upper arm and inflates to constrict the arteries.

Validity (as applied to a investigation)

An investigative procedure that is suitable to answer the question being asked

Saprophytic feeder

An organism that acquires nutrients through absorption and secretion of extra cellular enzymes

Transgenic/genetically modified organisms (GMO)

An organism that has had its genome manipulated by genetic engineering

Heterotrophic feeder

An organism that ingests part of or whole other organisms

Autotrophic feeder

An organism that make their own food

Autotroph/Producer

An organisms that produces complex organic molecules from simple substrates present in its surroundings, generally using light energy from the Sun or inorganic chemical

Uses of DNA sequencing

Analysing the human genome, analysing the genomes of pathogens, identifying species (DNA barcoding), phylogeny

Sensor used to measure wind speed

Anemometer

6 Kingdom classification system

Animalia, plantae, proticista, fungi, bacteria, archae

5 Kingdoms classification system

Animalia, plantae, proticista, fungi, prokaryotae

Triploblastic animals

Animals that have three primary tissue layers

Diploblastic animals

Animals that have two primary tissue layers

Antarctica control of human activities

Antarctic Treaty formed, nations cooperate there for science, conservation of plants and animals in protected areas, encourage ecotourism and limit effects of tourism

Agglutinins

Antibodies act as these causing pathogens carrying antigen-antibody complexes to clump together

Purkyne fibres

Any of the specialized cardiac muscle fibers, part of the impulse-conducting network of the heart, that rapidly transmit impulses from the atrioventricular node to the ventricles.

Pathogens

Any organism that causes a disease and can include bacteria, viruses, fungi and protoctista

The Galapagos Islands brief description

Archipelago in Pacific Ocean famous for Darwin's finches/place where he developed his theory of evolution by natural selection

Hox genes

Are one group of homeobox genes that are only present in animals and are responsible for the correct positioning of the body parts.

Peat bogs key issues

Areas cleared for agriculture. Aforestation dries out bogs, erosion and flooding as a result. Peat bogs are CO2 srtores. Peat extracted and dried for use as a fuel and for cheap composts

Methods of artificial cloning in vertebrates

Artificial twinning, Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

Arguments for animal cloning

Artificial twinning: enables high-yield farm animals to produce many more offspring than normal sexual reproduction, the success of a male animal at passing on desirable genes can be determined; SCNT: Gm animals can be replicated, specific animals can be cloned, has potential to enable rare, endangered or even extinct animals to be reproduced

Stage 2 of an intraspecific competition graph

As a result of the increased population resources become a limiting factor as more individuals have to share the available resources and the population size decreases

Bohr effect

As the pCO2 increases the affinity of Hb to O2 is less strong

Annealing as a stage of PCR

At a temperature of 55'C the primers anneal(bind by hydrogen bonds) to the complementary region

Synthesis as a stage of PCR

At a temperature of 72'C -the optimum of the Taq DNA polymerase it starts at the primers and synthesises a double strand

Denaturation as a stage of PCR

At a temperature of 95'C the hydrogen bonds between base pairs in the sample DNA strand are broken and single strands are left

effect of CO2 of pO2

At higher pCO2 the % saturation of Hb with O2 is lower at the same pO2 meaning Hb has a lower affinity to oxygen

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules causes flowing in xylem and surface tension

Examples of genuses of nitrogen fixing bacteria

Azotobacteria (free living soil bacterium), Rhizobium (in symbiotic mutualistic relationship with leguminous plants living in root nodules)

Genus of free-living soil nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Azotobacterium

Lag phase explanation

Bacteria are adapting to their new environment, growing, synthesising necessary enzymes

Vector formation in genetic engineering

Bacterial plasmids used have marker genes for antibiotic resistance so unsuccessfully transformed cells are killed off and for fluorescent proteins. Plasmids cut with same restriction endonucleases and gene sticks to complementary sticky ends on plasmid. DNA ligase used to stick backbone together

reproductive barriers

Barriers that prevent successful interbreeding within a population before and after fertilisation has occurred

Behavioural responses as a form of thermoregulation in ectotherms (and endotherms) to increase body temperature

Basking in sunlight by orientating bodies and extending areas to maximise surface area, conduction by pressing bodies to warm ground, exothermic metabolic reactions, hibernation in coldest weather

Types of bioprocesses/fermentation

Batch fermentation and continuous fermentation

Density

Because ice is less dense than water (because the crystalline structure means water molecules are further apart than if they were liquid) means it floats and so bodies freeze from the top and have an insulating layer.

Learned behaviour

Behavioural adaptations learned from experience or from observing other individuals

Methods of immobilisation of enzymes

Binding to an inert, insoluble, inorganic carrier by adsorption or by ionic or covalent bonds, entrapment in a matrix, encapsulation in alginate polymer balls

How is biomass measured?

Biomass is measured as dry mass as water content is variable so a sample of an organism is put in an oven 80'C until its mass is constant, however a sample may not be representative of a whole population

Types of factors affecting ecosystems

Biotic and abiotic factors

Metaphase I

Bivalents assemble along metaphase plate, INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT means randomnly maternal and paternal chromosomes face poles of cells

Examples of a positive feedback system

Blood clotting cascade, change in membrane potential when increases above threshold voltage, oxytocin release and contractions during childbirth

Closed circulatory system

Blood is enclosed in blood vessels and doesn't come into contact with other body fluids

Pinocytosis

Bulk transport of liquids into cells

Endocytosis

Bulk transport of material into cells

Exocytosis

Bulk transport of material out a cell through vesicles

Phagocytosis

Bulk transport of solids into cells

Ways of identifying bacteria pathogens

By their basic shape, by their cell walls (gram egg or pos)

respiratory quotient

CO2 produced/O2 consumed

Light-independent stage of photosynthesis

Calvin cycle

Inbreeding

Can be a result of excessive selective breeding where genetic variation is very low. It increases the risk of genetic diseases that affect the whole population

Advantages of using immobilised enzymes

Can be reused - which is cheaper, easily separated from reactants and products reducing downstream processing and separation costs, more reliable - higher degree of control, greater temperature tolerance as less easily denatured so work at a wider optimum range, ease of manipulation to fit particular process

Methodology of capture-mark-release-recapture technique of measuring animal abundance in an ecosystem

Capture as many individuals as possible in a sample area, mark or tag each individual, release the marked individuals into the sample area and allow them to redistribute themselves throughout the habitat, recapture as many individuals as possible in the original sample area, record the number of marked and unmarked individuals present in the sample, release all the individuals back in to their habitat, use the Lincoln index to estimate the population size

Cytokines

Cell signalling molecules released by phagocytes that have engulfed a pathogen informing them that the body is under attack and stimulating them to move to the site of infection or inflammation. Can also increase body temp and stimulate specific immune system

Forming structures by mitosis and apoptosis

Cells proliferate by mitosis, then unwanted structures are removed by apoptosis to shape structures, can also be added by further mitosis

companion cells

Cells that are linked to sieve tube cells by many plasmodesmata because they have lost their normal cell functions

Differeniated cells

Cells that are specialised to carry out very specific functions

Prokaryotes

Cells that do not have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Eukaryotes

Cells that have a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Anaphase II

Centromere division, individual chromatids pulled by spindle fibres to opposite cell poles

Copicing as a method of sustainable small-scale timber production

Certain types of trees can be cut at the base and the timber harvested, they regrow from the base and can be continually harvested in this way rotationally

Streptobacilli

Chain of bacilli

Streptococci

Chain of cocci

Nasal cavity

Chamber into which air is breathed in covered in many hairs and rich blood supply to catch dust and pathogens and warm up air

Positive feedback system

Change detected by sensory receptors and effectors are stimulated to reinforce the that change and increase the response

Factors affecting the expression of regulatory genes

Changes in internal or external environment, drugs

Dihybrid inheritance

Characteristics controlled by 2 genes

Monogenetic/monohybrid inheritance

Characteristics controlled by only one gene

G2 checkpoint

Checks for: cell size, DNA replication, DNA damage.

G1 checkpoint

Checks for: cell size, nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine system and bind to receptors in target cells to initiate a change

Chemoreceptors controlling heart rate

Chemical receptors that detect chemical changes such as pH because when CO2 levels are high there is a lower pH due to more carbonic acid

Opsonins

Chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them so that they can be more easily recognised by phagocytes

Examples of a characteristic in plants that is a result of environmental variation and genetic variation

Chlorosis, etoliation

Anaphase I

Chromosomes are pulled to different poles of the cell by centrioles' spindle fibres

sphincters

Circular muscles that encircle and, by contracting, constrict spiracles in insects

cofactor for amylase

Cl-

Main soil types as edaphic factors affecting ecosystems

Clay-fine particles, easily waterlogged, forms clumps when wet; loamy-different sized particles, retains water, doesn't become waterlogged; sandy-coarse, well-separated particles, free draining, doesn't retain water well, easily eroded

Staphylococci

Cluster of cocci

Exons

Coding regions of mRNA

Exons

Coding regions of pre-mRNA

Organ

Collection of tissues that are adapted to perform a particular function in an organism

Photosystem

Collectively of the light harvesting system and reaction centre

Colostrum

Colostrum is a form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals in late pregnancy. It contains antibodies from mother's blood

Vibrio

Comma shaped bacteria

Spirometer

Commonly used to measure different aspects of the lung volume or to investigate breathing patterns

Ecosystem

Community of living organisms in conjunction with the physical components of the environment (air, water) that interact with each other in a defined area

Examples of biotic factors

Competition for resources between organisms in a population or between different populations for includes predation) , territory, mates

Natural selection

Competition in a species, variation and environmental changes mean the best adapted organism is more likely to survive and pass on characteristics

Conditions for evolution

Competition, variation, heredity, selection mechanism or pressure

White matter

Conatains many myelinated and unmyelinated neurones amd not many cell bodies

Ex situ conservation

Conservation out of the natural habitat and involves removal of organisms from their natural habitat

In situ conservation

Conservation within the natural habitat

Tropic levels after the first tropic level are always

Consumers

Secondary consumers

Consumers that eat primary consumers

Primary consumers

Consumers that eats a producer

Identification key

Contain images and discernable characteristics to help identify organisms

Nuclues

Contains all genetic material in a cell in chromosomes

Grey matter

Contains many cell bodies and not many axons

Microfilaments

Contractile fibres made of actin. Responsible for cell movement.

Checkpoints

Control mechanisms of the cell cycle, that monitor and verify accurate phase completion. Only after successfully passing a checkpoint a cell can enter the next phase.

Stomatal control mechanism

Controlled by ABA (abscissic acid). When water in low supply abscissic acid produced that binds to receptors in guards cells that increases their water potential and they lose water and close stomata

Type 1 diabetes treatment (insulin dependent)

Controlled by regular injections of insulin

Oestrogen

Controls ovulation and female secondary sexual characteristics

Testosterone

Controls sperm production and male secondary sexual characteristics

Confocal pinhole

Controls the amount of re-radiated light arriving at the detector

Illumination pinhole

Controls the amount of the laser's light being emitted

Glucagon

Converts glycogen back to glucose in the liver

Spirochaete

Corkscrew shaped bacteria

Transformation methods in genetic engineering

Culture bacteria in calcium-rich solution so recombinant plasmids can pass through permeable membranes. Electroporation where a small current passed over cell to increase membrane permeability. Electrofusion for fusing two animal cells

Stages of Light-dependent stage of photosynthesis

Cyclic phosphorylation, non-cyclic phosphorylation, photolysis

Pyrimidines

Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil. Single ring carbon, nitrogenous bases

Prophase I

DNA condenses into chromosomes, nuclea membrane dissolves, spindle fibres start to be produced by centrioles, homologous pairs of chromosomes pair up, CROSSING OVER OCCURS

Prophase II

DNA condenses into chromosomes, nuclear membrane dissolves, spindle fibres start to be produced by centrioles,

Main stages of gel electrophoresis

DNA fragment mixture put in wells in agarose gel strips with buffer at origin at cathode. Electrical current switched on and DNA fragments move to anode due to -ve phosphate groups. Distance moved is inversely proportional to their length

Separation as a main stage of DNA profiling

DNA fragments are separated by electrophoresis by applying a electric current through the fragments on a gel mesh, then immersed in alkali solution to separate the strands into single strands. Single strands then transferred to a membrane by Southern blotting

Main stages of Southern blotting

DNA fragments denatured in alkaline solution to give single strands. These strands are transferred to nitrocellulose paper or nylon membrane by placing a stack of absorbent paper on the gel which draws up the solution with the DNA in their correct positions. DNA single strands unable to pass through membrane so stick to it. Fixed in place by heating of UV light

Extraction of DNA as a main stage of DNA profiling

DNA is extracted from a tissue sample. If too little DNA is contained in the sample PCR can be used to reproduce the DNA

S phase (Synthesis phase)

DNA is replicated in the nucleus.

Substances added to a thermal cycler for PCR

DNA sample to be amplified, excess of bases, excess of primer complementary to ends of sample, heat-resistant DNA polymerase

Method of DNA sequencing

DNA to be sequenced is mixed with primers, DNA polymerase, excess of normal nucleotides. Mixture placed in a thermal cycler. At 96'C DNA separates into single strands, at 50'C primers anneal to DNA strands, at 60'C DNA polymerase starts to build up new DNA strands by adding complementary bases to template. Each time a terminator base is added DNA polymerase stops. Cycle repeated many times. Capillary sequencing used to separate and identify final base of each strand with a terminator. Computer can then determine the order of sequences of the original DNA

Histone modification

DNA which is -vely charged is attracted to +vely charged histones during condensation, acylation or phosphorylation reduces +ve charge on histones causing DNA to coil less tightly, methylation does the opposite so DNA cannot be transcribed

Modes of action of pathogens

Damaging host tissues directly, producing toxins that damage host cells

Physiological responses as a form of thermoregulation in ectotherms to increase body temperature

Darker colourings, alter their heart rate to increase/decrease metabolic rate

Abiotic stresses affecting plants

Day length/light intensity, temperature, water availability, wind.

Extinct taxa

Dead species

Terai region key issues

Deforestation causes loss of habitat and poverty as locals rely on forest for income. Flooding common and devastates locals.

Types of translational control

Degradation of mRNA, inhibition of mRNA, activation of initiation factors, protein kinases

Steps of PCR

Denaturation/separation of sample DNA, annealing of primers, elongation/synthesis of DNA

types of limiting factors

Density-dependent factors and density-independent factors

endotherms

Depend on metabolic processes to warn up and maintain a very stable core body temperature regardless of environmental temperature

Divergent evolution

Describes how species have evolved from a common ancestor, with a different set of adaptive features.

Sequence of steps in genetic engineering

Desired gene is isolated by restriction endonucleases with sticky ends. Plasmid from a bacterial cell is removed and cut with the same restriction endonucleases. The desired gene and plsmid have complementary sticky ends so combine forming a recombinant plasmid. DNA ligase used to fuse the DNA backbone. Recombinant plasmid introduced into new host cells, bacteria multiply in fermenter, downstream processing, pure desired product

Receptor

Detect changes in internal or external environment

Sustainable development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Blood glucose concentration can increase by

Diet (eating carbohydrates), glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis

Environmental variation

Differences in individuals of a species due to their environment

Genetic variation

Differences in the genetics material an organism inherits from its parents

Edaphic factors as abiotic factors affecting ecosystems

Different soils have different particle sizes which has an effect on the organisms that can live there

Alleles

Different versions of the same gene

Causes of genetic biodiversity

Different versions of the same gene called alleles and account for genetic biodiversity

Direct contact

Direct contact of a healthy plant with any part of a diseased plant

Liver cirrhosis

Disease where normal liver tissue is reolaced by fibrous scar tissue. Causes can be Hep C, genetic or excessive alco hol intoxication

Allopatric speciation

Divergent speciation due to geographical factors

Order of taxonomical hierarchy

Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

Leaf abscission mechanism

Due to less light intensity leaf produces less auxins and plant produces more ethene. This switches on genes that code for cellulases that destroy cells in abscission zone and leaf falls

Degenerate code

Each amino acid has more than one coding triplet

Why is the genetic code described as non-overlapping?

Each codon is read seperately always as the 3 base pairs

Trophic levels

Each stage in a food web where biomass/energy is transferred from one organism to another

Advantages of using isolated extracellular enzymes rather than intracellular isolated enzymes

Easier to isolate - they are secreted, and each microorganisms produced relatively few extracellular enzymes, more robust - extracellular conditions not as constant as intracellular conditions

Environmentally sensitive ecosystems

Ecosystems that are less resistant to changes in them/more fragile

Types of glands

Endocrine and exocrine

The Lake District National Park brief description

England's largest National Park, woodlands, lakes, range of habitats

Biocides

Enzyme inhibitors used to kill organisms by inhibition. Used commonly in agriculture

Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (RuBiCO)

Enzyme responsible for the fixation of carbon dioxide to RuBP in Calvin Cycle (incredibly inefficient)

Protein kinases

Enzymes that catalyse the addition of phosphate groups to proteins which changes their tertiary structure which activates so they act as regulators of cell activity, protein kinases are activated by cAMP

Immobilised enzymes

Enzymes that have been trapped in a matrix or bound to a surface to make a process more efficient because it reduces downstream processing

Extra cellular enzymes

Enzymes that perform their role outside the cell that made them

Lincoln index used to estimate population size

Estimated population size = n of sample 1 x n of sample 2 / n of recaptured marked individuals

3 Domains

Eukarya, Eubacteria, archae

Latent heat of vaporisation ( the amount of heat needed to turn a substance into a gas)

Evaporation methods are efficient cooling mechanisms helping maintain a constant body temp.

environmental causes of temperature decrease in organisms

Evaporation of water, conduction, convection and radiation to environment

Pancreaic acini

Exocrine tissue of pancreas, small berry-like clusters that produce and secrete digestive enzymes

gills

Extensions of the body containing thin-walled blood vessels that allow for easy absorption of oxygen from the outside surface

Main stages of producing a DNA profile

Extraction of DNA, digestion of sample, separation of DNA, hybridisation, development

density-dependent factors

Factors dependent on population size inluding competition, predation, parasitism, communicable diseases

Selection pressures

Factors that affect the organisms chances of survival or reproductive success

limiting factors (genetics)

Factors which limit or decrease the size of a population

Masai Mara key issues in area

Farming: Masai Mara tribes only allowed to let cattle graze on outskirts of nature reserve, trees removed by tribes for fuel increasing soil erosion, tribes have reliance on fertilisers due to overuse of cropsfields, ecotourism ensures sustainable development and conservation of area

Masai Mara balancing human needs and conservation

Fenced areas to prevent elephants and wildebeest from damaging crops however there may be interspecific competition between livestock and native species for food, legal hunting used to as means of income and culling of excess animals. As Masai populations increase more crops and livestock which affect wildlife

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Folded membranes joined to the nuclear membrane made of cisternae. Has ribosomes on its surface, site of protein synthesis

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Folded membranes joined to the nuclear membrane made of cisternae. Site of carbohydrate and lipid production

Cristae

Folds of the inner membrane of mitochondria with respiratory enzymes

Uses and applications of DNA profiling

Forensics where only a small sample of DNA is obtained, proving paternity, indentification of individuals who at risk of developing particular diseases

Terai region conservation and research

Forest management: National laws, local people employed by state to manage forests, work with FSC by increasing sustainability of deforestation and increasing price of timber products. Agriculture: sustainable, not in deforested areas, on hill regions, better irrigation, nitrogen fixing legumes grown and manure used instead of fertilisers

Okazaki fragments

Fragment made by DNA polymerase, going from the replication fork

Methods of artificial cloning in invertebrates

Fragmentation of starfish or liquidation of sponges will create new individuals that regenerate from most fragments

Nuecleoid region

Free chromosomal 'naked' DNA not bound by a membranous nucleus

Types of isolated enzymes

Free isolated enzymes and immobilised isolated enzymes

Transpiration

Fthe loss of water vapour from plants from their leaves and stems

C ->

G

The three stages of interphase

G1, S, G2

Medical production of insulin

Generically modified bacteriathat produce pure human insulin

Linked genes

Genes with loci on the same chromosome

Cause of continuous variation

Genetic and environmental

The importance of genetic biodiversity

Genetic biodiversity is important because the greater the genetic biodiversity of a species the more able the species is to adapt to changes in their environment, hence less likely to be extinct as there is a greater chance that some individuals will have an advantageous characteristic

Clones

Genetically identical organisms (identical to parent and to other cloned offspring)

Monozygotic twins

Genetically identical twins produced when the early embryo splits into two separately developing embryos

Bacterial vector transformation as an example of genetic engineering in plants

Genetically modified bacteria that cause tumours in plants transfer genes in micropropagation forming a callus of GM plant cells

Methods of genetic engineering in plants

Genetically modified bacteria used as a vector, electrofusion

Factors causing variation

Genetics, environment

Intermediate fibres

Give a cell mechanical strength

Antarctica problems caused by human activities

Global warming melts ice sheets, hunting of marine mammals, over-fishing, tourism: water pollution, soil contamination, disruption of animals' mating and feeding habits

Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by

Glycogenolysis, reduces the amount of glucose absorbed by liver cells, increases gluconeogenesis

Gonadotropins

Glycoprotein, polypeptide hormone in vertebrates, in humans: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Reasons why agriculture is the main reason why deflected succession occurs

Grazing and trampling of vegetation by domesticated animals - results in large areas remaining as grassland, removal of existing vegetation to plant crops - crop becomes plagioclimax, burning as a means of forest clearance increasing biodiversity due to secondary ecological succession recolonisation

Cilia

Hair-like extensions, stationary cilia are used as chemical sensors, mobile cilia beat in rhythmically to move fluids

Semiconservative replication

Half of the original DNA is conserved in the new strand that is formed ensuring a direct copy

When sampling animals

Handle them carefully for as little time as possible and release where they were found

decomposers

Harness chemical energy in organic ,molecules from consumers and producers in the exothermic reaction of respiration

consumers

Harness chemical energy in organic, molecules from consumers in the exothermic reaction of respiration

T helper cells

Have CD4 receptors on their cell-surface membrane, which bind to the surface antigens on APCs. They produce interleukins - cytokines that stimulate the the activity of B cells

Control of heart rate

Heart rate is involuntary and controlled by medulla oblongata in the autonomic nervous system

Common symptoms of diabetes mellitus

High blood glucose concentration, glucose present in urine, excessive frequency of urination (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), constant hunger, weight loss, blurred vision, tiredness

Snowdonia National Park brief description

High mountain range in N Wales, lakes, rivers, heath, woodland

Hyperglycaemia

Higher than normal blood sugar level/glucose concentration

Magnification

How many times larger the image is than the actual size of the object being viewed

Non-steroid hormones

Hydrophillic so cannot pass through membranes bind to receptors on the cell surface membrane of target cells

alleles of the polymorphic immunoglobulin gene in humans

IA, IB, IO

Development as a main stage of DNA profiling

If radioactive DNA probes used X-ray images are taken. If fluorescent DNA probes used membrane placed under UV light and the fluorescent tags glow. Both give a unique pattern of bars called a DNA profile

Reasons why the abundance of a species may fluctuate

Immigration and births will increase numbers of individuals, emigration and deaths will decrease the number of individuals

Reduced NADP/NADPH/NADPH2

Important coenzyme involved in the light independent stage of photosynthesis in the synthesis of complex organic molecules

tracheoles

In insects, narrow tubes branching from trachea and making direct contact with cells to facilitate gas exchange

Chloroplast

In plant cell, the organelle responsible for photosynthesis

Main stages of micropropgation/tissue culture

In sterile conditions a tissue sample from a shoot tip or axial bud, sample is sterilised in bleach, ethanol or sodium dichloroisocyanurate, explant put in sterile culture medium of auxins and cytokinins stimulating mitosis, producing a callus, callus divided into clumps cultured on medium with different composition which stimulates plantlets, plantlets potted out then planted out to grow and produce a crop

Denitrification

In waterlogged soil in the absence of oxygen, nitrifying bacteria cannot fix convert nitrogen so they use nitrates as a source of energy

Type 1 diabetes

Inability to produce glucose

Glucocorticoids

Include cortisol that helps regulate metabolism by controlling how the body converts fats, proteins and catbohydrates to energy, helps regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function as well as regulate immune response and surpress inflammatory reactions

Common factors of exchange surfaces

Increased surface area, thin layers, good blood supply, ventilation to maintain diffusion gradientr

Adrenaline

Increases heart rate by sending blood quickly to the muscles and brain, rapidly raises blood glucose concentration levels by converting glycogen to glucose in the liver

Insulin lowers blood glucose concentration by

Increasing rate of aborption of glucose by skeletal muscle cells, increasing respiration rate of cells, increases rate of glycogenesis, increases the rate of glucose to fat conversion, inhibits the release of glucagon from alpha cells of the islets of Langarhans

Causes of genetic variation

Independent assortment, crossing over events, random fertilisation

Soil contamination

Infected plants can leave pathogens or reproductive spores of protoctists or fungi in the soil

Communicable diseases

Infectious diseases spread from organism to organism caused by organisms known as pathogens

Mesosome

Infolding of a prokaryote's internal membrane. Site of early respiration processes

Inhibition of mRNA

Inhibitory proteins can bind to mRNA which prevents it from binding ribosomes so prevents translation

Activation of initiation factors

Initiation factors are substances that aid binding of mRNA to ribosomes so when activate increase rate of translation

Batch fermentation

Inoculated medium is allowed to go through all stages of its growth curve, used to make secondary metabolites

Activators

Inorganic groups that are permanently bound to the enzyme like a prosthetic group

Inspiration

Intake of breath

secondary structureof proteins

Interactions between polypeptide chains such as alpha helices and beta pleated sheets due to hydrogen bonding

Capillarity

Intermolecular forces causes water to rise up in tubes of small diameters, which is helpful in plant xylem.

Stroma

Internal fluid in a chloroplast

Thylakoid

Internal membranes form flattened sacs

Anatomical adaptations

Internal or external physical adaptation features

Glycoprotein

Intrinsic proteins, with a carbohydrate chain attached of varying shapes and lengths. Act as receptors for chemical signals and aid cell adhesion.

Types of postzygotic sympatric speciation

Inviable zygote, hybrid sterility

Reason why DNA Polymerase is not denatured in the denaturation stage of PCR

It is extracted from extremophile bacteria that have a heat-resistant type of DNA polymerase so at 95'C it is not denatured

Objective lens

It magnifies the specimen being viewed

Disadvantages of propagation from cuttings

Lack of genetic diversity/variation if a new disease or pest appears or if climate change occurs

Stages of a growth curve (in order)

Lag phase, log/exponential phase, stationary phase, death/decline phase

Sweep net

Large nets that are used in a sweeping motion to catch insects in areas of long grass

Population bottlenecks

Large reductions in population size which lasts for at least one generation. Gene pool and genetic diversity is greatly reduced

Islets of Langerhans

Large sherical clusters of endocrine tissue of pancreas, responsible for producing insulin and glucagon, secreting them directly into bloodstream

Advantages of using isolated intracellular enzymes rather than isolated extracellular enzymes

Larger range of intracellular enzymes, so more useful in specific reaction, specificity outweighs expensive isolation process

Protection layer

Layer before the seperation zone in leaf petiole covered by suberin to waterproof vascular vessels and prevent pathogens from entering

sexual selection

Leads to an increase in allele frequency of alleles which code for characteristics that improve mating success

Plant response to decreased day light/light intensity

Leaf abscission

Stage 3 of an intraspecific competition graph

Less competition due to a smaller number of individuals means that resources are in plentiful supply so individuals survive and reproduce increasing the population size

Advantages of using isolated enzymes over whole (micro)organisms

Less wasteful - don't need growing substrates, more efficient - can work at higher substrate concs, purer product - no side reactions/products from other enzymes, maximised efficiency - can be given ideal conditions which are different to whole organism's, less downstream processing - pure product formed

Non-cyclic phospholrylation (Z scheme)

Light absorbed by PSII, 2 e- released, accepted by e- acceptor, go along e.t.c. making ATP. 2 e- absorbed by deficient PSI. Light ansorbed by PSI, 2 e- released to e- acceptor, pass along e.t.c., along with 2 H+ convert NADP to reduced NADP

Unilateral light

Light coming from only one side

The stages of photosynthesis

Light dependent stage, light independent stage

Factors affecting transpiration

Light intensity, Relative humidity, Temperature, Air movement, Soil-water availibility

The limiting factors of photosynthesis:

Light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide concentration

Examples of abiotic factors

Light, temperature, water availability, oxygen availability, edaphic (soil) factors

Phytochrome

Light-sensitive pigments responsible for photoperiodism. Has two forms: Pr and Pfr each absorbing different types of light

density-independent factors

Limiting factors that affect populations of all sizes in the same way including climate change, natural disasters, seasonal change, human change (deforestation)

Problems caused by interbreeding

Limiting the gene pool reduces genetic diversity so reduces the chance of evolution, lack of genetic diversity may cause a higher frequency of genetic disorders (both revessive amd dominant) as more are carriers meaning a an organism becomes less biological fit

Steroid hormones

Lipid soluble so can pass through phospholipid bilayer and attach to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells

Glycolipid

Lipids with attached carbohydrate chains. Called cell markers or antigens, help in identification in immune system as foreign or non foreign cell.

Biotic factors

Living factors caused by the interactions between organisms that are living or have once lived

Extant taxa

Living species

Demes

Local interbreeding populations

Gram positive bacteria

Look purple blue under a light microscope eg MRSA

Gram negative bacteria

Look red pink under a light microscope eg E. coli

reasons for uncertainty in the details of many plant responses

Low concentrations of plant hormones so isolation and measuring their concentration change is difficult, multiple interactions between different chemical control systems

Hypoglycaemia

Lower than normal blood sugar level/glucose concentration

Ribosomes

Made in nucleolus they read mRNA and produce polypeptide chains of bonded amino acids

Phospholipid bilayer

Made of a double layer of phospholipids, where the hydrophobic tails attract each other, creating a hydrophyllic surface. This contains an internal environment and is flexible but strong

Centriole

Made of microtubules they assemble and organise the cytoskeleton

Eyepiece lens

Magnifies the magnified image produced by the objective lens

The Galapagos Islands animals present

Mainly reptiles: marine iguana, lizards, Galapagos giant tortoise

Peat bogs conservation and research

Maintain and control water levels by: controlled grazing of livestock, removal of seedling trees, ditch blocking to raise water levels, preventing flooding by researching, reducing the drying and extraction of peat

Homeostasis

Maintainance of a dynamic equilibrium to keep a constant internal environment by small changes over a narrow range of conditions

Accessory pigment

Make up the antennae complex

Why is the genetic code described as degenerate?

Many codons code for one amino acid

Line transect

Marking a line along the ground between points and taking samples at specific points

Vitalograph

Measures the forced exploratory volume in 1 second

Peak flow meter

Measures the rate at which air can be expelled from the lungs

Continuous fermentation

Medium inoculated and allowed to grow until log phase then conditions are kept constant by removing waste products and adding new nutrient medium, used to produce primary metabolites

Reduction division

Meiosis, division where each daughter cell has half the genetic material of the parent

Order of events that lead to speciation

Members of a population become isolated, interbreeding stops with rest of population so no gene flow between groups, random mutations and due to selection pressures different characteristics are selected for and agianst, accumulation of mutations and change in allele frequency over generations leads to large changes in phenotype until they can no longer reproduce with the original population so are reproductively isolated

Lamallae

Membranes that join grana

mRNA

Messenger ribonucleic acid. A single stranded template of DNA that is able to leave the nucleus and codes for proteins when it connects to a ribosome

Competitive inhibitors

Molecules similar in shape to the substrate that bind to active site and prevent substrate from entering

Pigment molecules

Molecules that absorb or reflect specific wavelengths of light

Electron acceptors/carriers

Molecules that accept and carry electrons in the light-dependent stages of photosynthesis from the excitation of electrons in chlorophyll a by light

Cause of discontinuous variation

Mostly genetic

Factors affecting evolution

Mutation, sexual selection, gene flow, genetic drift, environmental changes

Factors increasing genetic biodiversity

Mutations in the DNA of an organism create new alleles, interbreeding between different populations - gene flow

The Galapagos Islands control of human activities

National Park created, park rangers introduced, limiting of tourists access to islands or areas, controlling animal migration, strict control of movement of livestock (pigs)

Types of cloning

Natural and artificial

Masai Mara ecostsyem

Nature reserve in Kenya, primarily savannah with fertile grasslands and forests, has annual zebra and wildebeest migrations, large mammals present: black rhino, buffalo, elephants, lions

Penicillium chrysogenum requirements

Needs relatively oxygen levels and a rich nutrient medium, sensitive to pH and temperature, produced by semi-continuous batch process, Penicillin is a secondary metabolite

Terai region ecosysem

Nepal, extremely high biodiversity, fertile, alluvial soils. Thick forests, hot and humid conditions. Bengal tigers and sloth bears present

Cytoskeleton

Network of fibres necessary for shape and stability of a cell

tertiary colonisers

New species of plants with waxy cuticles that protect them from water losses and can survive in conditions without the abundance of water but they need to obtain their water and minerals from the soil

Steps in the process of nitrification

Nitrifying bacteria (such as Nitrosomonas) oxidise ammonium compounds into nitrites (NO2-), other bacteria (Nitrobacter) oxidise nitrites into nitrates (NO3-)

Genus of nitrifying bacterium that oxidises nitrites to nitrates

Nitrobacter

Genus of nitrifying bacteria that oxidise ammonium compounds into nitrites

Nitrosomonas

Why are microorganisms used in biotechnologies?

No welfare issues, enormous range of capabilities, genetics can be easily artificially manipulated by genetic engineering, very short life cycle, rapid growth rate, simple and relatively cheap nutrient requirements, lower costs and temperatures than non-biological processes

Virus

Non living infectious agents, 0.2-0.3x10^-6m, made of DNA or RNA by protein, they invade, control and replicate using host cells, classed as the ultimate parasite

Introns

Non-coding regions of mRNA

Introns

Non-coding regions of pre-mRNA

Abiotic factors

Non-living conditions in a habitat that have direct impact on the organisms that reside there

Abiotic factors

Non-living or physical factors

Abiotic stresses

Non-living/environmental pressures that change and affect plants

Cofactor

Non-protein substances that some enzymes rely on before they can catalyse a reaction.

Undifferentiated cells

Not adapted to any particular function, have the potential to differentiate in to a range of specialised cell types in the organism

Reasons for low efficiency at a consumer level

Not all the biomass of an organism is eaten, some energy is transferred to the environment as metabolic heat, some parts of an organism are eaten but are indigestible so are egested as faeces, some energy is lost in the form as excretory materials such as urine

Reasons for low efficiency at producer level

Not all the solar energy available is used for photosynthesis as most is reflected, some transmitted or at unusable wavelengths, other limiting factors of photosynthesis, some energy 'lost' by photosynthetic reactions

Telophase II

Nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes which uncoil, cytokinesis occurs producing 4 haploid genetically different cells

RNA editing

Nucleotide sequence of some mRNA molecules can be changed by insertion, deletion or substitution (same effects as base-point mutations) which increases range of proteins produced by one mRNA molecule

Estimated number in population (m^-2)

Number of individuals sample/ area of sample (m^2)

Snowdonia National Park animals present

Numerous bird species: choughs, badgers, deer

Limiting factors preventing theoretical maximum exponential growth rate

Nutrient availability, oxygen levels, temperature, accumulation of toxic waste products, change in pH

Microbial culture media

Nutrient broth (liquid), agar jelly (solid)

Microbial culture media types

Nutrient broth (liquid), agar jelly (solid)

Bilateral symmetry

Observed in most animals where the organisms have bothe left and right, and head and tail

Asymmetry

Observed in organisms that have no lines of symmetry e.g. Sponges

genetic drift

Occurs in small populations where there is a change in the allele frequency due to the random nature of mutation

Primary succession

Occurs on an area of land that has been newly formed or exposed, there is no soil or organic matter present

Secondary succession

Occurs on areas of land where soil is present, but it contains no plant or animal species

Sympatric speciation

Occurs when demes become reproductively isolated from each other, can be prezygotic or postzygotic

Sympatric speciation

Occurs when members of two different species in the same habitat interbreed and create fertile offspring, the hybrid may become reproductively isolated as it can no longer interbreed with either parent population

Antiparallel

One DNA strand is identical to the other but flipped 180'

Balanced diet

One that has a correct proportion of all molecules needed for survival

Main advantage of PCR (according to OCR)

Only a small sample of DNA is needed for PCR amplification

Complementary base pairing

Only specific bases that make the right number of H bonds with a complementary base can pair

Mitochondria

Organelle responsible for the final stages of cellular respiration. Powerhouse of the cell.

Coenzymes

Organic molecules that bind only temporarily to enzymes transferring a chemical group necessary required for the reaction

Multicellular organisms

Organisms made of many specialised cells working together

Unicellular organisms

Organisms that are made of only a single cell

Autotrophic organisms

Organisms that can make complex organic molecules by photosynthesis

ectotherms

Organisms that depend on the environment to warm their bodies

Heterotrophic organisms

Organisms that obtain complex organic molecules by consuming other organisms

Chemoautotrophs

Organisms that obtain energy from oxidation of electron donors in their environment

Heterotroph/Consumer

Organisms that obtain their energy by feeding on other organisms as they are unable to fix carbon from inorganic sources

mutants

Other forms of the wild type allele, results of mutations

Expiration

Out take of breath

Evidence for evolution

Paleontology (the study of fossils and the fossil record), comparative anatomy, comparative biochemistry, comparative embryology

Glucagon

Peptide hormone (secondary structure has one alpha helix) produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. Increases blood glucose concentration

Thermoreceptors in endotherms

Peripheral temperature receptors in skin detect changes in surface temperature, temperature receptors in hypothalamus detect temperature of blood deep in body

Type 2 glucose

Person doesnt produce enough insulin or the persons body cells do not respond properly to insulin

Stages of a population growth curve

Phase 1/slow growth, Phase 2/rapid growth, Phase 3/stable state

Sequence of events of glycolysis

Phosphorylation, lysis, phosphorylation, dehydration and formation of ATP

The glands of the endocrine system

Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes

Photosynthesis

Plant process of creating glucose from carbon dioxide and water by trapping high energy radiation from the sun by chlorophyll

Method by which nitrogen enters a plant

Plants cannot fix nitrogen from the atmosphere directly so absorb nitrogen in the form of highly soluble nitrates from the soil produced by nitrifying bacteria.

What does PCR stand for?

Polymerase chain reaction

Stratified

Populations are divided into strata (sub-groups) based on a particular characteristics based on their size (male and female)

Polymorphic populations

Populations that display more than one distinct phenotype

Herbivory

Predation of plants by animals

Reasons why a predator-prey graph may not be identical to a theoretical one

Predator feeds on multiple prey and finds it easier to prey on the one in greatest supply,

Most famous predator-prey relationship measured

Predator-prey relationship between snowshoe hare and canadian lynx

Aesthetic reasons for maintaining biodiversity

Presence of many species enriches peoples' lives, biodiversity is inspiration for creators, nature relieves stress and decreases recovery time

extrinsic/peripheral protein

Present in one side of bilayer and have hydrophyllic R-groups on their outer surfaces that interact with hydrophyllic membrane or intrinsic proteins

Baroreceptors controlling heart rate

Pressure receptors that detect changes in blood pressure in blood vessels eg aorta, vena cava, carotid arteries

Industrial uses of cytokinins

Preventing ageing of ripened fruit and lettuce, micropropagation to control tissue development

Resons for leaf abscission of deciduous trees

Preventing damage from wind and conservation of energy and water (Loses leaves when amount of glucose used in respiration and chlorophyll production is greater than the amount of glucose produced by photosynthesis)

Types of sympatric speciation

Prezygotic, postzygotic

Types of succession

Primary succession, secondary succession

Alpha cells

Produce and secrete glucagon, are larger and more numerous than beta cells

Beta cells

Produce and secrete insulin

Adaptations of pioneer species/colonisers that allow them to colonise the bare environment

Produce large quantities of seeds or spores which are dispersed by wind to new areas, seeds that germinate rapidly, ability to produce their own

Ovaries

Produce oestrogen and progesterone

Testis

Produce testosterone

Production of insulin

Produced by GM bacteria in bioreactors and pure human insulin extracted in downstream processing

Adrenal gland

Produces adrenaline and noradrenaline

Pituitary gland

Produces growth hormones, ADH, gonadotropins

Pancreas

Produces insulin and glucagon

Pineal gland

Produces melatonin

Thymus gland

Produces thymosin

Thyroid gland

Produces thyroxine

Industrial uses of natural /synthetic auxins

Production of seedless fruit, dicot weedkiller in monocot crops

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death

Industrial uses of ethene

Promote fruit fall in cotton, walnuts and cherries

Thymosin

Promotes growth and maturity of white blood cells

Micropropagation

Propagation of a plant by using selected cells treated with plant hormones (cytokinins) to make it grow into an adult plant

The stages of mitosis

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Antennae complexes

Proteins and pigments that form the light harvesting system of plants. For example chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids

Histones

Proteins that associate with eukaryotic DNA to make a tightly coiled structure

Single strand binding proteins (SSBP's)

Proteins used to hold single DNA strands apart, so the hydrogen bonds cannot be reformed, once unzipped.

Adenine

Purine

Guanine

Purine

Cytosine

Pyrimidine

Thymine

Pyrimidine

Practices to maintain the sustainability of fishing

Quotas, reserves, subsidies, using larger net eyes to catch larger fish allowing younger ones to reproduce, reducing the destructiveness of the methods eg not using bomb-fishing

Pre-mRNA

RNA made of introns and exon that needs to be spliced to become RNA

Types of post-transcriptional/pre-translational control

RNA processing

Hybridisation as a main stage of DNA profiling

Radioactive or fluorescent DNA probes are added in excess to the DNA fragments and bind to complementary microsatellite regions. Excess probes washed off

Advantages of using sensors to measure abiotic factors

Rapid changes can be detected, human error in taking the reading is reduced, a high degree of precision, data can be stored and tracked on a computer

Log/exponential phase explanation

Rate of bacterial reproduction is close to or at its theoretical maximum

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells, haemoglobin binds to oxygen for gaseous exchange, flexible fit through capillaries, biconcave shape increase SA for max O2 absorbtion, no nucleus/few organelles more haemoglobin,

Anthocyanins

Red/purple pigments that formed from a reaction between sugars and proteins in cel sap. They are produced when there is a high concentration of augars and high light intensity. They absord blue-green wavelengths and protect chlorophyll from being destroyed

Stage 4 of a predator-prey relationship graph

Reduced predator number cause a low death rate in the prey population so more prey organisms survive and reproduce increasing the prey population. The cycle begins again.

Advantages of propagation from cuttings

Reduced time from planting to crop compared with seeds, guarantees cuttings are genetically identical to good stock used

Polysynaptic reflexes

Reflex arcs that have many synapses because sensory neurones have to connect to many sensory receptors and motor neurones have to connect to many effector

Monosynaptic reflexes

Reflex arcs with only one synapse which increases speed of transmission eg knee jerk reflex

Unconditional reflexes

Reflexes that are innate and not learned

Conditional reflexes

Reflexes that are learned through repeated exposure to a particular set of circumstances or stimuli

Methods of natural cloning in invertibrates

Regeneration entire individuals from fragments of the original individual if they are damaged eg starfish, sponges. Flatworms fragment as part of their normal reproductive process producing clones. Hydra form buds on the side of their body that develop into independent individuals

Exons

Regions of DNA that code for proteins and make up 2% of total DNA

Type 2 diabetes treatment (insulin independent)

Regulation of carbohydrate intake. Injections with drugs that can stimulate insulin production, slow down the rate at which body absorbs glucose from the intestine or insulin injections

Morphogenesis

Regulation of the pattern of anatomical development

Lac operon mechanism

Regulatory gene, lacI expressed producing repressor protein that blocks the operator and promoter regions. In the presence of lactose, lactose binds to the repressor protein changing its shape so that it unhindered and RNA polymerase can transcribe the structural genes by binding to the promoter region

Golgi apparatus

Repackages proteins into Secretory vesicles and adds a carbohydrate or prosthetic group.

Practices to maintain the sustainability of large-scale timber production

Replace every tree cut down with a newly planted tree, try to reduce the destructive methods of the harvesting, reduce the amount of selective harvesting to maintain more biodiversity

Postzygotic reproductive barriers

Reproductive barriers often produced as a result of hybridisation reduce the viabilityor reproductive potential of offspring

Prezygotic reproductive barriers

Reproductive barriers that fertilisation and the formation of a zygote

Blood glucose concentration can decrease by

Respiration, glycogenesis

Genus of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants

Rhizobium

Adaptations of alveoli to increase efficiency of respiration

Rich blood supply maintains steep conc gradients, carry gases to and from alveoli, walls only single epithelial cell decreasing diffusion distance, Large surface area so more diffusion can occur, lung surfactant to keep them open for continuous respiration

Why whilst preparing microbial cultures correct laboratory health and safety procedures must be followed (eg aseptic conditions)?

Risk of mutation that makes the strain pathogenic. Risk of contamination with pathogenic microorganisms from the environment

Why whilst preparing microbial cultures correct laboratory health and safety procedures must be followed?

Risk of mutation that makes the strain pathogenic. Risk of contamination with pathogenic microorganisms from the environment

Bacillus

Rod shaped bacteria

Arguments against animal cloning

SCNT very inefficient process, many clones fail to develop, miscarry or produce malformed offspring, clones have shortened lifespans, SCNT has been relatively unsuccessful in increasing the populations of rare organisms

Non-random sampling

Sample not chosen at random

Systematic

Sampling different areas within an overall habitat are identified

Opportunistic

Sampling organisms that are conveniently available, the weakest form of non-random sampling

Indentifying species (DNA barcoding) as a use of DNA sequencing

Scientists identify particular sections in the genomes of kingdoms that are common to all species but vary between them. In animals: Cytochrome C oxidase part of mitDNA used in respiration. In plants: chloroplast DNA use in photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids

Secondary pigments in photosynthesis that absorb different wavelengths of light

Somites

Segments in an embryo that develop into individual segments and their associated structures

Random sampling

Selecting individuals by chance, each individual has an equal likelihood of selection and has no human impact

Negative selection

Selection against a characteristic that is disadvantageous to an organism's survival

Directional selection

Selection pressure toward one extreme moves the mode in the same direction

Stabilising selection

Selection pressure towards the centre increases the number of individuals at the modal value

Disruptive selection

Selection pressure towards the extremes creates two modal values and leads to two different species

Minisatellite/ variable number tandem repeats (VNTVs)

Sequences of 20-50 base pairs that are repeated from 50 to several hundred times at more than 1000 locations in the human genome

Taxonomic groups (Linnaean classification)

Seven group hierarchy system of classifying living organisms

Granum

Several stacked thylakoids

Behavioural responses as a form of thermoregulation in ectotherms (and endotherms) to decrease body temperature

Shelter from sun by seeking shade, digging burrows, press bodoes against cool earth or stones, orietntate bodies to minimise surface area exposed, minimise movement to reduce metabolic reactions, aestivation (hibernation in hottest weather)

Satellite DNA

Short sections of DNA that are repeated many times within introns, telomeres and centromeres

Metaphase II

Single chromosome line up on metaphase plate, Spindle fibres attach to sister chromatids

Cytoplasm

Site of many aqueous cellular reactions

Androgens

Small amounts of male and female sex hormones that have a relatively small effect compared to testosterone amd oestrogen

Negative feedback system

Small change outside parameters detected by sensory receptors, effectors work to reverse the change and restore the conditions to their base levels

Snowdonia National Park control of human activities

Snowdonia National Park Authority formed which: conserves and enhances natural beauty and wildlife, promote sustainable ways to enjoy park, enhance local communities by providing jobs. Have built rock footpaths. Dinorwig HEPS deep in mountain provides energy without affecting beauty of area

Indirect transmission

Soil contamination and vectors

Plant responses to prevent freezing

Solutes in the cytoplasm that lower the freezing point eg salts, sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, proteins

Effector

Something that produces a coordinated change in response to a stimulus

Restriction endonucleases

Special enzymes that that cut the DNA double helix in to places, one on each strand at a recognition site

Level of organisation in multicellular organisms

Specialised cell>tissues>organs>organ systems>whole organism

Isolation of the desired gene in genetic engineering if the locus of the gene is known

Specific restriction endonucleases used to cut the DNA in 2 places producing sticky ends

Coccus

Spherical bacteria

Spirillum

Spiral shaped bacteria

The law of limiting factors

States that the rate of physiological process will be limited by the factor in the shortest supply

Totipotent

Stem cells that can differentiate into any type of cell

Types of hormones

Steroid and non-steroid

Progesterone

Steroid female sex hormone responsible for the menstrual cycle, pregnancy and embryogenesis in humans

Plant response to changes in water

Stomatal control

Gene bank

Stores of biological samples, other than seeds, such as sperm or eggs that are usually frozen

Digestion of sample as a main stage of DNA profiling

Strands of DNA are cut into smaller fragments using restriction endonucleases that cut each DNA strand at a recognition site, they cut the DNA in the intron regions

tertiary structure of proteins

Stronger bonds between secondary structure polypeptides inc. ionic, hydrophobic/hydrophillic interactions, disulfide bridge and hydrogen bonding

Inhibitor

Substances that affect enzyme action by making enzymes inactive

Primary metabolites

Substances which are essential to the normal growth of microorganisms, produced in log phase, e.g. Ethanol

Secondary metabolites

Substances which are not essential for normal growth, but are still used by cells, produced in stationary phase e.g. Penicillin

Specialised exchange surfaces

Surfaces that are adapted and specialised to function as an efficient gas exchange system

Radial symmetry

Symmetry observed in diploblastic animals where they have no right or left sides just a top and bottom e.g. Jellyfish

Antidiuretic hormone, ADH

Synthesised in the hypothalamus, stored and released by posterior pituitary gland in response to a drop in water potential of blood, has an effect on walls of collecting duct and DCT by moving aquaporins to surface increasing water reasborption

A ->

T

Sampling

Taking measurements of a limited number of individual organisms present in a particular area

Aseptic techniques

Techniques used to reduce the risk of contamination

Aseptic techniques

Techniques used to reduce the risk of contamination by keeping the environment around microorganisms sterile

Conditions that need to be kept controlled in bioreactors

Temperature, pH, nutrients and oxygen, mixing, asepsis

fever reasons

Temperatures higher than 37'C inhibit pathogen reproduction; the specific immune system works better at a higher temp

Types of prezygotic sympatric speciation

Temporal, ecological, gametic, polyploidal, behavioural, mechanical

oxaloacetate

The 4C regenerate of Kreb's Cycle

Determination of evolutionary relationships (phylogeny) between species

The DNA sequences of different species can be compared and the differences in their base sequence assumed to be caused by mutation. If the mutation rate is known the time since the 2 species shared a common ancestor can be calculated and a phylogenetic tree constructed

The Lake District National Park control of human activities

The Lake District National Park Authority created, actively manages area in a similar way to Snowdonia National Park Authority, replant native tree species

Antibiotic resistance

The ability of bacteria and other microorganisms to resist the effects of an antibiotic to which they were once sensitive due to natural selection (antibiotic acts as selection pressure, resistance is advantageous characteristic)

Contrast

The ability to distinguish between individual objects due to their difference in colour or shade

Innate or instinctive behaviour

The ability to do something is inherited through genes

Resolution

The ability to see individual objects as seperate entities

Behavioural adaptations

The adaptation in the way an organism behaves; can be inherited or learnt

wild type allele

The allele coding for the most common/normal characteristic

Dead space

The amount of air in the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea (where no gas exchange occurs).

Replication bubble

The area of DNA unzipped by DNA helicase from the replication fork to where the bases rejoin

Seperation zone

The area on the base of a leaf petiole where the leaf falls from in leaf abscission

Chemosynthesis

The biological conversion of one or more carbon containing molecules and nutrients in to organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic compounds or methane as a source of energy

Endocrine system

The bodily system made up of endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into bloodstream

inbreeding

The breeding of closely related individuals within a species' population

Bundle of His

The bundle of cardiac muscle fibers that conducts the electrical impulses that regulate the heartbeat, from the AVN in the right atrium to the septum between the ventricles and then to the left and right ventricles.

Optimum pH

The certain H ion conc at which the active site will be the right shape, thus the pH with the highest rate of reaction

Coenzyme NADP

The coenzyme important in photosynthesis that is reduced by the addition of 2e- and 2H+ from non-cyclic phosphorylation and photolysis and transfers them to TP to form GP in Calvin's Cycle

Enzyme-substrate complex

The complex between an enzyme nd substrate by weak bonds

Enzyme-inhibitor complex

The complex formed between an inhibitor and enzyme by bonds

Spliceosome

The complex of enzymes responsible for cutting out introns from mRNA. Made of restrictive and RNA Ligase enzymes

Epigenetics

The control of gene expression by the modification of DNA

Countercurrent multiplier

The creation of very concentrated urine by creation of a very low water potential in the renal medulla to allow for more water reabsorption

(Woes's) Three Domain System of classification

The current scientifically accepted classification system that uses 3 domains that are higher than kingdoms in the taxonomical hierarchy, based on differences in the ribosomal RNA (rRNA), cells' membrane lipid structure and sensitivity to antibiotics

Bioinformatics

The development of the software and computing tools needed to organise and analyse raw biological data, including the development of algorithms, mathematical models, and statistical test that help to interpret enormous quantities of data

Error (of measurement)

The difference between an individual measurement and the true value/accepted reference value of the quantity being measured

Interspecific variation

The differences between individuals of different species

Intraspecific variation

The differences between individuals of the same species

Genetic engineering

The direct manipulation of an organism's genomeusing biotechnology

Carbon cycle

The ecological cycle that recycles carbon in the environment

Nitrogen cycle

The ecological cycle that recycles nitrogen in the environment

Competitive exclusion principle

The ecological rule that states that where two species are competing for the same resources or occupy the same niche, the one that uses the resources more effectively or that is better adapted will ultimately eliminate the other species

Ecological efficiency

The eficiency with which biomass or energy is transferred from one trophies level to the next

Lock-and-key theory of enzyme action

The enzyme has a specific active site that is conplementary to the shape of the substrate

artificial selection/selective breeding

The evolution of a population due to the selection pressures caused by humans selecting the individuals with the most desirable characteristics to reproduce

Phylogeny

The evolutionary relationships between organisms

Expiratory reserve volume

The extra amount of air you can force out of your lungs over and above the normal tidal volume of air you breathe out

Genomics

The field of genetics that applies DNA sequencing methods and computational biology to analyse the structure and function of genomes

climax community

The final stage in a primary ecological succession, characterised by a stable statethat doesn't change a lot over time, normally with a few dominating plant or animal species, has a relatively low biodiversity compared to other seral stages

Generic name

The first name of an organism's Binomial nomenclature; its genus

pioneer species/primary colonisers

The first organisms to colonise an inhospitable environment, arrive as spores or seeds by wind dispertion or animal dispertion

Speciation

The formation of new species through the process of evolution

Speciation

The formation of new species when gene flow is effectively stopped between populations where it previously existed

Triplet code

The genetic code is made of 3 bases coding for one amino acid

Non-overlapping

The genetic code is non-overlapping because each triplet is read independently

Environmental gradient

The gradual change of abiotic factors across a linear area eg light intensity, altitude, water availability

Kymograph

The graph of lung volume vs. time produced by a spirometer

Chemotropism

The growth of plants in response to chemicals

Phototropism

The growth of plants in response to light which comes from one direction (unilateral light)

Geotropism

The growth of plants in response to the direction of gravity

Thigmotropism

The growth of plants in response to touch

Stage 2 of a predator-prey relationship graph

The increased predator population eats more of the prey causing a decline in the prey population

Adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland that secretes non-essential hormones like adrenaline and noradrenaline released when the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated when body is stressed

Epistasis

The interaction of genes at different loci eg when a gene codes for the production of an enzyme that changes the protein of another gene. If the enzyme isn't produced the protein isn't changed so the second gene's geotype has no effect

Introns

The large regions of DNA that do not code for proteins

Self-regulated system of maintaining blood glucse concentration

The level of glucose in the blood that determines the quantity of insulin and glucagon that is released

Matrix

The liquid interior of mitochondria

Mature mRNA

The mRNA product of splicing, RNA made up of only exons

Biomass

The mass of living material present in a particular place or in particular organisms

Inspiratory reserve volume

The maximum volume of air you can breathe in over and above the normal inhalation

Tonoplast

The membrane surrounding the vacoule

Microbial culture

The method of multiplying microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture media under controlled laboratory conditions.

The Fluid Mosaic model

The model of a phospholipid bilayer, in which the molecules are free to move relative to each other (fluid), giving flexibility and is embedded with different shape, size and position proteins (mosaic).

Degradation of mRNA

The more resistant to degradation the mRNA molecule is, the longer it will stay in the cytoplasm, the greater quantity of proteins will be synthesised from it

gene flow

The movement of alleles between populations due to immigration and emigration which result in different allele frequencies

intermediate community

The multiple seral stages between the pioneer community and the climax community characterised by the presence of secondary and tertiary colonisers, better adapted organisms outcompete the less well-adapted and dominate so are the most abundant in terms of mass, has the highest relative biodiversity

Breathing rate

The number of breaths taken per minute

Habitat biodiversity

The number of different habitats found within an area

Species richness

The number of different species living in a particular area

Carotene

The orange carotenoid

Parent DNA

The original DNA that replicates

Adrenal capsule

The outer region of the adrenal glands that secrete essential hormones like cortisol and aldosterone, glucocorticoids, mineralocortoids, androgens

Chiasma

The point at which two chromosomes cross over

Locus

The position

Hydrogen bonds

The positive charge on the hydrogens due to oxygen having a higher nuclear charge causes weak chemical bonds. This makes water difficult to evaporate so lots of energy is needed and it makes water stable due to the high incidences of them.

Repeatability

The precision obtained when measurement results are produced over a short timescale by the same person/group using the same apparatus in the same place

Reproducibility

The precision obtained when measurement results are produced over a wider timescale by different people using equivalent apparatus in different but equivalent places

Chlorophyll a

The primary pigment of photosynthesis

Reaction centre

The primary pigment part of a photosystem

Nitrification

The process by which ammonium compounds in the soil are converted, by nitrifying bacteria, into nitrogen-containing molecules that can be used by plants. Is an oxidation reaction so only occurs in well-aerated soils

Ammonification

The process by which decomposers convert nitrogen-containing molecules in dead organisms, faeces and urine into ammonium compounds

Glycogenolysis

The process by which glycogen stored in the liver and muscle cells is broken down into glucose which is released into blood stream

Classification

The process by which living organisms are sorted into groupson the basis of shared features

Amplification of DNA

The process of copying DNA to produce a very large amount of it from a very small amount to be used in DNA profiling

DNA sequencing

The process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule

Cell signalling

The process of how cells communicate consists of hormones binding to glycoproteins on surface causing a change or antigens used to recognise neighbouring cells

Nitrogen fixation

The process of incorporation nitrogen from the atmosphere by bacteria into other nitrogen compounds (ammonia) that can be used by plants

Micropropagation

The process of making large numbers of genetically identical offspring from a single parent plant using a tissue culture techniques

Gluconeogenesis

The production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources eg glucose can be made by the liver from lipids and amino acids

Glycogenesis

The production of glycogen by converting it into glycogen and stored in liver

Stage 3 of a predator-prey relationship graph

The reduced prey population can no longer support the predator population (it has exceeded the carrying capacity) and intraspecific competition for food in the predator population increases, resulting in a decrease in t he size of the predator population

Predator-prey relationship

The relationship between a predator and its prey in alternating periods of growth and decline over time

allele frequency

The relative frequency of a particular allele in a population

RNA processing/Splicing

The removal of introns by a spliceosome from pre-mRNA to produce mature mRNA made up of only introns, a cap and tail are added too to show the start and end

Ventral root

The root

Dorsal root

The root that feeds into the spinal cord from sensory neurones

Why is the genetic code described as universal?

The same codon codes for the same amino acid in all organisms

Specific name

The second name of an organism's Binomial nomenclature; its species

Photoperiodism

The sensitivity of plants to the lack of light in their environment

Abscission zone

The seperation zone and the protective layer

Metabolism

The set life sustaining reactions within cells of living organisms

Catabolic

The set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units

Anabolic

The set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units

A.T.P. (adenoine triphosphate)

The source of energy for cellular process. Made of deoxyribose bonded to an adenine base and 3 inorganic phosphate ions which can be hydrolysed to release the energy stored in the bonds

Leading strand

The strand going from 3' to 5' towards the replication fork makes a complete copy strand

Lagging strand

The strand going from 5' to 3' from the replication fork, so Okazaki fragments are made by DNA polymerase

Genomics

The study of all genes of an organism

Computational biology

The study of biology using computational techniques, especially in the analysis of huge amounts of biodata

Phylogenetics

The study of the evolutionary history of groups of orgnisms

Ecology

The study of the relationships between organisms and their environment

Chromatin

The substance from which chromosomes are made .

Total lung capacity

The sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume

gene pool

The sum total of all the genes in a population at a given time

Optimum temperature

The temp at which the enzyme has the highest rate of activity

Cell theory

The theory that all living things are composed of cells or cell products

Evolution

The theory that describes the way in which organisms change over time due to natural selection

Cohesion-tension theory

The theory that explain the movement of water up xylem by the pulling of water up the xylem by cohesion

Apical dominance/lateral dormancy

The topmost shoot of a plant will grow the strongest because of the highest conc of auxins and side shoots will grow less due to the lower conc of auxins

Gene pool

The total information from all the genes and alleles of the breeding individuals in a population at a particular time

community

The total populations of each species in a given area at a given time

Anticodon

The triplet of bases on tRNA complementary to a codon

Replication fork

The two strands of DNA that are immediately unzipped by DNA helicase

Polarity

The uneven distribution of charged particles causes water molecules to be dipolar and dissociate some substances

Surface tension

The uneven distribution of forces creates a skin able to support small insects

Genetic biodiversity/gene pool

The variety of genes that make up a species

Biodiversity

The variety of living organisms present in an area

Genetic biodiversity

The variety of the genes that make up a species

Vital capacity

The volume of air that can be breathed in when the strongest possible exhalation is followed by the deepest possible inspiration

Residual volume

The volume of air that is left in your lungs when you have exhaled as hard as possible

Tidal volume

The volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs with each resting breath

Binomial nomenclature

The way of naming organisms in Linnaean classification where the first name is their genus and the second their species

Xanthophyll

The yellow carotenoid

Examples of negative feedback system

Thermoregulation in enotherms, osmoregulation, blood glucose level, blood pH

Example of a negative feedback system

Thermoregulation, osmoregulation

Multipotent

These cells can only form a range of cells within a certain type of tissue

Pluripotent

These stem cells can form all tissue types but not whole organisms

carrier protein

They have an important role in active transport, transporting particles in the opposite direction of the conc. gradient and need energy.

Why do enzymes increase rate of reaction?

They lower the activation energy needed for a biological reaction to start

Mode of transport of hormones from glands to target cells

Through blood plasma

Why is PCR done?

To amplify a sample strand of DNA to be sequenced/profiled

Analysing the genomes of pathogens as a use of DNA sequencing

To find the the source of an infection, to identify antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, to monitor the progress of a potential epidemic (mutations in pathogens), to identify regions on pathogen's genome that can be targets in the development of new drugs, to identify genetic markers for use in vaccines

Reasons why scientists classify organisms

To make identification of organisms easier, to predict characteristics of related species, to find evolutionary links like common ancestors if species share the same characteristics

Stationary phase explanation

Total growth rate is zero, rate at which cells are dividing is equal to the rate at which cells are dying

Ventilation rate

Total volume of air inhaled in one minute

Masai Mara conservation and research

Trained reserve rangers employed to stop illegal black rhino poaching. Scientific research projects undertaken to investigate: Mara river flow, and monitor: lion, cheetah and hyena populations

Microtubules

Tubes of polymerised tubulin. Scaffold-like they determine cell shape and act as tracks for organelle movement e.g. vesicles

Centrosome

Two associated centrioles

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides bonded by a glycosidic bond, condensation reaction

Belt transect

Two parallel lines are marked and samples are taken of the area between the area

Stem cells

Undifferentiated cells that have the potential to differentiate in to a range of specialised cell types in the organism

Somatic cell nuclear transfer

Unfirtilised egg is enucleated, somatic cell from sheep to be cloned is taken and cultured and the nucleus removed and fused with enucleated ovum, embryo transferred to the uterus of a third sheep that acts as a surrogate mother which gives birth to the cloned sheep which is genetically identical to the sheep that gave the somatic cell

Magnification of light microscope

Up to x2,000

Magnification of electron microscopes

Up to x500,000

Industrial uses of gibberellins

Used to delay ripening and ageing in fruit, to improve size and shape of fruits, speed up malting process in ber brewing

Selective toxicity

Used to describe antibiotics as they are only toxic against the microorganisms causing the disease and not the host cells

Kick sampling

Used to study river organism, sediment is kicked up and a net downstream catches any organisms for a set period of time

Atomic force microscope

Uses a cantilever with a tip that scans the surface atoms of a specimen, experiencing a repulsion force. This varies the place on the detector where the laser beam reflects off the cantilever and produces a 3D image of the surface

Super resolved fluorescence microscopy

Uses images from a molecular sized point from a normal laser scanning confocal microscope to build a super resolved image

Types of bioremediation

Using natural organisms, using GM organisms

Genetic causes of variation

Variant alleles, mutations, meiosis (independent assortment and crossing over), sexual reproduction, random fertilisation

Measuring species richness

Various techniques should be used to compile list of species in habitat. Then total is a measure of species richness

Natural cloning in plants is also called

Vegetative propagation

trachea

Vessel that transmits air from nasal cavity to lungs, has cartilaginous C rings to keep airways open and ciliated epithelial cells to move mucus and catch dust

Bacteriophages

Viruses that attack bacteria

Vitamins

Vital amines, 9 that humans need from the things they eat and cannot produce themselves

environmental causes of temperature increase in organisms

Waste heat from cellular respiration, convection, conduction and radiation from environment

Amphoteric (ability of a substance to be an acid or base)

Water acts as a pH buffer to all enzyme reactions.

High specific heat capacity

Water acts as a temperature buffer which helps maintain constant temperature to optimise enzyme activity

Latent heat of fusion (The amount of heat evolved for a substance to turn into a solid)

Water in cells and aquatic environments are slow to freeze maintaining a stable environment.

Fluidity

Water is fluid in a large range of temps, allowing for stability in biological processes and metabolic reactions

Compression

Water is hard to compress meaning its a very good support medium e.g. turgor in plants.

Photolysis

Water is seperated into 1/2 O2, 2 e- and 2 H+ by the use of sunlight and enzymes

Viscosity

Water's low viscosity allows it to flow and lubricate

Molecular mobility

Weak hydrogen bonds allows molecules to move easily, which allows osmosis

Haemoglobonic acid

When Hb bonds with a H+ ion to make HHb

Cyclic phosphorylation

When PSI absorbs light and releases 2 e- to an electron acceptor then they go along an e.t.c phosphorylating ADP to ATP and are absorbed by the deficient PSI

Disruptive selection

When a change in the environment selects for the extreme phenotypes and the norm is selected against

Directional selection

When a change in the environment that makes the most common phenotype no longer the most advantageous so less common extreme phenotypes are positively selected, evolution occurs as the allele frequency shifts to the extreme phenotypes

Founder effect

When a few individuals of a species colonise a new area, their offspring initially experience a look of genetic variation

Major histocompatible complex (MHC)

When a macrophage ha digested a pathogen, it combines antigens from the pathogen's surface membrane with special glycoproteins in the cytoplasm called this

Precursor activation

When a precursor enzyme undergoes a change in shape (particularly in tertiary structure) to be activated

Transcription

When a relevant gene is copied into mRNA

Antigen-antibody complex

When an antibody bonds to an antigen of a pathogen (this can also act as an opsonin)

Validity of an investigative procedure is decreased

When an investigative procedure does not have any control groups

Artificial passive immunity

When antibodies for a specific antigen are extracted from an animal and injected as a short term solution to some diseases eg tetanus and rabies

Facilitated diffusion

When channel proteins provide a hydrophilic route for charge molecules to pass through a cell membrane along a concentration gradient

Allopatric speciation

When members of a population are isolated from the rest of the group by a physical barrier and are geographically isolated, selection pressures will result in speciation and if small groups the founder effect will occur causing genetic drift

Limiting factors in photosynthesis (definition)

When one factor of photosynthesis is in short supply it reduces the rate of photosynthesis

Selective breeding (artificial selection)

When organisms with favourable characteristics are specially chosen by humans to met and produce offspring with even better characteristics

Decline/death phase explanation

When rate of reproduction has almost ceased and the death rate is increasing

Translation

When ribosomes read mRNA

Induced fit theory of enzyme action

When substrate enters the active site it induces changes in the tertiary structure of the active site that strengthen binding, putting strain on substrate. This weakens bonds in substrate and causes activation energy to be lowered

End-product inhibition

When the amount of a product is high it binds non competitively to an enzyme pathway blocking further production

Stabilising selection

When the norm or average is selected for and the extremes are selected against

Reproductive isolation

When two demes of the species are isolated and can no longer interbreed

Outcompetition

When two species competing for the same resources the less well adapted species is outcompeted by the more adapted species

Convergent evolution

When unrelated species begin to share similar traits because the organisms to similar environments or other selection pressures

Specimen stage

Where the slide and specimen are placed for viewing

Abiotic factors list

Wind speed, light intensity, relative humidity, pH, temperature, oxygen content in water

Vectors

Wind, water, animals, humans

Noradrenaline

Works with adrenaline in response to stress, causing increased heart rate, widening of pupils, widening air passages in lungs and narrowing of blood vessels in non-essential organs resulting in a higher blood pressire

Antibodies

Y-shaped glycoproteins called immunoglobulins which bind to the specific antigen on the pathogen or toxin that has triggered the immune response

Prosthetic group for carbonic anhydrase

Zn+

antagonism

a (plant) response where different (plant) hormones that inhibit each other, giving a lesser or balanced response than on their own

synergism

a (plant) response where different (plant) hormones work together by complementing each other, giving a greater response than on their own

citric acid/citrate

a 6C compound that is formed from oxaloacetate and acetate

Casparian strip

a band of waxy material called suberin that runs around each of the endodermal cells forming a waterproof layer

Carbohydrates

a biological molecules made of only the elements C and H

tannin

a bitter, astringent-tasting chemical that protects plants from consumption by herbivores

Immunological response

a bodily defense reaction that recognizes an invading substance (an antigen: such as a virus or fungus or bacteria or transplanted organ) and produces antibodies specific against that antigen

Mast cells

a cell filled with basophil granules, found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions

threshold value

a certain level of a stimulus that when higher than the threshold value always triggers a response

stimulus

a change in an organism's internal or external environment

depolarisation

a change in potential difference of axon from -70mV to +40mV when the stimulus energy is used by sensory receptor to flip the charges on axon

Mutation

a change in the sequence of bases in DNA

mutagens

a chemical, physical, or biological agent which increases the rate of mutations

Cytokinesis in animal cells

a cleavage furrow forms and the cell-surface membrane is pulled inwads by cytoskeleton, until it fuses

sinoatrial node (SAN)

a cluster of cells situated in the right atrium that generate the wave of excitation

Glycosidic bond

a covalent bond between two saccharides

Monoculture

a cultured crop of clones meaning they are all genetically identical

peak flow meter

a device that measures the rate at which air can be expelled from the lungs

Sucrose

a disaccharide made of a glucose and fructose in a condensation reaction

Lactose

a disaccharide made of glucose and galactose in a condensation reaction

Maltose

a disaccharide made of two α glucose monosaccharides, condensation reaction

polyunsaturated

a fatty acid chain with many (n) double bond, bent

Saturated

a fatty acid chain with no double bonds, straight

monounsaturated

a fatty acid chain with one double bond, slightly bent

fermentation

a form of anaerobic respiration that is the process by which complex organic compounds are broken down into simpler inorganic compounds without the use of oxygen or the involvement of an e.t.c.

oncotic pressure

a form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins, notably albumin, in a blood vessel's plasma (blood/liquid) that usually tends to pull water into the circulatory system.

anaerobic respiration

a form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen

DNA/hybridisation probe

a fragment of single stranded DNA or RNA which is radioactively/fluorescently tagged and is complementary to specific satellite region in the DNA sample

Structural gene

a gene that codes for any RNA or protein product other than a regulatory factor

Population growth curve

a graph of number of organisms against time showing their slow then rapid growth and stable state in three stages/phases

ganglion

a group of nerve cell bodies located in the autonomic nervous system

Species

a group of organisms that are able to reproduce to produce fertile offspring

galactose

a hexose monosaccharide, an isomerism of glucose

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

a hydrolysed ATP that has lost a phosphate group

pancreas

a large gland behind the stomach which secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum. Embedded in the pancreas are the islets of Langerhans, which secrete into the blood the hormones insulin and glucagon.

Biome

a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat, e.g. forest or tundra.

inflammatory response

a localised response to pathogens (or damage or irritants) resulting in inflammation at the site of a wound, charachterised by pain, heat, redness and swelling

Loop of Henle

a long loop of tubule that creates a region with a very high solute concentration in the tissue fluid deep in the kidney medulla

Interphase/resting phase

a long period of growth and normal function of a cell

root hair

a long, thin expansion from a root hair cell, a specialised epidermal cell found near the growing root tip

Callus

a mass of identical undifferentiated cells formed when the sterilised sample is placed in a sterile culture medium in micropropagation

Artificial immunity

a mean by which the body is given immunity to a disease by intentional exposure to small quantities of it.

transport system

a means by which materials (oxygen, nutrients) are transported from an exchange surface/s to individual cells

Recombination frequency (definition)

a measure of the amount of crossing over that occurs during meiosis

Accuracy

a measure of the closeness of agreement between an individual test result and the true value (accepted value may be used as true value often not known)`

stethoscope

a medical instrument for listening to the action of someone's heart or breathing, typically having a small disc-shaped resonator that is placed against the chest, and two tubes connected to earpieces.

anti-pyretic

a medicinal chemical that reduces fevers

Lung/pulmonary surfactant

a mixture of lipids and proteins which is secreted by goblet cells on to the inner surface of alveoli. Its main function is to reduce the surface tension at the air/liquid interface in the lung

sarcoplasmic reticulum

a modified version of the endoplasmic reticulum that extends throughout the muscle fibre and contains calcium ions required for muscle contraction

Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)

a molecule formed by the addition of CoA to a acetyl group

respiratory substrates

a molecule from which energy can be liberated to produce ATP in a living cell.

amphiphillic

a molecule that has hydrophobic and hydrophillic properties

Vitalographs

a more sophisticated peak flow meter that produces a a graph of the amount the person breathes out and how quickly it is breathed out

nonsense mutations

a mutation that results in a STOP codon

missense mutations

a mutation that results in a different amino acid being coded for

plasmodesmata

a narrow thread of cytoplasm that passes through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells and allows communication between them.

lymphatic system

a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.

aestivation

a period of deep sleepsimilar to hibernation that occurs in the hottest/driest season to reduce heat stress

hibernation

a period of dormancy during the coldest weather to conserve energy and reduce cold stress

Aestivation

a period of inactivity in hot, dry environments a combination of behavioural and physiological adaptation

Antigen presenting cell (APC)

a phagocyte with MHC/antigen complexes on it's cell surface membrane, which can stimulate other cells in the specific immune system

apoenzyme

a precursor enzyme before a cofactor has been added

Etoliation (as an example of a characteristic in plants that is a result of environmental variation and genetic variation)

a process in flowering plants grown in partial or complete absence of light. It is characterized by long, weak stems; smaller leaves; and a pale yellow color due to chlorosis

response

a processed and appropriate coordinated change to counteract or in response to a stimuli

ADH

a protein hormone, primary mechanism, non-steroid it triggers cAMP that is secondary messenger and triggers ATP synthase to move vesicles with aquaporins to cell membrane of collecting duct cells

Polypeptide

a proteins chain made of many amino acids joined together by peptide bonds

Confidence

a qualitative judgement expressing the extent to which a conclusion is justified by the quality of the evidence

Promoter region

a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene

Centromere

a region where chromatids are joined together. Necessary to keep chromatids apart and so they can be moved precisely in mitosis

A sustainable resource

a renewable resource that is being economically exploited in such a way that it will not diminish or run out

Gene bank

a repository of genetic material to maintain genetic diversity

Cyclic adenosine mono-phosphate (CAMP)

a secondary messenger activated by adrenaline which activates other enzymes in liver

inversion (as a type of chromosomal mutation)

a section of a chromosome breaks off, is reversed, and then joins back onto the chromosome

translocation (as a type of chromosomal mutation)

a section of one chromosome breaks off and joins another non-homologous chromosome

electron transport chain

a series of compounds that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors of successively lower energies via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.

refractory period

a short period of time when the axon cannot be excited again ( the VGIC's are closed preventing the movement of sodium ions into axon)

oxygen dissociation curve

a sigmoid curve of a graph of % saturation of Hb with O2 against pO2

Intraspecific competition graph shape in terms of trig

a sine graph translated in the positive y-direction

atrio-ventricular node (AVN)

a small mass of muscular fibers at the base of the wall between the atria, conducting impulses received from the sinoatrial node

gall bladder

a small organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine

Vulnerable

a species that is considered likely to become endangered in the near future

Endangered

a species that is in danger of extinction

Phase 3 as a stage of a population growth curve

a stable state where further population growth is prevented by external limiting factors. Population size fluctuates but overall size is relatively stable as birth rate and death rate are approximately equal

Deflected succession

a stable vegetation community arising from an ecological succession that has been deflected or arrested directly or indirectly as a result of human activities.

Metabolites

a substance produced by cellular metabolisms

Southern blotting

a technique used to transfer single stranded DNA fragments from a gel electrophoresis gel to a nylon membrane retaining their positions

Interleukins

a type of cytokine cell-signalling molecule that stimulates lots of parts of the active immune system

Anomaly/outlier

a value in a set of results that is judged not to be part of the inherent variation

Disulfide bond/bridge

a very strong bond between 2 sulfur atoms of the R groups of cystene

(blood) plasma

a yellow fluid, mostly water that carries dissolved glucose and amino acids, mineral ions hormones and large plasma proteins inc. albumin, fibrinogen and globulins, carries erythrocytes and platelets

formation of citric acid of Kreb's Cycle

acetate (2C) along with the 4C regenerate of Kreb's Cycle - oxaloacetate forms citric acid (6C)

conversion of Kreb's Cycle

acetyl CoA is converted into acetate and CoA is released

Peat bogs ecosystem

acidic, anaerobic conditions, wet boggy. Support wide range of mosses and rare insects. Lack of predators, human impacts and exposed areas good for birds of prey

protein kinases

activated by cAMP and they phosphorylate and activate other enzymes

phosphorylation

addition of a phosphate group

Conservation agreements

agreements for the local, and international cooperation to ensure habitats and individual species are preserved

Examples of pioneer species/primary colonisers

algae, lichen

reducing sugars

all monosaccharide and some disaccharides (lactose, maltose) that can donate electrons or reduce another molecule or chemical

stage of reabsorption that occurs in proximal convoluted tubule

all of the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and hormones reabsorbed by active transport, ~85% of water and NaCl by following passively down concentration gradients

peripheral nervous system, PNS

all the neurones that connect the CNS to the rest of the body (sensory neurones, motor neurones)

Transparency

allows aquatic plants to photosynthesise

Arguments for micropropagation

allows for rapid production of large numbers of clones of known genetic make-up and high-yield crop, culturing meristem tissues produces disease-free plants, allows proliferation of GM plants, can make large numbers of sterile plants (with seedless fruit eg bananas and grapes), way of growingnaturally relatively infertile plants or ones that are difficult to grow from seed, reliably can increase numbers of rare or endangered plants

elastic recoil

alveoli are mostly composed of elastin, which allows them to stretch during inspiration and return to resting shape when expiration occurs

arrhythmia

an abnormal rhythm of the heart

holoenzyme

an activated precursor enzyme with a cofactor added

Monoclonal antibodies

an antibody produced by a single clone of cells or cell line and consisting of identical antibody molecules.

Wildlife reserves

an area of land that is protected and managed in order to preserve a particular type of habitat and its flora and fauna which are often rare or endangered. Active management is required

Chromatid

an arm of a chromosome that is identical to the other chromosome arm

Multiple sclerosis

an autoimmune neurological condition that destroys the myelin sheath and disrupts muscle movement, balance and vision

Limiting factors (populations)

an environmental resource or constraint that limits population growth

carbonic anhydrase

an enzyme in rbcs that catalyses the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) from water and carbon dioxide

thromboplastin in blood clotting

an enzyme that triggers a cascade of reactions resulting in the formation of a thrombus (blood clot)

Botanic gardens

an establishment where plants are grown for scientific study and display to the public where plant species are actively managed to provide them with the best resources to grow

Uncertainty

an estimate attached to a measurement which characterises the range of values within which the true value is asserted to lie eg 29.5±0.1cm

Competition

an example of a biotic factor and is the result of the interactions between organisms for a limited amount of resources, space or mates

Seed bank

an example of a gene bank where seeds are carefully stored by drying and freezing maintaining their viability by slowing down the rate at which they lose their ability to germinate, so that new plants may be grown in the future. Almost all temperate seeds and many tropical seeds can be store this way

atrial fibrilation

an example of arrhythmia, rapid electrical impulses are generated in the atria and they fibrilate >400/min, can affect ventricle contraction

acetylcholine

an excitatory neurotransmitter, controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

an hydrogen acceptor that transports hydrogen atoms from the Kreb's Cycle to the e.t.c. by redox reactions, accepts 2 hydrogens, oxidises at the second protein of the e.t.c.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)

an hydrogen acceptor that transports hydrogen atoms from the glycolysis, link reaction and Kreb's Cycle to the e.t.c. by redox reactions, accepts 1 hydrogen, oxidises at the start of the e.t.c.

dichotomous key

an identification key where the sequence and structure of identification steps is fixed by the author of the key. At each point in the decision process, multiple alternatives are offered, each leading to a result or a further choice

Autoimmune response

an immunological response that is too powerful and damages the organism's cells as a result causing disease

suberin

an inert impermeable waxy substance present in the endodermal cell walls

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in some brain synapses

Seral stage/sere

an intermediate stage in the ecological succession of an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community. At each seral stage key species can be identified that change the abiotic factors, especially edaphic faors, to make it more suitable for the subsequent existance of other species

Glands

an organ that secretes a specific chemical substances for use in the body or for discharge into the surroundings

Decomposer

an organism that feeds on and breaks down dead plant or animal matter, turning organic compounds into inorganic ones (nutrients) available to photosynthetic producers in the ecosystem

invasive species

an organism that is not native to an area and has a negative effect on the economy, environment or health by competing with the native species for resources

hydrostatic pressure

an osmotic pressure of the blood that enters capillaries due to the compressions of the heart muscles

transfer (t)RNA

another form of RNA, composed of a strand of RNA folded so that an anticodon binds to a codon on mRNA in a ribosome and carries an amino acid corresponding to that codon

Anti-toxins

antibodies can bind to toxins produced by pathogens and neutralise them

Target cells

any cell/tissue that has a specific receptor for a specific hormone that initiates a change in that cell/tissue

Variation

any difference between organisms

diaphragm

arch-shaped muscle at base of lungs responsible for ventilation by contraction and relaxation, changes volume and pressure of lungs ventilating them

The Lake District National Park plants present

arctic alpine plants: purple saxifrage, specialised trees: dwarf juniper, dwarf willow, carnivorous plant: sundew

dark/anisotropic/A bands of myofibrils

areas that appear dark because of the presence of thick myosin filaments

light/isotopic/I bands of myofibrils

areas that appear light because actin and myosin filaments do not overlap

secondary colonisers

arrive as spores or seeds and the humus and eroded rocks means that new species can be supported, pioneer species may also act as a food source for secondary colonisers

Efferent arteriole

arteriole that leads away from glomerulus, it has a smaller cross-sectional area than the afferent arteriole to increase blood pressure in glomerulus

vasoconstriction

arterioles near the surface of the skin constrict, arteriovenous shunt vessel dilates, so very little blood flows through capillaries near skin, so heat is not lost through radiation

two main roles of the pancreas in the human body

as an endocrine gland: to produce hormones and release them into blood and as an exocrine gland: to produce enzymes and release them via the pancriatic duct into the deodenum

Important plant hormones

auxins, giberellins, abscisic acid (ABA), ethene

Immunity

balanced state of having adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases.

Examples of secondary succession

bare earth after a forest fire, cleared area of vegetation like felled forests

types of mutations

base point mutations and chromosomal mutations

Types of point mutations

base substitution and frameshift mutations

Hydrophyllic/hydrophobic interactions

between R groups of the same polarity in tertiary structure

Ionic bond

between charged part of different amino acid R groups

Mechanism of ADH action

binds to receptor on cell membrane of cells of collecting duct, triggers cAMP that triggers cascade of reactions to move vesicles with aquaporins to cell membrane allowing more water to be reabsorbed

Evidence for evolution provided by comparative biochemistry

biological molecules can be highly conserved over time so closely related species' biological molecules eg DNA can be compared to discover how closely they were related by a common ancestor by the rate of mutation

growth rate =

birth rate + immigration rate - death rate - emigration rate

troponin

blocks the binding sites of myosin heads on actin preventing muscle contraction

examples of positive feedback systems

blood clotting cascade: platelets release factors that attract more platelets, childbirth: child's head presses against cervix, stimulating oxytocin production, which stimulates uterus to contract etc.

internal stimuli/aspects that need to be coordinated

blood glucose concentration, internal temperature, water potential, cell pH

Examples of discontinuous variation

blood group, albinism, round and wrinkled peas

Single closed circulatory system

blood passes through the heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the blood circulation system of the animal

Double closed circulatory system

blood passes twice through the heart, circuits contain oxygenated and deoxygenated blood passing through lungs then around whole body

order of layers filtrate travels through from glomerular capillaries to collecting duct

blood plasma of glomerular capillaries -> capillary endothelium -> basement membrane -> through gaps in podocytes' pedicels -> lumen of Bowman's capsule -> proximal convoluted tubule -> descending loop of Henle -> ascending loop of Henle -> distal convoluted tubule -> collecting duct

mesenteric vein

blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the small intestine, colon and rectum and feeds in to the hepatic portal vein

splenic vein

blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the spleen, stomach and pancreas and feeds in to the hepatic portal vein

hepatic artery

blood vessel that delivers oxygenated blood to the liver

hepatic vein

blood vessel that removes deoxygenated blood from the liver

hepatic portal vein

blood vessel that supplies liver with blood from intestine and is loaded with products of digestion, fed into by the mesenteric vein and splenic vein

Examples of anatomical adaptations

body coverings such as hair, scales, spines, feathers, shells; camouflage to avoid predation, teeth related to diet, mimicry of a dangerous species to avoid predation

detoxification

body creates many toxins as metabolic waste products or by choice by ingesting drugs, liver detoxifies the substances making them harmless eg hydrogen peroxide -> oxygen and water as hepatocytes make enzyme catalase

Examples of a characteristic in animals that is a result of environmental variation and genetic variation

body mass, height

actin-myosin cross-bridges

bonds formed between the actin filaments and the myosin heads

Examples of ex situ conservation methods

botanic gardens, seed banks, captive breeding programmes

brochioles

branches of the bronchi feeding air deeper into lungs no cartilage

outbreeding

breeding of distantly related organisms

Methods of natural cloning in plants

bulbs, runners, rhizomes, stem tubers

quantitative measure of genetic biodiversity

calculating proportion of polymorphic gene loci

Causes of mutations

can be naturally occurring or risk can be increased by exposure to mutagens

facultative anaerobes

can do aerobic respiration when oxygen is around but can switch to anaerobic respiration in the absence of oxygen, eg yeats

obligate aerobes

can only synthesise ATP in the presence of oxygen for example mammals

obligate anaerobes

cannot survive in the presence of oxygen, neatly all are prokaryotes and some fungi

functions of the liver

carbohydrate metabolism, synthesis of plasma proteins, deamination of excess amino acids, transamination, detoxification

main metabolic products in mammals

carbon dioxide from cellular respiration excreted by lungs, bile pigments from breakdown of old rbcs excreted from liver in bile, nitrogenous waste products (urea) formed of the breakdown of excess amino acids excreted in urine

myogenic

cardiac muscles are this because they have their own intrinsic rhythm of ~60bpm

Haemodialysis

carried out by a diaysis machine where blood leaves patients artery and flows into machine, flows through partially permeable dialysis membranes which mimic basement membrane in Bowman's Capsule, urea and excess mineral ions leave by diffusion, countercurrent flow to maintain steep concentration gradients

vein

carry deoxygenated blood away from cells towards the cell, do not have a pulse, large lumen and volume, low blood pressure, contain valves to prevent backflow, run through active muscles so when they contract they make blood flow (movement of thorax in breathing also does this), >1cm

Artery

carry oxygenated blood away from heart, small lumen, lots of elastin fibres, which evens out surges of blood, blood under high pressure, around 2.5-0.4 cm

role of giberellin as a plant hormone

cause stem elongation, trigger the mobilisation of food stores in a germinating seed, stimulate pollen tube growth in fertilisation

role of ethene as a plant hormone

causes fruit ripening, promotes abscission in deciduous trees

serotonin in blood clotting

causes smooth muscles in blood vessel walls contract restricting blood flow to area

Meiosis

cell division that results in 4 genetically different haploid (n) daughter cells

senescent cells

cells with damaged DNA that are no longer viable, meaning they enter the phase of permanent cell arrest (G0)

sclereids

cells with extremely thick cell walls that support phloem vessels

Podocytes

cells with long extensions called pedicels that wrap around glomerular capillaries and act as another sieve to prevent larger components of blood to be filtered through

Electrofusion as an example of genetic engineering in plants

cellulase decomposes cell wall, then fused to form polyploid cell and stimulated with hormones to form cellulose cell wall again

sinusoids

chambers where blood from the hepatic artery and the hepatic portal veins mixes together, they are surrounded by hepatocytes, mixing increases the oxygen content of the blood from the hepatic portal vein supplying cellular respiration in hepatocytes

plant hormones/plant growth factors

chamicals produced by some plant cells that act as chemical messengers and initiate a change in a target cell, travel by diffusion, symplastic /apoplastic pathways and xylem and phloem

repolarisation

change of p.d. of axon from +40mV to -70mV

Polygenic characteristics

characteristics controlled by more than one gene

Monogenic characteristics

characteristics controlled by one gene

Sex-linked genes

characteristics determined by genes carried on the X sex chromosome and can be dominant and recessive

spindle assembly checkpoint

checks for: chromosome attachment to spindle

human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)

chemical produced by the developing placenta in an early embryo

Terminator bases

chemically modified DNA nucleotides that will stop DNA polymerase synthesisng DNA at that location with a coloured fluorescent tag added with a different colour for each base

neurotransmitters

chemicals

Perforin

chemicals secreted by cytotoxic T cells that create holes/pores in pathogen or infected (by virus) or cancerous cells, making them more permeable

Opsonins

chemicals that bind to pathogen antigens eg antibodies that mark pathogen so they are more easily recognised by phagocytes

neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit nervous impulses across the synapse

palisade cells

chloroplast for photosynthesis, rectangular shape can be closely packed, thin cell wall for CO2 diffusion, Large vacoule to maintain turgor, chloroplasts can move in cytoplasm to absorb more light

Recombinant chromatids

chromatids that have different alleles due to crossing over

Prophase

chromatin fibres coil to make chromosomes, nucleolus disappears, nuclear membrane breaks down, protein microtubules form spindle fibreslinking poles moving chromosomes into correct positions, centrioles move to poles of the cell, the spindle fibres attach to centromeresand move them to centre of cell

Metaphase

chromosomes are moved by spindle fibres to create a plane in the centre of the cell

Telophase

chromosomes reach poles, a nuclear envelopes forms around each pole's chromosomes, nucleolus formed as chromosomes uncoil. Cleavage furrow made then Cytokinesis occurs

Telophase I

chromosomes reach poles, a nuclear envelopes forms around each pole's chromosomes, nucleolus formed as chromosomes uncoil. Cleavage furrow made then Cytokinesis occurs

B memory cells

circulate for decades and provide immunological memory they are programmed to remember the specific antibody for a specific antigen and enable the body to make a rapid secondary response when the same antigen is encountered again in the future

T memory cells

circulate in the blood for decades and are part of the immunological memory. The coordinate the swift response to the secondary response to an already encountered pathogen by cloning themselves

decarboxylation and dehydrogenation I of Kreb's Cycle

citric acid is oxidised by loss of H to reduce NADH (dehydrogenation) and carbon dioxide is evolved (decarboxylation), a 5C compound is made

exons

coding regions od DNA

addition of Coenzyme A of link reaction

coenzyme A adds onto the 2C acetyl group to form acetylcoenzyme A (acetyl CoA)

Vitamins are a source of...?

coenzymes

Antarctica brief description

coldest, driest, windiest and emptiest continent, mostly ice sheets, has only summer and winter

leucocytes

collective term for all white blood cells involved in immune responses

The main reasons for the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

combustion of fossil fuels releasing trapped carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere, deforestation which means less carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and in many cases cleared forest is burned which contributes even more to global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

Cell signalling

communication between different cells by the release of chemicals, which have an effect on target cells; can be local at synapse or over larger distances, using hormones

globular proteins

compact, water soluble, and usually roughly spherical in shape

intraspecific competition

competition between individuals that belong to the same species

interspecific competition

competition between individuals that belong to two or more different species

Sterols/steroid alcohols

complex alcohol lipids 4 carbon rings and hydroxyl ending eg cholesterol

tropomyosin molecule

component of actin helically wound around it blocking actin-myosin binding sites

elastic fibres

composed of elastin and can stretch and recoil providing vessel walls with flexibility

cellular compartmentalisation

comprise all of the closed parts within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane

arteriole

connect arteries to capillaries, have less elastin and collagen but more smooth muscle and control homeostasis through vasodilation and vasoconstriction, around 30 um

Cell body

contains nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm, lots of mitochondria and ER to produce neurotransmitters

properties of slow-twitch muscles

contract slowly, less powerful contractions, can keep going for longer, gain energy from aerobic respiration, rich in myoglobin so redder in colour, rich supply of blood vessels and mitochondria

properties of fast-twitch muscles

contract very quickly, produce powerful contractions only for a short period, used for short bursts of speed and power, tire easily, gain energy from aerobic respiration, pale due to less myoglobin, contain more and thicker myosin filaments, store creatine phosphate - a molecule that can rapidly generate ATP from ADP in anaerobic conditions

smooth muscle

contracts or relaxes changing the size of the lumen

Mineralocortoids

control blood pressure by maintaining the balance between salt and water concentrationsin the blood and bodily fluids

role of auxins as a plant hormone

control cell elongation, prevent leaf abscission, maintain apical dominance, involved in tropisms, stimulate the release of ethene, involved in fruit ripening

Examples of active management techniques in wildlife reserves

controlled grazing by limiting grazing areas or numbers, restricting human access, controlling poaching by creating defences/issuing fines, feeding animals to ensure they survive to reproductive age, reintroduction of species to locally extinct/decreased numbers areas, culling or removal of invasive species, halting succession

cerebrum

controls coluntary actions, such as learning, memory, personality and conscious thought

cerebellum

controls unconscious functions such as posture, balance and non-voluntary movement

sequence of events of Kreb's Cycle

conversion, formation of citric acid, decarboxylation and dehydrogenation, decarboxylation and dehydrogenation, substrate level phosphorylation, dehydrogenation, dehydrogentaion and regeneration

Cell mediated immunity

coordinated by T helper cells and activated when cells become changed

pre-mRNA

copied from original DNA, mRNA that has introns and exons

fever cause

cytokines stimulate the hypothalamus and increase body temp

Bulbs (example and explanation) as a form of natural plant cloning

daffodil, leaf bases swell with stored food from photosynthesis. Internal buds form which develop into new plants

Detritus

dead and decaying material

Ways in which agriculture affects biodiversity

deforestation to increase available land for crops/animals, removal of hedgerows to increase land area and make mechanisation easier, use of chemical pesticides and herbicides that can impact ecosystems, monoculture crops

Main human influences on biodiversity

deforestation, monoculture agriculture, climate change, pollution (chemical), littering (as the improper disposal of waste and packaging)

dehydrogenation of link reaction

dehydrogenase enzyme catalyse the dehydrogenation of pyruvate. The 2H are picked up the NAD+ that becomes reduced NADH (carries H+ to e.t.c.)

types of chromosomal mutations

deletion, duplication, translocation, inversion

Glomerulus

dense cluster of capillaries at the beginning of the nephron, the first stage of untrafiltration where blood plasma is forced out of the capillaries due to high blood pressure

Tips on a phylogenetic tree

descendant organisms (often a species)

Economic reasons for maintaining biodiversity

desertification reduces crop profits, non-sustainable use of resources means they will run out making industries collapse, species that may be potentially economically important are not discovered, biodiversity promotes tourism

T killer cells

destroy pathogens, virus infected cells or cancerous cells by secreting perforins that increase the permeability of targeted cells by making holes/pores in it

herbaceous dicots

dicots with soft tissues and a relatively short life cycle meaning they die down to the soil level at the end of the growing season

Interspecific variation

differences between organisms of different species

Intraspecific variation

differences between organisms of the same species

Genetic variation

differences in the genome of organisms

vasodilation

dilation of the arterioles near the skin's surface and constriction of the arteriovenous shunt vessels, forcing blood through capillaries near surface of skin, so loss of heat by radiation or conduction (if pressed against surface)

thermotropism

directional response to temperature

hydrotropism

directional response to water

Ways in which deforestation affects biodiversity

directly reduces the number of plants in an area, if only one species is felled it reduces the species' diversity, can disrupt whole ecosystems and reduce numbers of species that depended on the trees as a source of energy/shelter, animals are forced to migrate to other areas

B effector cells

divide to form cloned plasma cells

Reasons why micropropagation is used to produce artificial clones of a desirable plant

doesn't readily produce seeds, doesn't respond well to natural cloning, is very rare, has been GM or selectively bred with difficulty, is required to be pathogen-free by growers eg bananas, potatoes

cystic duct

duct that delivers bile from the gall bladder to the common bile duct

root pressure

due to mineral ions being actively pumped into the xylem fluid, the lower water potential sucks in water by osmosis and so causes a negative pressure that helps roots to absorb water however its not the main pressure

phosphorylation II of glycolysis

each triose phosphate is phosphorylated to triose bisphosphate

Sustainable development

economic development that meets the needs of people today, without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs

Pacinian corpuscle structure

end of sensory neurone is found in centre surrounded by layers of connective tissue, seperated by a layer of gel

islets of Langerhans

endocrine tissue of pancreas with Alpha and Beta cells

Ecological efficiency (equation) =

energy or biomass available after/energy or biomass available before x 100

G2 phase (second growth phase)

energy stores are increased, replicated DNA is checked for errors, cell continues to get bigger

roles of synapses

ensure a unidirectional impulse, they can allow an impulse from one neurone to be transmitted to a number of neurones at multiple synapses, a number of neurones may feed into the same synapsewith a single postsynaptic neurone

Sequence of events for link reaction

entering of pyruvate into mitochondrial matrix by active transport, decarboxylation, dehydrogenation, formation of acetylcoenzyme A

adrenylyl cyclase

enzyme present in cell membrane of liver cells that is activated and catalyses the production of the secondary messenger - CAMP that activates enzymes that increase glycogenolysis

Vmax

enzymes can only increase the rate of reaction up to this certain point: the maximum initial velocity or rate of the enzyme-catalysed reaction

intracellular enzymes

enzymes used inside cells to catalyse internal reactions

reducing the effect of hair or feathers

erector pili muscles (hair erector muscles relax) so hair and feathers lie flat on skin so do not trap insulating layer of air

raising body hair and feathers

erector pili muscles in the skin contract, pulling up hairs and feathers creating an insulating layer of air because air is a good insulator

type of neurotransmitters

excitatory and inhibitory

Expiratory reserve volume

extra amount of air you can force out of lungs over and above the normal tidal volume of inhalation

Ectopic heartbeat

extra heartbeats that are out of the normal rhythm

tissue fluid

extracellular fluid which bathes the cells of most tissues, arriving via blood capillaries and being removed via the lymphatic vessels.

Density dependent factors (as factors affecting population size)

factors that have an effect on a whole population based on its size eg lack of resources, overcrowding

Density independent factors (as factors affecting population size)

factors that have an effect on a whole population regardless of its size eg natural disasters: volcanoes, fires, earthquakes, storms

Lipids

fats and oils; biological molecules made of the elements C, H and O

lactate fermentation (in mammals) - description

fermentation that occurs in animal cells and produces lactate/lactic acid

Examples of tertiary colonisers

ferns, grasses

ultrafiltration

filtration of blood plasma out of capillaries into tissue fluid due to hydrostatic pressure

Proximal convoluted tubule

first, coiled region of tubuleafter the Bowman's capsule, found in the cortex of the kidney, actively reabsorbs substances from the filtrate eg all glucose

angiosperms

flowering plants

tracheole fluid

fluid that lines the ends of the tracheoles which limits the penetration of air for diffusion

Examples of limiting factors (for a population)

food availability, space, competition between organisms for resources, build up of toxic by-products of metabolism, disease, predation,

Methods of natural cloning in vertibrates

formation of monozygotic twins (identical twins), some female amphibians and reptiles will produce offspring when no males are available, however they are often males so are not true clones yet all genetic is conserved

Fibrous proteins

formed from long, insoluble molecules due to lots of amino acids with hydrophobic R-goups

role and location of smooth/involuntary muscles

found in the walls of hollow vessels, responsible for peristalsis and mechanical digestion

role and location of cardiac muscles

found only in the heart, are myogenic, responsible for contraction of cardiac vessels

platelets

fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes found in red bone marrow

strength of stimulus is proportional to

frequency of action potential impulses transmitted

Cleavage furrow

furrow creates as animal cell divide when cytoskeleton pulls in membrane

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps of around 2-3μm between Schwann cells, allowing an electrical impulse to 'jump' along an axon quicker

transcriptional (as a way in which genes are regulated)

genes can be turned on or off

polymorphic genes

genes that have more than one allele for example humans have polymorphic immunoglobulin genes that determine blood types

monomorphic genes

genes that only have one allele which ensures that basic structures of individuals within a species remains constant

Techniques that are included under synthetic biology

genetic engineering, industrial uses of, or parts of biological systems eg immobilised enzymes, the synthesis of new genes to replace faulty genes, the synthesis of an entire new organism

why does fetal Hb have a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin?

gets blood from mother through placenta/uterus and passes close to deoxygenated blood, pO2 in placenta is low, maintains a steep diffusion gradient

conjugated proteins

globular proteins that contain a prosthetic group

phosphorylation I of glycolysis

glucose is biphosphorylated by 2 ATP molecules to hexose bisphosphate

Net production (equation) =

gross production - respiratory losses

phototropins

group of photoreceptors primarily responsible for triggering phototropisms

vascular bundles

groupings of xylem and phloem in the vascular system of plants

producers

harness high energy radiation from the sun in photosynthesis to produce organic molecules in an endothermic reaction. Also respire and create heat

fetal Hb

has a higher % saturation of Hb with O2 at same pO2 than mother meaning fetal hb has a higher affinity to O2

hypertonic solution

has a higher concentration (lower water potential) than the inside of the cell. Water leaves the cell, causing shrinking and shriveling.

hypotonic solution

has a lower concentration (higher water potential) than the inside of the cell. Water enters the cell and it swells and bursts.

structure of the liver

has many lobes, made of simple cells that are uniform in apperance

isotonic solution

has the same concentration (water potential) as the inside of the cell. Water leaves and enters the cell at equal rates.

Characteristics of Bacteria as a domain of (Woese's) Three Domain System of classification

have 70s ribosomes, RNA polymerase containd 5 proteins

Characteristics of Archae as a domain of (Woese's) Three Domain System of classification

have 70s ribosomes, RNA polymerase contains 8-10 proteins and is very similar to eukaryotic ribosome

Characteristics of Eukarya as a domain of (Woese's) Three Domain System of classification

have 80s ribosomes, RNA poymerase contains 12 proteins

Adaptations of cells lining proximal convoluted tubule

have microvilli, increasing SA for reabsorption. Have lots of mitochondria to provide ATP for active transport

cilliated cell

have rhythmically moving cilia that move mucus

anti-inflammatory

having the effect of retarding or inhibiting inflammation

anti-coagulant

having the effect of retarding or inhibiting the coagulation of the blood.

possible uses of stem cells

heart disease, type 1 diabetes, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, macular degeneration, birth defects, spinal injuries

carbohydrate metabolism

hepatocytes involved in the homeostatic control of blood glucose concentration, convert gucose to glycogen under the influence of insulin and convert glycogen into glucose under the influence of glucagon

lysis of glycolysis

hexose bisphosphate breaks into two molecules of triose phosphate

Evidence for evolution provided by comparative anatomy

homologous structures as evidence for divergent evolution from a common ancestor where the superficial anatomy is the same but with a different set of adaptive features which shows the 2 species changed genetically over time

erythropoietin

hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates the formation of rbc's

external stimuli/aspects that need to be coordinated

humidity, external temperature, light intensity, new or sudden sound

Types of migration

immigration, emigration

Disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes

immobilisation process may reduce efficiency, higher initial cost of materials but do not need to be replaced frequently, higher initial cost of bioreactor, more technical issues due to higher complexity of process

Natural passive immunity

immunity gained by the antibodies that circulate in the mother's blood and to the baby through the placenta and those found in colostrum, which gives immunity to pathogens in mother's immediate environment

Natural active immunity

immunity gained by the specific immune system where memory cells have antibodies on their surface specific and complementary to antigens of pathogens already encountered

Natural immunity

immunity that is present without prior immunization.

bivalent

in Prophase I when homologous pair of chromosomes pair up in the nuclues

The Hardy-Weinberg principle

in a stable population with no disturbing factors, the allele frequencies will remain constant from one generation to the next and there will be no evolution

Peritoneal dialysis

in body, uses natural dialysis membrane in lining of abdomen - peritoneum, catheter inserted into abdomen and urea and excess mineral ions can leave through membrane and into dialysis fluid

Plasmolysis

in plant cells when the surrounding area has a lower water potential, so water leaves the cell and the protoplast is pulled away from the cell wall

2 main categories of conservatio

in situ conservation and ex situ conservation

Environmental factors causing chlorosis in plants

in the absence of light plants will turn off their chlorophyll production to conserve resources, mineral deficiencies of iron and magnesium, viral infections that affect the metabolism of cells

Precursor enzymes

inactive enzymes that need to undergo a change in their tertiary structure, particularly active site to be activated

zymogen/proenzyme

inactive precursor enzymes that need a biochemical change eg pH or temperature to change it's active site tertiary structure

how is glomerular filtrate measured?

indirectly by a blood test that measures creatinine levels which help to give an estimated glomerular filtrate rate (eGMR)

Carriers

individuals that are heterozygous for a recessive condition so carry the faulty alleles but they are healthy bacause of the healthy dominant allele

the most common natural auxin

indoleactic acid (IAA)

transverse (T) tubules

inner foldings of the sarcolemna that help to spread nervous impulses throughout the sarcoplasm

types of frameshift mutations

insertion and deletion

Beta pleated sheets

interactions between the amino acid repeating structure form hydrogen bonds and make the flat, sheet-like structures (R groups not involved

Alpha helices

interactions between the amino acid repeating structure form hydrogen bonds and make the structure coil (R groups not involved)

2 main types of competition

interspecific compeition and intraspecific competition

sodium potassium pump

intrinsic transport protein in neurones actively pumps 2Na+ out of axon and 3K+ into axon, important in creation of resting potential, always active, energy comes from hydrolysis of ATP

Units for energy in a tropic level and why are they used in this way?

kJm^-2yr^-1 ( to allow for seasonal changes in photosynthetic production and consumer feeding patterns throughout year)

Units of biomass

kgm^-2 for an area of land and kgm^-3 for a volume of water or air of variable depth

Causes of kidney failure

kidney infection that damages or destroys podocytes or tubules, raised blood pressure can damage epithelial cells and basement membrane of Bowman's capsule, genetic conditions such as polycystic kidney disease where fluid-filled cysts can put pressure on structures and damage them

Vaccines can contain:

killed or inactive bacteria or viruses, attenuated strains of bacteria and viruses, toxin molecules altered and detoxified, isolated antigens from pathogen, genetically engineered antigens

haemoglobin structure

large, globular conjugated protein made of four polypeptide chains, each with an iron-containing haem group

xylem

largely non-living tissue that transports water and mineral ions, and support. The direction of flow of mineral ions is from roots to shoots and leaves.

liver

largest internal organ has major role in homeostasis, has a rich blood supply

Pelvis

latin for basin is the central chamber where the urine collects before passing down the ureter

leaf abscission

leaf fall from deciduous trees

Examples of continuous vartiation

leaf surface area, animal body mass, skin colour

β cells

less numerous, smaller in size , synthesise and release insulin

Management techniques used in many environmentally sensitive areas

limiting the areas tourists can visit, controlling the movement of livestock, introducing anti-poaching measures, replanting of forests and native plants, limiting hunting through quotas and seasonal bans

venule

link capillaries to veins, have very thin walls mostly of collagen, around 1mm

oils

lipids that are generally liquid at RTP

Fats

lipids that are generally solid at RTP

Common features of a circulatory system

liquid transport medium, vessels that carry the medium, a pumping mechanism

hepatocytes

liver cells; have large nuclei, prominent Golgi apparatus and lots of mitochondria, secrete bile from brakdwn of blood

Biotic limiting factors (definition and examples)

living limiting factors eg predation, disease, competition

phloem

living tissue that transports food in the form of organic solutes around the plant from the leaves where they are made by photosynthesis. Supplies cells with sugar for respiration and amino acids for protein synthesis. Flow of material can go up and down

myofibrils

long cylindrical organelles made of protein, specialised for contraction, that make up the muscle fibres. They are lined up in parallel and made of actin and myosin

Pedicels

long extensions of podocytes that wrap around capillaries of glomerulus and act as a third sieve

Fatty acids

long lipid chains with a carboxyl (-COOH) group at one end

sieve tube elements

long, hollow main transport vessel of phloem in between sieve plates

euchromatin

loosely wound DNA present during interphase

symptoms of complete kidney failure

loss of electrolyte balance K, Cl and Na cannot be excreted so osmotic balances kill tissues, build up of toxic urea, high blood pressure, weakened bones as the Ca/P balance lost, pain and stiffness in joints, anaemia kidneys produce erythropoietin

Reasons why organisms born in captivity may not be suitable for release in to the wild

loss of resistance to local or wild diseases, captive animals may not have learnt behaviours through copying or experience due to domestication, genetic incompatibility of captive organisms may mean they cannot interbreed, if habitat is too small it cannot support any more individuals leading to competition and fighting for territory

Chlorosis (as an example of a characteristic in plants that is a result of environmental variation and genetic variation)

loss of the normal green coloration of leaves of plants, caused by iron deficiency in lime-rich soils, disease, or lack of light.

post-transcriptional (as a way in which genes are regulated)

mRNA can be modified which regulates translation and the types of proteins produced

chromatin remodelling (as an example of transcriptional gene regulation)

mRNA cannot be synthesised during cell division because condensed into heterochromatin so that RNA polymerase cannot access the genes but can be accesed during interphase when DNA as euchromatin, also prevents energy-consuming proteins synthesis occurring during cell division

Isolation of the desired gene in genetic engineering if the locus of the gene is not known

mRNA extracted from a somatic cell that produces the desired product. mRNA treated with reverse transcriptase to make complementary DNA, cDNA

structure of actin

made of 2 actin filaments (made of actin subunits) spiralled around with tropomyosin and troponin blocking actin-myosin binding sites for myosin heads

structure of myosin

made of an hinged head (allowing it to move back and forwards) with a binding site for actin and ATP and a tail

muscle fibres

made of bundles of myofibrils make up skeletal muscles

Triglycerides

made of glycerol and three fatty acids in a triple condensation reaction connected by ester bonds

quarternary structure of proteins

made of many polypeptide chains (units) and inorganic prosthetic groups

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

made of the purine nitrogenous base adenine, pentose sugar ribose and three phosphate groups

thermoregulation

maintainance of a constant core body temperature to maintain optimum enzyme activity

role of abcsisic acid (ABA) as a plant hormone

maintains dormancy of seeds and buds, stimulates cold protective responses like antifreeze production, stimulates stomatal closing

Benefits of in situ conservation

maintains the genetic diversity of species and evolutionary adaptations that enable a species to adapt to changing environmental conditions such as climate or pest populations, preserves interdependent species in ecosystem, generally cheaper

histamines in inflammatory response

make the blood vessels dilate, causing localised heat and redness, which helps prevent pathogens from reproducing. Make blood vessels walls more leaky and blood plasma leaks out causing swelling.

role and location of skeletal muscles

make up most of body bulk and are responsible for movement of the body, commonly connected to bones by tendons and make them move

spermatazoa

male gamete, flagellum for movement, mitochondria for ATP/energy prod for movement, acrosome with digestive enzymes breaks down ovum

Antarctica animals present

mammals in surrounding seas: whales, seas, (Emperor) penguins, wingless midge only invertibrate

The Galapagos Islands plants present

mangroves in coasts - salt-tolerant, cacti in arid zones - drought-tolerant, cloud forests in humid zones with many mosses

Bioremediation using natural organisms

many microorganisms naturally beak down organic material producing carbon dioxide and water. Naturally occurring microorganisms can be supported (by adding specific nutrients to the surroundings) can neutralise many organic contaminants eg crude oil spills

Rhizomes (example and explanation) as a form of natural plant cloning

marram grass. Specialised horizontal stem running underground, often swollen with food. Buds develop, forming vertical shoots that develop independently

Inspiratory reserve volume

maximum volume of air you can breathe in over and above normal inhalation

Sampling bias

may affect reliability of a selection process accidentally or deliberately

main types of sensory receptors

mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors

Ways in which continued global warming will affect biodiversity

melting of polar ice caps could lead to the extinction of plant and animal species found there due to loss of habitat, rising sea levels will reduce the available terrestrial habitats and salt water will flow further up rivers decreasing fresh water habitats, higher temps and less rain will result in the death of some species, leading to xerophytes becoming more dominant, disrupting ecosystems, change in insect life cycles and populations changing pollination affecting plants and spreading tropical diseases towards poles

Roles of lipids

membrane formation, hormone production, thermal insulation, bouyancy, electrical insulation of electrical impulse, waterproofing, cushioning to protect vital organs, chemical energy store,

capillary

microscopic blood vessels that link arterioles and blood vessels, that form beds/networks, lumen small enough for one rbc around 10um, most have large gaps between endothelium cells so that substances can be easily exchanged, only one cell thick

Phospholipid

modified triglycerides containing the elements C, H, O and P, made of glycerol ester bonded to two fatty acids tails and an inorganic phosphate ion head. Head is hydrophillic and tails are hydrophobic

amino acid

monomers for the production of proteins, they all have a similar structure but different R groups

hexose monosaccharides

monosaccharides with a 6 atom ringed structure

pentose monosaccharide

monosaccharides with a 6 atom ringed structure

α cells

more numerous, larger in size, synthesise and secrete glucagon

Examples of secondary colonisers

mosses, hardy plants

Factors affecting genetic biodiversity

mutations in the DNA of an organism, creating new alleles and interbreeding between different populations - gene flow

silent mutations

mutations that cause a change in the codon but it still codes for the same amino acid because it is degenerate or if it occurs in a non-coding region

factors affecting action potential travel speed

myelination, axon diameter (bigger diameter means less resistance to ions in axon and bigger surface area for Na+ influx), temperature

The results of a muscle contraction

myosin filaments pulll the actin filaments inwards towards the centre of the sarcomere and the light band becomes narrower, the Z-lines move closer together, shortening the sarcomere, the H-zone become narrower

nasties

nastic movements

presynaptic neurone

nerone along which the impulse has arrived to the synapse from

Ways of controlling heart rate

nervous (by chemoreceptors and baroreceptors), hormonal (adrenaline and noradrenaline)

area of production of ADH

neurones in the hypothalamus

myelinated neurones

neurones who's axons are covered in a myelin sheath, insulating them and increasing the speed of their electrical impulse transmission

Effects of different mutations

neutral, damaging/harmful, beneficial

neutral (as an effect of a mutation)

no effect on the phenotype of an organism because normally functioning proteins are still synthesised

Extinct

no organisms of the species exist anywhere in the world

introns

non-coding regions of DNA

nastic movements

non-directional plant responses

chemonasty

non-directional response to chemicals

photonasty

non-directional response to light

thermonasty

non-directional response to temperature

thigmonasty

non-directional response to touch

hydronasty

non-directional response to water

Abiotic limiting factors (definition and examples)

non-living limiting factors eg temperature, pH, light, water availability, oxygen availability, humidity

types of effects of mutations

nonsense, missense, silent

breathing rate

number of breaths taken per minute

proportion of polymorphic gene loci (equation)=

number of polymorphic gene loci/total number of loci x100%

Recombination frequency (equation) =

number of recombinant offspring/total number of offspring x 100

saltatory conduction

occurs in myelinated neurones where Na+ ions can only enter at the Nodes of Ranvier, loacalised circuits are set up so the action potential can 'jump' from one node to the next, which is more energy efficient than repoolarisation of whole axon

Evidence for evolution provided by paleontology

oldest rocks contain simplest organisms and recent rocks have more complex organisms, the sequence in which organisms are found matches their ecological links (animals need plants so come after them in time), comparative anatomy of fossils can show common ancestors and divergent evolution to today's organisms, fossils can show relationship between living and extinct species

Cascade effect (of adrenaline action)

one molecule of adrenaline creates 2 cAMP molecules and each activates 4 enzymes so 8 in total, each stage has more activation that the one before

Allele

one of the possible forms of a gene

monocotyledonous plants

one of the two main groups of flowering plants that have 1 embryonic leaves (cotyledons)

dicotyledonous plants (dicots)

one of the two main groups of flowering plants that have 2 embryonic leaves (cotyledons)

Antarctica plants present

only grow in sheltered ice-free areas: lichen, mosses, algae

How are organisms classified?

organisms are separated into the 3 domains, then down the taxonomical hierarchy where the number of organisms in each group decreases but their similarities increase

Why is coordination needed?

organisms need to coordinate the functions and of different cells and systems to operate effectively

Extinct in the wild

organisms of the species only exist in captivity

Saprotrophs

organisms that obtain energy by saprobiotic nutrition - from dead or waste waste organic material

Detritivores

organisms that speed up decomposition by feeding on detritus, breaking it down into smaller pieces of organic material, which increases the surface area for the decomposers to work on by internal digestion

perennating organs

organs in plants that contain stored food from photosynthesis and can remain dormant in soil. Are a means of asexual reproduction, natural cloning and survival in adverse conditions

cotyledons

organs that act as food stores for the developing embryo plant and form the first leaves when the seed germinates

Factors affecting enzyme action

pH, temperature

sympathetic nervous/motor system, SMS

part of the ANS, regulates the body's 'flight or fight' responses as well as homeostasis (neurotransmitter noradrenaline)

parasympathetic nervous/motor system, PSNS

part of the ANS, responsible for the body's relaxing responses like 'feed and breed' and 'rest and digest'

somatic/voluntary nervous system, SoNS

part of the PNS that is under conscious control eg voluntary skeletal muscular movements (neurotransmitter acetylcholine)

autonomic nervous system, ANS

part of the PNS that works constantly under subconscious control (involuntary) eg life-sustaining mechanisms like breathing

Examples of uses of immobilised enzymes

penicillin acylase used to make semi-synthetic penicillin from natural penicillin making it more effective, glucose isomerase used to make sweeter fructose from glucose, lactase to make lactose free milk, blucoamylase used to break down starch to glucose (syrup), nitrile hydratase used to plastics from acrylamide

Prosthetic group

permanent non-protein component binded to the polypeptide chain by Hydrogen bonds eg Fe(II) in heam

ascending limb of Loop of Henle role in countercurrent multiplier effect

permeable to NaCl, impermeable to water, NaCl moves out by diffusion down electrochemical gradient into medulla, at end filtrate is isotonic

collecting duct role in countercurrent multiplier effect

permeable to water as controlled by ADH as water potential of medulla is very concentrated so water moves out due to osmosis and leaves very concentrated urine

descending limb of Loop of Henle role in countercurrent multiplier effect

permeable to water, impermeable to NaCl, isotonic to blood, water moves out by osmosis then back into capillaries

Uses of SCNT

pharming by SNCT a cow can be GM to produce human proteins in its milk

damaging/harmful (as an effect of a mutation)

phenotype of the organism is affected in a negative way because proteins are no longer synthesised or synthesised proteins are non-functional

photosynthetic pigments

pigments that absorb light, release excited electrons, used in light-dependent stage of photosythesis, found in photosystems

metaphase plane/plate (equator)

plane created by chromosomes being moved to centre by spindle fibres in metaphase

hydrophytes

plants adapted to living in in water (fully or partially submerged) or soil permanently saturated with water

xerophytes

plants adapted to very low (soil-)water availability eg cacti, succulents, conifers and marram grass

perennial plants

plants that live longer than 2 years

hyperaccumulates

plants which can take up large amounts of metals from the ground

sieve plates

plates formed at the walls of adjoining cells in phloem with pores to allow phloem contents to flow through

Nodes on a phylogenetic tree

points of divergent evolution from a common ancestor

Examples of physiological adaptations

poison production to kill prey or protect themselves from predation, antibiotic production to kill competing bacteria, water holding like cacti

order of nervous impulse transmission

polarised, depolarisation, repolarisation, hyperpolarisation, polarised

Snowdonia National Park and The Lake District National Park problems caused by human activities

popular tourist destination: footpath and soil erosion, trampling, litter, disruption of wildlife

Stem tubers (example and explanation) as a form of natural plant cloning

potato. Tip of an underground stem becomes swollen with stored food to form a tuber or storage organ. Buds on the storage organ develop producing new shoots

The aims of sustainability are to:

preserve the environment, ensure resources are available for future generations, allow humans in all societies to live comfortably, enable LEDC's to develop by exploiting their natural resources , create a more even balance in the consumption of these resources between MEDC's and LEDC's

turgor pressure/hydrostatic pressure

pressure caused by water being confined to a small space as in plant cell that aids support and root cell expansion

Penecillin production production info

process uses relatively small fermenters because its very hard to maintain high levels of oxygen in large bioreactors, mixture continuously stirred to keep it oxygenated, grown in rich nutrient medium, buffer added to nutrient medium maintaining pH at ~6.5, temp constant at ~25-27'C

bioprocesses

processes utilising biotechnology

Schwann cells

produce layers of membrane by growing around the axon many times

Plasma cells

produce speciifc antibodies to an antigen and release them in to circulation

Arguments against micropropagation

produces a monoculture, so all plants are susceptible to same diseases or changes in environment, relatively expensive process, needs skilled workers, explants and plantlets vulnerable to (fungal) infections, if initial sample has viral infection so do all clones, large numbers of plants may be lost during the process

assimilates

products of photosynthesis that are transported by translocation

the magnitude of the force that is exerted by a muscle is

proportional to the number of motor units stimulated

meninges

protective membranes around the brain

symptoms caused by infected kidneys or if they are affected by high blood pressure

protein in urine - lack of filtration if podocytes and b.m. damages, blood in urine

Results of a mutation

protein synthesis can be disrupted if mutation within a gene/coding region

post-translational (as a way in which genes are regulated)

proteins can be modified after synthesis which changes their function

G1 phase (first growth phase)

proteins produced to make organelles, organelles replicate, cell gets bigger

channel protein

provide a hydrophyllic channel that facilitates passive processes (diffusion) of polar molecules or ions down a concentration gradient.

Collagen

provides structural support to maintain the shape and volume of the vessel

Open circulatory system

pump blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory system between cells

lactate fermentation explanation

pyruvate accepts H from reduced NAD, catalysed by lactate dehydrogenase to produce lactate

alcoholic fermentation (in yeast and many plants) - description

pyruvate is converted to ethanol by yeast and in many waterlogged plant roots

alcoholic fermentation (in yeast and many plants) - explanation

pyruvate is decarboxylated by pyruvate decarboxylase and CO2 is released to make ethanal which is hydrogenated by accepting H from reduced NAD oxidising it

shivering

rapid, involuntary contraction and relaxation of the large voluntary muscle in the body, heat from the metabolic exothermic reactions raises core body temp

pancreatic acini

raspberry-shaped clusters of exocrine cells in pancreas that secrete enzymes into branches of the pancreatic duct

Osmoreceptors

receptor cells in the hypothalamus that are sensitive to the concentration of inorganic ions in the blood (do so by detecting a change in their volume) and are linked to the release of ADH

positive feedback

receptor detects change, processed and an effector reinforces the change to cause an exponential response to an initial stimulus

neurotransmitter receptors

receptor molecules which the neurotransmitter binds to in the postsynaptic membrane

negative feedback system

receptors detect change, processed and an effector counteracts the detected change

hypothalamus

regulatory centre for temperature and water balance

goblet cell

release mucus to catch pathogens and dust

decarboxylation

removal of a carbon from a compound usually in the form of CO2

dephosphorylation

removal of a phosphate group

dehydrogenation

removal of hydrogen from a molecule

excretion

removal of metabolic (from bodily chemical reactions) waste products from the body, passes through a membrane so was 'inside' the body

Kidney gross structure components

renal artery, renal vein, cortex, medulla, pelvis, ureter

Thymine in mRNA

replaced with Uracil and binds to Adenine

Kupffer cells

resident macrophages of the liver, ingest foreign particles and pathogens

Humoral immunity

response of B cells to pathogens outside of cells eg bacteria and fungi

excitatory neurotransmitters

result in the depolarisation of the postsynaptic neurone, by triggering the threshold voltage and releasing an action potential, eg acetylcholine

inhibitory neurotransmtter

result in the hyperpolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane, preventing an action potential being triggered eg gamma-aminobutyric acid

Ascending loop of Henle

runs back up from the medulla to the cortex

Descending loop of Henle

runs down from the cortex to the medulla to a hairpin bend at the bottom

Bioremediation using GM organisms

scientists are trying to develop Gm bacteria that can break down or accumulate contaminants which they would not naturally do eg bacteria have been GM to remove mercury contamination from water

duplication (as a type of chromosomal mutation)

sections of a chromosome get copied

Factors decreasing genetic biodiversity

selective breeding/artificial selection, captive breeding programmes, rare historically selectively bred breeds of domestic animals, artificial clones (cuttings), natural selection, genetic bottlenecking, founder effect, genetic drift

dendrons

short extensions that come from cell body, divide into smaller extensions called dendrites. Responsible for transmitting electrical impulses towards the cell body

Most populations have this type of growth curve

sigmoid growth curve

axons

singular, elongated nerve fibres that transmit impulse away from cell body, cylindrical, very narrow cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane

actin-myosin binding sites

sites on actin molecules where myosin heads form actin-myosin cross-bridges with the actin filament

Ways of measuring populations

size, density, growth rate

types of muscles

skeletal, cardiac, involuntary/smooth muscles

current uses of stem cells

skin grafting as burn treatment, drugs trialed are done so on cultures of stem cells before human or animal testing, developmental biology e.g. embryology etc.

Types of muscle fibres

slow-twitch and fast twitch muscle fibres

spiracles

small opening on insects' located on abdomen and thorax for gaseous exchange

alveoli

small pockets that are the respiratory functional units of the lungs with a rich blood supply, only single epithelial cell thick, covered in lung surfactant

lymph node

small swellings in the lymphatic system where lymph is filtered and lymphocytes are formed.

dendrites

smaller extensions that divide from dendrons. Responsible for transmitting electrical impulses towards the cell body

neurones

specialised nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses from around the body

Aerenchyma

specialised parenchyma cells that take part in apoptosis to produce air spaces

phagocytes

specialised white blood cells that engulf and destroy pathogens

voltage gated ion channels, VGIC's

specific ion channel proteins that only change shape when a threshold voltage is reached

Pacinian corpuscle function and location

specific sensory receptors that detect mechanical pressure, located deep in skin, feet and are responsible for joint proprioception

Anaphase

spindles attach to CENTROMERE, CENTROMERE splits, sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles as spindles shorten, CENTROMERE leading, detachement of spindle fibres

Natural plant cloning/propagation methods used in horticulture

splitting bulbs, removing young runners, cutting up rhizomes, taking cuttings from short sections of stems

Haematopoietic cells

stem cells in the bone marrow that can differentiate into all the blood cells

guard cells (pairs)

stomata for CO2 to enter plant for photosynthesis, close when they have low water level to prevent excess transpiration

pituitary gland

stores and releases hormones that regulate many bodily functions

Runners (example and explanation) as a form of natural plant cloning

strawberry, spider plant, Lateral stem grows away from parent and develops roosts when the runner touches the ground. Runner stem eventually withers leaving new independent individual

analagous structures

structures in different organisms that have adapted to perform the same function but are superficially different and have a different genetic origin

photoreceptors

structures or pigments that are sensitive to specific wavelengths of light (mostly blue)

Surfactents (surface active agents)

substances that reduce the surface tension of a liquid, sit at surface or boundary between water and oil, the hydrophobic end points to oil or out of water, hydrophillic end points to water. Used in pulmonary surfactent .

the symplast route of translocation

sucrose moves from mesophyll cells to companion cells by diffusion through plasmodesmata and into phloem by diffusion. Largely passive. Water moves in due to osmosis and creates a pressure that moves assimilates through phloem by mass flow

the apoplast route of translocation

sucrose travels through apoplast route by diffusion. In companion cells sucrose is actively transported into the cytoplasm by proton pumps and H+ ions acting as co-transporters for sucrose via co-transporter protein. Sucrose moves into phloem through plasmodesmata from phloem by diffusion

Stem cuttings (example and explanation) as a form of propagation

sugar cane, banana, tea and coffee bushes, pelargoniums, cacti. short sections of stems are taken and planted either directly into the ground or in pots. Rooting powder added to base of cutting to decrease time needed for rooting

total lung capacity

sum of the vital capacity and residual volume

T regulatory cells

suppress the immune system acting to control and regulate it. They stop the immune response once the pathogen has been eliminated and make sure the the body recognises self antigens. INTERLEUKINS are important in this control

Examples of behavioural adaptations

survival behaviours to increase chance of survival, courtship increases chance of reproduction, seasonal behaviours allow organisms to cope with seasonal changes: migration to more favourable environments, hibernation a period of inactivity to conserve energy, innate/instinct behaviour inherited through genes, learned behaviour from experience or observation

decreased sweating

sweat production will stop entirely so no heat energy is lost through evaporation, however some evaporation occurs from lung surfactant

increased sweating

sweat spreads out across the surface of the skin, due to water's high specific heat capacity and latent heat of vaporisation a lot of energy is needed to increase its temperature and make it evaporate meaning excess heat can be easily released this way

Ψ

symbol (psy) used to denote the water potential of a substance, which is always negative except for pure water (0kPa), measured in kPa.

cholinergic synapses

synapses that use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, common in the CNS of vertebrates and at neuromuscular junctions

Kreb's Cycle

takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and each cycle results in the breakdown of an acetyl group

dehydrogenation and formation of ATP of glycolysis

the 2 phosphate groups of each triose bisphosphate are used to produce 2 molecules of ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. Hydrogen is also taken from the triose bisphosphate which is accepted by NAD+ to form reduced NADH which transports the H to the e.t.c.

Decarboxylation of link reaction

the 3C compound pyruvate gets decarboxylated and CO2 is released

dehydrogenation and regenaration of Kreb's Cycle

the 4C compound is dehydrogenated again by the reduction of NAD to reduced NADH, oxaloacetate is regenerated

dehydrogenation I of Kreb's Cycle

the 4C compound is dehydrogenated by the reduction of FAD to FADH2

decarboxylation and dehydrogenation II of Kreb's Cycle

the 5C compound is dehydrogenated by reducing NAD and decarboxylated by evolution of CO2, a 4C compound is made

Turgor/turgidity

the ability of the cell wall of a plant cell to exert pressure on the water and experience from the water on it

egestion

the act or process of voiding or discharging undigested food as faeces, it does not cross any membranes but stays 'outside' the body

Glycolysis

the anaerobic process that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, creating ATP and reduced NAD too.

template strand

the antisense strand acts as a template strand during transcription, so that the complementary mRNA strand forms a direct copy of the base sequences as the sense strand

Biotechnology

the application of biological organisms or enzymes to the synthesis, breakdown, or transformation of materials in the service of people

Biotechnology

the application of biological organisms or enzymes to the synthesis, breakdown, or transformation of materials in the service of people on an industrial scale

Afferent arteriole

the arteriole that leads to the glomerulus, it has a greater cross-sectional area than the efferent arteriole to increase blood pressure in glomerulus

anterior pituitary gland

the back part of the pituitaryland

Exocrine system

the bodily system made up of exocrine glands that are made of epithelial cells that secrete chemicals into ducts

Peptide bond

the bond between two amino acids formed in a condensation reaction -CON-

skull

the bone capsule that houses the brain

apoplast

the cell walls and intracellular spaces between plant cells

tropisms

the change in an organism (plant) in response to a certain stimulus

action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

Decomposition

the chemical process in which a compound is broken down into smaller molecules, or into its constituent elements

Precision

the closeness of agreement between independent measurements obtained under the same conditions and depends only on the spread of measurements/distribution of random errors and does not relate to the true/accepted value

ecosystem

the community and its abiotic environment

central nervous system, CNS

the complex of nerve tissues that controls the activities of the body. In vertebrates it comprises the brain and spinal cord.

electrochemical gradient

the concentration gradient of ions influenced by their concentration and net/relative charges in different areas

symplast

the continuous cytoplasm of the living plant cells that is connected through the plasmodesmata

transamination

the conversion of one amino acid into another (important if diet doesn't contain required balance of amino acids)

Bowman's capsule

the cup-shaped structure that contains the glomerulus and it collects filtrate and passes it to the proximal convoluted tubule

Cortex

the dark outer layer of the kidneys, has a very dense capillary network carrying blood from renal artery to the nephrons, it is where blood filtration takes place

Biodata

the data obtained from various quantitative biological tests

Reliability

the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.

genetic engineering

the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material.

Synthetic biology

the design and construction of novel artificial biological pathways, organisms or devices, or the redesign of existing natural biological systems.

DNA profile

the developed product from the process of DNA profiling - a unique pattern of bars

Zonation

the distribution of organisms into specific zones according to such parameters as altitude or depth, each characterized by its dominant species.

Mitosis

the division of a diploid into two genetically identical cells, genetically identical also to parent

Clonal expansion

the division of activated B cells to become plasma cells and B memory cells

respiratory losses

the energy lost at each trophic level due to the nature of respiratory reactions

Nitrogenase

the enzyme present in nitrogen fixing bacteria that uses atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen as substrates to produce ammonia

root hair cells

the exchange surface in plants where water is taken into the body of the plant from the soil

extrasystole

the extra heartbeat of an ectopic heartbeat followed by a pause

Plagioclimax

the final seral stage of an ecological ecosystem that is stopped artificially

Primary community

the first seral stage of an primary ecological succession characterised by the colonisation of a bare area by pioneering species/colonisers

Oxidative decarboxylation/link reaction

the first step of aerobic respiration that links glycolysis and Kreb's Cycle. Occurs in mitochondrial matrix

Locus of a gene

the fixed location of a gene on a chromosome

apoplastic pathway

the flow of water from root hair cells to the xylem through the apoplast due to cohesive forces in the water pulling it along

symplastic pathway

the flow of water through the symplast from root hair cells to xylem because of the change in water potential between adjacent cells moving water along by osmosis

tissue fluid

the fluid that fills the space between cells is called tissue fluid and has same composition as blood plasma but without rbc's and plasma proteins

substrate level phosphorylation

the formation of ATP without the involvement of an electron transport chain

posterioir pituitary gland

the front part of the piruitary gland where ADH is stored and then released from

Nephron

the function unit of the kidney

synaptic cleft

the gap, which seperates the axon of one neurone and the dendrite of the next, appr. 20-30 nm

pCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide)

the hypothetical pressure of CO2 if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the same temperature

pO2 (partial pressure of oxygen)

the hypothetical pressure of O2 if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the same temperature

bidirectional/multidirection

the idea that translocation of assimilates in phloem can go up or down

Secondary immune response

the immune response to a secondary exposure of a pathogen with antigen already encountered, so memory cells can differentiate quickly into plasma cells and fight off the infection much quicker by producing the same specific antibodies as it did the previous time

Artificial active immunity

the immune system of the body is stimulated to make it's own antibodies to a safe form of an antigen (a vaccine), which is injected into the bloodstream (vaccination)

Primary immune response

the initial production of antibodies by plasma cells specific to a new pathogen's antibodies and takes days or even weeks

synapse

the junction between two neurones or a neurone and an effector

endodermis

the layer of cells surrounding the vascular plant tissues (xylem and phloem)

Basement membrane

the layer of collagen fibres and other proteins inside Bowman's capsule that filtrate needs to go through, acts as a sieve

H-zone

the lighter coloured region found in the centre of each dark band.. Myosin fibres are only present here and it shortens when the sarcomere contracts

Medulla

the lighter inner part of the kidney, contains the tubules of the nephrons that form the pyramids and the collecting ducts

Z-line

the line at the centre of each light band

depurination

the loss of a purine base; adenine or guanine

depyrimidation

the loss of a pyrimidine base; cytosine or thymine

homeostasis

the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment

Conservation

the maintenance of biodiversity through human action or management which includes maintaining diversity between species, maintaining diversity within a species and the maintenance of habitats

Osmoregulation

the maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations.

Explant

the material removed from the plant during micropropagation eg meristem tissue from shoot tips or axial buds

systolic blood pressure (top number)

the maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart

Forced expiratory volume

the maximum forced volume of air breathed out in 1s

Carrying capacity, k

the maximum population size that an environment can support

Biotic potential

the maximum possible growth rate of a population

oxidative phosphorylation

the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing energy which is used to reform ATP

activation energy

the minimum amount of energy need for a biological reaction to start

Second messenger model (of adrenaline action)

the model used to describe the action of adrenaline because it is non-steroid so cannot pass through cell membrane so relies on cAMP being created

mass flow

the movement of fluids down a pressure or temperature gradient

Emigration (as a factor affecting population size)

the movement of individual organisms away from a particular area decreasing their population size in that area

Immigration (as a factor affecting population size)

the movement of individual organisms into a particular area increasing the population size in that area

erector pili muscles

the muscles that when contracted make body hairs erect

Succession

the natural process in which early colonising species are replaced over time until a stable mature population is established

Innate/non-specific immunity

the natural resistances with which a person is born

Diffusion

the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower cncentration

postsynaptic neurone

the neurone that recieves the neurotransmitter

abundance of organisms in an ecosystem

the number of individuals of a species present in an area at any given time

population (ecology)

the number of individuals of the same species in a given area at a given time

Saprobiotic nutrition

the obtainment of energy by an organism from dead or waste organic material

sense strand

the one of two DNA strands that contains the code for the protein to be synthesised, running from 5' to 3'

heamocoel

the open cavity in an open circulatory system, under a lower pressure

Cell cycle

the ordered sequence of events that take place in a cell resulting in it's division into genetically identical daughter cells.

humus

the organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of leaves and other plant material by soil microorganisms.

Chance

the organisms selected may, by chance, not be representative of the whole population, effects can be minimised using a large sample size

antisense strand

the other strand from 3' to 5' that is a complementary copy of the sense strand and doesn't code for a protein

electrical balance of a cell

the overall charge of a cell created due to a higher conc. of +ve or -ve ions in or outside it

systole

the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries.

diastole

the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood.

sarcolemna

the plasma membrane that encloses muscle fibres

primary structure of proteins

the polypeptides chains made by condensation reaction of amino acid addition

locus of a gene

the position of a gene on a chromosome

Conservation

the preservation and careful management of the environment and of natural resources

diastolic blood pressure (bottom number)

the pressure in the arteries when the heart rests between beats

blood pressure

the pressure of the blood in the circulatory system

Ecological succcession

the process by which a biological community changes over time

bioleaching

the process by which hyperaccumulates take up metals from the ground

Positive/Darwinian selection

the process by which new advantageous genetic variants sweep a population

Respiration

the process by which organic molecules, such as glucose are broken down into smaller inorganic molecules like CO2 and H2O. The chemical energy stored in the bonds is used to make adenosine triphophate

co-transport

the process in which two substances are simultaneously transported across a membrane by one protein or protein complex that doesn't need ATP (facilitated diffusion) in this case H+ co-transports sucrose into companion cells

Cell Differentiation

the process of a less specialised cell become more specialised with a reduced potency

Hybridisation

the process of an animal or plant breeding with an individual of another species or variety.

Expiration/exhalation

the process of breathing out/expelling air from the lungs, a passive process

Captive breeding programmes

the process of breeding animals outside of their natural environment in restricted conditions in farms, zoos or other closed facilities. The choice of individual animals that are to be part of a captive breeding population, and the mating partners within that population, are controlled by humans.

Ultrafiltration

the process of filtration of blood in the kidneys to remove nitrgoenous waste and for osmoregulation

phosphorylation

the process of reattaching a phosphate group to an ADP molecule, a condensation reaction

Reclamation

the process of restoring ecosystems that have been damaged or destroyed

Chemiosmosis

the process of synthesis of ATP in both photosynthesis and respiration due to diffusion of protons from an area of their higher concentration to an area of their lower concentration passing through ATPase phosphorylating ADP

Inspiration/inhalation

the process of taking in air into the lungs for gas exchange

ornithine cycle

the process whereby ammonia produced in the deamination of proteins is converted into urea bby a set of enzyme-controlled reactions

genetic biodiversity is directly proportional to

the proportion of polymorphic gene loci

Preservation

the protection of an area by restricting or banning human interference, so that the ecosystem is kept in its original state. Commonly used to preserve ecologically, archaeologically, or paleontologically sensitive resources that can be easily damaged or destroyed by disturbances. Visitation is not allowed in preserved areas only by those who manage or monitor it.

mitotic spindles

the protein microtubules made by centrioles that attach to and control chromosmes

Surface area to volume ratio

the ratio of surface area to volume

selective reabsorption

the reabsorbtion of certain chemicals from glomerular filtrate by active transport, such as glucose, salt

haemoglobin

the red pigment that carries oxygen and gives them their colour

deamination of excess amino acids

the removal of an amine group from a molecule, body has no way of storing protein so rather than wasting it it removes the amino group forming ammonia then urea whilst remainder of amino acids is used in cellular respiration or converted into lipids for storage

sarcomere

the repeated functional subunit of a myofibril that is measured from one Z-line to the next

Pharmacogenetics

the science of combining drug actions with personal genetic material

Distal convoluted tubule

the second twisted tubule in the cortex after the loop of Henle where fine-tuning of the water balance of the body, pH and ion balance of the blood

Clonal selection

the selection of a specific complementary B cell that clones itself

vascular system

the series of transport vessels running through a plant

Cellular respiration

the set of catabolic metabolic reactions that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy into ATP

Calvin cycle

the set of chemical reaction of carbon fixation and production of organic molecules by chloroplasts in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis

sarcoplasm

the shared cytoplasm of muscle fibres

Resolution

the smallest change in the quantity being measured that can be detected by an instrument

Proteomics

the study and amino acid sequencing of an organism's entire protein complement

synaptic knob

the swollen end of the presynaptic neurone that contains many mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum for the synthesis of neurotransmitter

Autosomal/genetic linkage

the tendency of genes that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction which affects the typical phenotypic ratios of offspring

homeostasis

the tendency towards a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements maintained by physiological processes.

The sliding filament model of muscle contraction

the theory that muscles contract due to the sliding of actin over myosin

myosin

the thicker protein filament of myofibrils that consists of long rod-shaped fibres with bulbous heads that project to one side

actin

the thinner protein filament of myofibrils made of 2 helical strands twisted round each other

Gross production

the total energy going into a trophic level that produces biomass eg producers, primary consumers

phagosome

the transport vesicle that encompasses the pathogen when it is engulfed by a phagocyte

haemolymph

the unpigmented blood of insects. Doesn't carry O2 or CO2, but transports food and nitrogenous waste products

Bioremediation

the use of microorganisms to break down pollutants and contaminants in the soil and water

Single-cell protein, SCP

the use of microorganisms to directly produce edible protein

indirect food production by biotechnology

the use of microorganisms to help produce foods by their actions on it eg. bread, cheese, wine

direct food production by biotechnology

the use of microorganisms to produce food from the microorganisms eg. Quorn

Recessive allele

the version of a gene that is only expressed if two copies of the allele (homologous recessive)

Dominant allele

the version of a gene that will always be expressed if present in an organism

ventilation rate

the volume of air inhaled in one minute

glomerular filtration rate

the volume of blood that is filtered through the kidneys per unit time

glomerular filtration rate (GMR)

the volume of filtrate filtered through the glomerulus per unit time

Ψs

the water potential due to a dissolved solute

Ψw

the water potential of a solution, taking into account Ψp+Ψs

features of all sensory receptors

they are specific to one type of stimulus and act as a transducer - they convert the stimulus energy into a nerve impulse

parenchyma cells (xylem)

thick-walled cells that pack around xylem vessels, storing food and tannin deposits

ventilation rate =

tidal volume x breathing rate

heterochromatin

tightly wound DNA which causes them to be visible during cell division

sinks

tissues in a plant that need assimilates eg for respiration, storage or protein synthesis for example roots, meristematic tissues, storage organs, fruits, seeds

Sources

tissues in a plant that produce assimilates eg green leaves, green stems, storage organs, food stores in germinating seeds

The Galapagos Islands problems caused by human activities

tourism, pollution of oceans - oil spills, sewage, habitat destruction, more roads/houses built, introduction of livestock causing interspecific competition with native species

ways in which genes are regulated categorised by the level at which they operate

transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, post-translational

translational (as a way in which genes are regulated)

translation can be stopped or started

intrinsic/integral protein

transmembrane proteins that are embedded through both layers. They have hydrophobic R-group amino acids on the outside, which interact with the hydrophobic core.

relay neurones

transmit electrical impulses from a sensory neurone to a motor neurone, found in CNS. Have many short dendrons and axons

sensory neurones

transmit electrical impulses from a sensory receptor cell to a relay neurone, motor neurone or brain. Have one dendron and one axon and cell body on side

motor neurones

transmit electrical impulses from relay neurone to an effector, such as a muscle or gland and have one long axon and many dendrites

translocation

transport of assimilates from source to sink through phloem

Phloem tissue

transport of organic nutrients like sucrose from leaves to rest of plant, composed of columns of sieve tubes, separated by perforated walls called sieve plates

role/function of blood

transport: O2 to and CO2 from respiring cells, digested food from small intestine, N waste from cells to excretory organs, hormones, food molecules from storage to active cells, platelets to damaged areas, cells and antibodies involved in immune response

Xylem tissue

transports water and minerals throughout plants, strengthened by hydrophobic lignin, also provides structural support for plants

renal dialysis

treatment for kidney failure where the function of the kidneys is carried out artificially

trachea in insects

tubes that carry air to the muscles of insects, has chitin lining which keep them open

Sister group on a phylogenetic tree

two descendants from the same node

Homologous pair of chromosomes

two of the same chromosomes one paternal one maternal

Collecting duct

urine passes down the collecting duct through the medulla to the pelvis, more fine-tuning of the water balance happens because the permeability of the walls is sensitive to ADH

medulla oblongata

used in autonomic control eg controls heart rate and breathing rate

Use of recombination frequency

used to map the genes on a chromosome for a number of characteristics coded for by genes on the same chromosome where 1% relates to a distance of one map unit on a chromosome

response to decreased core body temperature in endotherms

vasoconstriction, decreased sweating, raising body hair or feathers to increase insulating effect, shivering

response to increased core body temperature in endotherms

vasodilation, increased sweating, reducing the insulating effect of hair of feathers

hairpin bend of Loop of Henle role in countercurrent multiplier effect

very concentrated filtrate as lots of water left in descending limb, filtrate is hypertonic to blood

cytokinesis in plant cells

vesicles begin to assemble in metaphase plate until their membranes fuse together, then a cell wall forms inbetween.

synaptic vesicles

vesicles containing neurotransmitter that fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release their contents into the synaptic cleft

bile canaliculi

vessels in between hepatocytes in to which they secrete bile, which drains in to the bile ductules and then to the gall bladder

bile ductules

vessels that drain bile from the bile caniculi into the gall bladder

Examples of when primary succession occurs

volcanic eruptions, deposition of lava creating exposed igneous rock when it cools, when sand is blown by the wind or deposited by the sea to create new sand dunes, silt and mud are deposited at river estuaries, glaciers retreat depositing rubble and exposing rock

Vital capacity

volume of air that can be breathed in when the strongest possible exhalation is followed by the deepest possible inhalation

Tidal volume

volume of air that moves into and out of the lungs with each resting breathe

Principles of thermoregulation in endotherms: the most important ways in which they warm up and cool down

warm up by internal exothermic metabolic reactions, cool down by energy-requiring physiological responses

adhesion

water is attracted to other materials means it can be transported through xylem for example.

Ψp

water pressure due to the hydrostatic pressure caused by the pressure exerted by the walls of a closed container on the liquid

The Lake District National Park animals present

water voles, red squirrels, bats, golden eagle, toads, red deer

chlorine shift

when -ve hydrogen carbonate ions leave the cell, -ve chlorine ions enter the cell to balance the electrical balance of the cell

Oxyhaemoglobin

when Hb binds reversibly (loosely) with oxygen Hb(O2)4/HbO8 is formed

deletion (as a type of point mutation)

when a base is deleted so the whole code shifts down one base

insertion (as a type of point mutation)

when a base is inserted so the whole code shifts up one base

Cell Specialisation

when a cell becomes comitted to a specific activity

Pandemic

when a communicable disease spreads rapidly across a number of countries and continents

Epidemic

when a communicable disease spreads rapidly to a lot of people at a local or national level

resting potential/polarised definition

when a neurone is not transmitting an impulse, the p.d. across the membrane is the resting potential, the outside is more positive than axon cytoplasm so it is polarised

spatial summation

when a number of presynaptic neurones connect to one postsynaptic neurone, so when each release neurotransmitter the amount builds up and triggers an action potential in only one neurone

MHC/antigen complex

when a pathogen's antigen is bonded to a phagocyte's MHC and is displayed on the phagocyte's cell surface membrane

Water stress

when a plant loses more water through transpiration that it can uptake through it's roots in dry conditions

renaturation

when a protein denatured due to a change in pH resumes its normal shape when the optimum pH is restored

deletion (as a type of chromosomal mutation)

when a section of a chromosome breaks off and is lost within the cell

temporal summation

when a single presynaptic neurone releases neurtotransmitter due to a high frequency of incoming action potentials, so amount of neurotransmitter builds up to sufficient amount to trigger action potential in postsynaptic neurone

Homozygous dominant

when an organism contains 2 alleles of the dominant phenotype

Homozygous recessive

when an organism contains 2 alleles of the recessive phenotype

Heterozygous

when an organism contains two different alleles for a characteristic, one dominant and one recessive so the dominant phenotype is expressed

phloem loading

when assimilates are transported into phloem by active transport through either the symplastic or apoplastic routes

phloem unloading

when assimilates passively move out of phloem by diffusion in tissues with their lower concentration

carbominohaemoglobin

when carbon dioxide combines with the amino acids in the polypeptide chains these molecules are formed

crossing over

when chromatids break and reform when forming bivalents in Prophase I of meiosis

Stage 1 of an intraspecific competition graph

when is plentiful in a habitat all organisms have enough resources to survive and reproduce so the population size increases

bulk transport

when large molecules that cannot be moved in or out of a cell through active transport so do so by exocytosis or endocytosis.

phagolysosome

when lysosomes bind with the phagosome they release the enzymes that break down the pathogen in this structure

Mitotic phase

when mitosis and cytokinesis occur (only after interphase)

base substitution (as a type of point mutation)

when one base is substituted with another

positive cooperativity

when one molecule of O2 binds to the Hb it changes shape and makes it easier for the next O2 molecules to bind

how is an impulse started

when stimulus is detected by a sensory receptor the energy of the stimulus temporarily reverses the charge on the axon membrane to +40mV

Autoimmune diseases

when the body's own immune system recognises body cells as foreign/non-self and attacks them

G0 phase

when the cell leaves the cell cycle from G1 temporarily or permanently (because of cell differentiation, DNA damage so it cannot divide)

Cytokinesis

when the cytoplasm divides and two genetically identical daughter cells are produced

hyperpolarisation

when the p.d. is repolarised too much and goes lower than -70mV

beneficial (as an effect of a mutation)

when the phenotype of an organism is positively affected by a new and useful protein being synthesised

summation

when the release of one amount of neurotransmitter by a presynaptic neurone is not over the threshold and not enough to trigger an action potential so the amount of neurotransmitter needs to build up sufficiently

Cytolysis/haemolysis

when too much water enters an animal cell causing it to burst.

Co-dominance

when two different alleles of a gene are equally dominant so both are expressed in the phenotype of the organism

transpiration stream

when water evaporates from the freely-permeable cellulose cell walls of the mesophyll cells in the leaves into air spaces . The water moves out to the external air through the stomata down the diffusion gradient

transpiration pull

when water is drawn up the xylem in a continuous stream to replace the water lost by evaporation because of adhesion and cohesion of water that exhibit capillary action

Crenation

when water leaves an animal cell causing it to shrink and shrivel.

guttation

when xylem sap is forced out of special pores at night when transpiration is low and evidence of root pressure

neuromuscular junctions

where a motor neurone and a muscle cell (effector)

kidney transplant

where a new kidney from a donor is inserted in the groin area, needs to be correct 'tissue match' and immunosuppressent drugs need to be taken for rest of life

Distribution of organisms in an ecosystem

where individual organisms are found within an ecosystem

Nuetrophils

white blood cell, multi-lobed nucleus easier to small gaps to get to infections, granular cytoplasm has many lysosomes - proteins to break down pathogens

Lymphocytes

white blood cells

B lymphocytes

white blood cells synthesised in the bone marrow from haematopoietic cells

T lymphocytes

white blood cells that take part in the specific immune system and are made in the thymus gland. They secrete chemicals to kill cancerous or virus infected cells

Examples of in situ conservation methods

wildlife reserves, marine conservation zones

arborescent dicots

woody dicots that have hard, lignified tissues and a long life cycle