Bio Test #3
Mutation
A change in a gene or chromosome. Only source of new alleles permanent alteration of a DNA base sequence
Change over time
Biological evolution is not simply a matter of change over time. Lots of things change over time: trees lose their leaves, mountain ranges rise and erode, but they aren't examples of biological evolution because they don't involve descent through genetic inheritance.
Prokaryotes
Cells that do not contain nuclei versatile metabolism, ancient lineage, extremely diverse and ubiquitous Bacteria, archaea (single- celled, microscopic) Protists -- lead to plants, animals, and fungi (nucleus membranes) Prokaryotic-- can have hundred on surface of cell Body functions like an ecosystem-- microbes exist in a balance and protect you from microbial invasions Diff genetic lineage than plants archaea (Extreme environ-- ubiquitous-- they are EVERYWHERE) plant-like protist: Ubiquitous in any aquatic environment -Bacteria and Archaea are ancient, diverse, abundant, and ubiquitous -Live in virtually every habitat on Earth and are extremely diverse metabolically -Play key roles in ecosystems
Microevolution
Change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. a change of allele frequencies in a population over a short period of time. The basis for all large-scale evolution (macroevolution)
Who were the earliest photosynthesizers?
Cyanobacteria (aka bacteria)
Patterns and evidence of evolution
Homologous structures: Divergent Evolution from a common ancestor. Homologous Structures have similar morphology, embryology and anatomy etc. but are dissimilar in their functions EX: The arm of a human, the wing of a bird or a bat, the leg of a dog and the flipper of a dolphin or whale are homologous structures. Vestigial Structures - leftover traits no longer needed but retained Analogous structures- convergent evolution from adaptation to similar environments Diverged but came to same function Converge upon the same functions (diff places to same function) Ability to swim, etc.-- all have similar shape for environment-- function is shaped by environment in which they live Analogous structures are those structures in different species which perform the same function, have similar appearance and structure but are not evolved together; therefore, do not have a common ancestor Ex: wings (mammals, birds, insects), flippers (mammals, birds), wings in flying animals like bats, birds, and insects, to fins in animals like penguins and fish. Traits look similar though no recent common ancestor. Traits shaped by adaptation. Examples: wing shape in insects, birds, mammals
What is a transgenic organism?
Its an organism produced by the insertion of recombinant DNA into the genome of the organism. Incorporating exogenous genetic material into the genome of an organism/species.
Carrying Capacity
Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support until the resources run out Carrying capacity represents maximum amount of resources (population size is limited by resources) The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment.
General understanding of history of life on Earth.
Living matter-- carbon based life Form four bonds, electroneutral, form complex molecules Dna produces 3-d product -- stimulate and catalyze/control reactions Non living matter that forms biological molecules earth- 4.5 byo bacteria-like cells- 3.5 byo 4 bill. Years there has been life on earth Conditions promote evol. Of life-- life has been prokaryotic (small, simple-celled organisms) Earliest life on earth is est. 3.5 billion years Bacterial life-- prokaryotic there was no O2 back then, prokaryotics, algae, photosynthetic, ocean (Came from O2)
Logistic vs exponential growth
Logistic growth cuts off, while exponential growth doesn't stop - grows exponential Logistic growth is realistic, not exponential Stable and equilibrium with resources (logistic) Rate of growth slows down until it become flat Exponential population growth: When resources are unlimited, populations exhibit exponential growth, resulting in a J-shaped curve. ... In logistic growth, population expansion decreases as resources become scarce. It levels off when the carrying capacity of the environment is reached, resulting in an S-shaped curve. The biggest difference, however, is that the line in the logistic growth graph changes direction and begins to level off as it nears the carrying capacity. That means that the main difference between exponential and logistic growth is that logistic growth takes into account carrying capacity. Growth in a population is exponential
You are a crime scene investigator, and the only evidence you are able to gather at the crime scene are some strands of hair. You want to see whether a suspect in custody was at the crime scene. What technique would you use to try and connect the suspect to the crime scene?
PCR followed by analyzing small tandem repeats
Oxygen - Where did it come from? If it was not in the atmosphere, would Eukaryotic life be possible?
Photosynthesis (released by plant life: algae, in oceans) Photosynthesis built up o2 in atmosphere Made possible eukaryotic life-- euk. Rely on o2 in cellular respiration 78% n2 is non-reactive Captured by nitrogen fixation bacteria Most scientists believe that for half of Earth's 4.6-billion-year history, the atmosphere contained almost no oxygen. Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae became the first microbes to produce oxygen by photosynthesis, perhaps as long ago as 3.5 billion years ago and certainly by 2.7 billion years ago
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
Remove nucleus of egg cell, fuse nucleus with adult cell (DNA), fused cell develops as embryo and implanted in a surrogate mother a means of cloning animals through fusion of one somatic (non-sex) cell with an egg cell with an egg cell whose nucleus has been removed (an "enucleated" cell)
Much of the food crops in the United States are transgenic. This primarily has been done to give the crops what properties?
The ability to resist insects and herbicides Used for weed control and pest control and nutrients GM-- traditional herbicides which we target them
Could you identify a person by looking at a profile?***
The more STR loci used to build a genetic profile, the more confident investigators can be of a positive match between samples.-- so yes *** 10% of dna is non coding (what makes you diff than everyone else)-- coding for proteins
How do you get DNA from one organism into the genome of another organism
They first 'cut out' genes using precise biological 'scissors' - restriction enzymes - and paste them into DNA from another organism like a bacterium or yeast where it is copied many thousands or millions of times. Molecular model of a restriction enzyme bound to DNA. A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid? is extracted from the bacteria or yeast cell. A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction enzymes, 'molecular scissors'. Use of a plasmid (part of bacterial genome but not the chromosome)-- Bacterial DNA, small, extra-chromosomal rings, can move in and out of cells transformation Examples of producing human medicines like Human Growth Hormone or Insulin--Larger quantities of a complex biological molecule are made available relatively cheaply AND RECOMBINANT DNA (making a transgenic organism)
What is a species?
a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. a group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such populations Biological- sexual morphological- asexual
Founder Effect
change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population small number of individuals leave the population and found a new one-- isolated Genetically isolated/no flow b/w two populations anymore Genetic diversity goes down RANDOM genetic drift initial gene pool for a population is established by means of that population migrating to a new area. One of the conditions that potentiates genetic drift.
Morphological Species Concept
characterizes a species by body shape and other structural features (physical) focuses on things other than reproductive isolation as defining features can be used effectively to classify asexual species ASEXUAL reproduction-- no involve fertilization of two individuals in interbreeding of reproductive isolation groups species based on similar phenotype
For earliest cellular life to occur, what had to happen?
complex organic molecules make C-H bonds self-replication molecules (RNA) membranes> metabolism (used to control internal environment) o cell membrane o organic molecules (nucleotides, amino acids, Miller-Urey Experiment) o metabolism o self-replication
What is Bt corn?
corn that has been genetically modified to protect itself from insects by producing a larvae killing compound In the case of Bt corn, the donor organism is a naturally occurring soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, and the gene of interest produces a protein that kills Lepidoptera larvae, in particular, European corn borer. This protein is called the Bt delta endotoxin. 40 M ton corn/ yr lost gene that is poisonous to crops-- form of GM pesticides (not to humans)-- genetically insert to corns dna that messes bugs up in corn-- farmers use less pesticides transgenic crops: Bt improve yield Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria>> toxic spores paralyze insects guts and kills non-toxic: crops and people which allow farmers to use fewer to no pesticide
What are GMO crops
crop plants created for human or animal use/consumption using molecular biology techniques to insert foreign DNA into plants Ex: golden rice -- gives energy (not much nutrition)-- by taking a needed/less available nutrient (inserting gene into rice-- staple)-- GM form of rice- solve nutrient-deficiency problem in a food that is already eaten regularly GM form of rice- beta carotene -- nutrient-enhanced form of rice (PCR copying , inserting vector, inserting to organism)-- creating line of GM form of rice
Nitrogen - It is important and limiting to life. How do living things get it?
from nitrogen-fixing bacteria Animals get the nitrogen they need by eating plants or other animals that contain nitrogen. When organisms die, their bodies decompose bringing the nitrogen into soil on land or into ocean water. Bacteria alter the nitrogen into a form that plants are able to use N-Fixing bacteria.
In agriculture, synthetic fertilizers provide N, how does this impact population growth of people on earth?
it allows all living things to have access to N without bacteria other organisms do not have access to Nitrogen all other things do not have access to it unless bacteria/unless it is fixated we can put it in fertilizers
gene flow (migration)
movement of alleles from one population to another movement in and out of a population
Mechanisms of Microevolution
mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, sexual selection
What were the earliest organisms?
prokaryotes
Insertion of DNA
restriction enzyme: target different sequences (MANY restriction enzymes)-- allows us to cut DNA (opening) and create overlap and insert a gene transgenic: Genome has 1+ genes inserted from another species. Plasmid: In a typical cloning experiment, a target gene is inserted into a circular piece of DNA called a plasmid.
macroevolution (speciation)
the formation of an entirely new species evolution that results in the formation of new species or other larger groupings of living things evolution above species level descent of different species from a common ancestor over many generations
Speciation
the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. development of new species through evolution How new species arrive, reproductive isolation, genetic divergence
Allele fixation
the removal of all alleles within a population at a particular genetic locus except one. The allele that remains has a frequency of 100% 1 allele in a population reduces genetic variation in a population In population genetics, fixation is the change in a gene pool from a situation where there exists at least two variants of a particular gene in a given population to a situation where only one of the alleles remains Lots of diversity to NO diversity
Differential reproductive success
there must be variation among parents in how many offspring they produce as a result of the different traits that the parent have Differential reproduction is the idea that those organisms best adapted to a given environment will be most likely to survive to reproductive age and have offspring of their own. Differential reproduction is the idea that those organisms best adapted to a given environment will be most likely to survive to reproductive age and have offspring of their own. how many offspring each group of individuals is able to leave behind. ... Differential reproductive success can manifest in a number of ways. more organisms born that can survive organisms struggle for existence better suited organisms: survive -> reproduce Populations can inc. expon-- then hit wall (carrying capacity) Inherited traits w/ variability-- survive ability Better suited-- reproduce more w/ variation
Bacteria
(microbiology) single-celled or noncellular spherical or spiral or rod-shaped organisms lacking chlorophyll that reproduce by fission Prokaryotic-- can have hundred on surface of cell Body functions like an ecosystem-- microbes exist in a balance and protect you from microbial invasions Beneficial vs. Pathogenic classified by shape and structure 1 organelle, reproduce asexually (binary fission), millions of species, metabolically diverse carry bacteria in chromosomes and plasmids (metabolic, resistance, virulence) digestive tract: food and bacteria benefit People get really efficient digestive system Bacteria line these cells Produce digestive enzymes for breakdown and absorption only small % of bacteria are pathogenic; can be responsible for worst diseases-- few cause harm by invading human cells-- most do not (they produce toxins) BENEFICIAL: Lactobaccilus Acidophilus. L. acidophilus is one of the most common and versatile probiotics on the market. ... Bacillus Coagulans. ... PATHOGENIC: Bacillus anthracis (Anthrax) Clostridium botulinum (botulism) Francisella tularensis subsp. Tularensis (valley fever) Yersinia pestis (the plague) body fights bacteria with bacteria good bacteria prevents bad bacteria from gaining control antibiotics select for resistant bacteria resistant ones becomes founders of new pop.
allele profile of an individual and probability of another person having the same profile in a population***
***Because of this, it's far less likely that two individuals would have the same genetic fingerprint by chance than two individuals would have the same blood type by chance. 1 in 6 billion (use short tandem repeats)-- non coding regions on diff chromosomes (Cannot have the same)
Bottleneck effect
A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population reduce variation in gene pool; drastic reduction in size; only allows a few individuals through Bottleneck-- genetic diversity is lost forever a change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance following a sharp reduction in the population's size. One of the factors that potentiates genetic drift.
Genetic Drift
A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection. random, big effect on small populations; Random change in allele frequency, not related to reproductive success, impact greater in small populations chance alteration of allele frequencies in a population, w/ such alterations having greatest impact on small populations
What is cloning?
A clone is a genetically identical copy of a biological entity. an exact genetic copy; to make one of these copies; single gene/organism can be cloned
Protists
A eukaryotic organism that cannot be classified as an animal, plant, or fungus. Like Plants > autotrophic, photosynthetic Like Fungi > heterotrophic (Decomposers) Like Animals > heterotrophic (motile) euglena, flagellum not a single evolutionary group or defining features where all the misfits are placed Do not have one common ancestor-- kingdom by exclusion
Sexual Selection
A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates. some get to mate more than others form of natural selection that produces differential reproductive success based on differential success in obtaining mating partners. differences in reproductive success mate more--> alleles increase in population
Pests and weeds are a big problem. How do GMA crops address these issues?
A genetic-modification technique used widely to make crops herbicide resistant has been shown to confer advantages on a weedy form of rice, even in the absence of the herbicide. ... This glyphosate resistance enables farmers to wipe out most weeds from the fields without damaging their crops. Put down toxin-- plants you want to grow is not affected by pesticide but still kills the weeds GM crops-- looking at pest resistance and herbicide resistance
DNA profiling
A procedure that analyzes DNA fragments to determine whether they come from a specific individual. DNA Profiling. DNA profiling, also know as 'genetic fingerprinting', is a technique that makes it possible to determine the relationship between individuals by comparing their DNA. Then restriction enzymes are used to cut up their DNA into many different sized fragments.
Natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. only mechanism that adapts species to environment acts to adapt organisms to an environment most powerful force underlying evolution some individuals will be more successful than others in surviving and hence reproducing, owing to traits that give them a better "fit" w/ their environment. The alleles of those who reproduce more will increase in frequency in a population. 1. variation for a trait 2. heritability of a trait 3. Differential Reproductive Success based on that trait (statistical analysis comparing successful reproduction rates between groups in a given generation of a species—in other words, how many offspring each group of individuals is able to leave behind.)
DNA fingerprinting: beneficial
Agriculture: All living things have DNA, which means that DNA fingerprinting can be used to identify genetically modified plants or plants that are likely to have therapeutic value. It also can be used to prove pedigree in valuable animals such as racehorses. Forensics: As most TV watchers know, DNA fingerprinting can be accomplished with a very small quantity of DNA and is a sure-fire way to "finger" a culprit in a crime. Similarly, DNA fingerprinting can and does exonerate innocent people of crimes—sometimes even crimes committed years ago. DNA fingerprinting also can be easily used to identify a decomposing body. Noncriminal identification: Is Joe really Billy's father? DNA fingerprinting can answer that question quickly and accurately. In addition to identifying adoptive children and settling paternity suits, DNA fingerprinting also has been used to establish a relationship in the case of inheritance. More than once, DNA fingerprinting has made it possible for people separated as a result of natural disaster or war to find their children and parents.
What is PCR and what is it used for?
Amplification of segments of DNA A technique for generating many copies of a DNA sequence from a small starting sample. It allows for making many copies of DNA when the starting sample is small
Retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses. HIV inserts into DNA of host cell genome and high mutation rate so ~all copies are different. rna virus with enzyme reverse transcriptase viral rna as template to synthesize single-stranded dna dna used to make more viral rna enzyme so error prone that almost ALL COPIES OF VIRUS IN ONE BODY HAS DIFFERENT MUTATIONS Hiv-- form of retrovirus (special category virus-- inserts its genetic material into your genome)-- once you have it, you cannot get rid of it but you can treat it Rna-based-- mutate and change a lot Enzymes are prone to error-- all copies made are different Reverse transcriptase -- codes for-- goes from rna to dna Carry with them-- ability-- make dna from rna-- produce viral dna-- insert into host genome-- new viral rna-- go through transcription and translation to keep infecting cells
Adaptive Radiation
An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species Rapid speciation events explained by sudden expansion of resources, increasing carrying capacity. What these all have in common-- carrying capacity-- increases this by opening up new resources (through colonization, innovation, or mass extinction) Emergence over species in time What causes an adaptive radiation? (common ancestor with subgroups that evolve down different paths)-- NEW RESOURCES rapid evolution of many species from a single species that has been introduced to a new environment Mass Extinction - loss of competition Innovation (flight, vision)- some invention (ability to swim or fly); new niches, expand existing niches Colonization- finding new territory; new resources w/ little comp.; adapt, diversify
Genetically modified organisms
An organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique. Selecting for desirable traits selective breeding
What is a vector?
Any living organism that can carry a disease-producing virus ex: plasmid, viruses (bacteriophages) Self-replicating agent used for transfer of genetic material. A way to get DNA into another organism.
Basic Tree of Life
Bacteria Archaea- Archaea is most closely related to eukaryotes Eukarya-- PROTISTS (plants, animals, fungi) domain, kingdom, genus, species (subspecies) new species arise from speciation
prezygotic barriers
Barriers that impede mating or hinder fertilization. before fertilization anatomy, gamete, behavioral reproductive isolation -> speciation lack of fit b/w sexual organs
postzygotic barriers
Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult. prevent -> fertile offspring hybrids are not viable
How are medicines made using bacteria and why does this work?
Biotechnology in Medicine. It is easy to see how biotechnology can be used for medicinal purposes. Knowledge of the genetic makeup of our species, the genetic basis of heritable diseases, and the invention of technology to manipulate and fix mutant genes provides methods to treat the disease. RECOMBINANT DNA- PRODUCES INSULIN- TARGETS PROTEINS Taking genome of an organism and recombining it with things that do not really belong there Can produce medicines and vaccines Creates cell line that is now transgenic Gene to a protein More complex organisms have the control to make more things (like bacteria) BACTERIA PRODUCES A PROTEIN- USED TO MAKE MEDICINE Research in medical biotechnology has led to increased knowledge of disease, acceleration of the treatment process, improved pharmacotherapy for infectious diseases and hope for the struggle against incurable diseases such as ALS, MS and Alzheimer's 1 . DNA fingerprinting serves several uses in medicine. One important instance is identifying good genetic matches for organ or marrow donation. Doctors also are beginning to use DNA fingerprinting as a tool for designing personalized medical treatments for cancer patients. Moreover, DNA fingerprinting has been used to ensure that a tissue sample has been correctly labeled with the right patient's name. ow, these and other medicines can be made by specially-modified bacteria, called transgenic bacteria. These single-celled organisms have foreign genes along side their own DNA. They live and reproduce like ordinary bacteria, but they also do a bit of extra duty, and produce human proteins for medicines and vaccines
Darwin's Theory of Evolution through natural selection
Charles Darwin set out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for adaptation and speciation. He defined natural selection as the "principle by which each slight variation [of a trait], if useful, is preserved". Best win; worst lose struggles for existence; favorable variations preserved
Recombinant DNA
DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms. Two or more segments of DNA that have been combined by humans into a sequence that does not exist in nature.
Archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan own domain biochemistry prokaryote DNA (most closely related to euk.) extreme environments Prokaryotic-- BUT biochem of cell basis-- MOST related to eukaryotes (than bacteria)-- basic foundation of cell is like euk.-- like endosymbiosis Extreme environ-- ubiquitous-- they are EVERYWHERE reproduce through binary fission unique chemical structure of cells Reproduce through binary fission Structure is similar to euk., not bacteria Diverse large # in common environment 40% of microbes in ocean Extremophiles-- grow best in environment that would kill most other organisms perform/optimal abilities in extreme conditions (NOT all are extremophiles) Lineage Eukaryotes
whose genes make it into future generations?
Genetic inheritance occurs due to genetic material in the form of DNA being passed from parents to their offspring. When organisms reproduce, all the information for growth, survival, and reproduction for the next generation is found in the DNA passed down from the parent generation makes new alleles -> new traits mutation-- source of all genetic variation Adapts organisms to their environment-- populations adapt Organisms and populations are shaped by conditions in which they live-- based on reproductive success Epigenetic inheritance is an unconventional finding. It goes against the idea that inheritance happens only through the DNA code that passes from parent to offspring. It means that a parent's experiences, in the form of epigenetic tags, can be passed down to future generations. dominant genes
Was the earth always as it is now?
NO: Atmosphere was much diff than today Small molecules formed basic building blocks of life Contains co2 gas, ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen These molecules-- main components of biological molecules Gases escaped out-- earth cooled more/gravitational pull held gases to create atmosphere (leave, escape, not be contained) -- h20 c02 and N2 Escaped gravity-- overtime-- later an atmosphere formed Held to earth by gravitational forces Water vapor, a lot of co2, and N2, and trace gases Early earth-- gases escaped Young earth-- collected in atmosphere Current atmosphere-- made up of co2 OG atmosphere: mainly H20 vapor, no free O2, high CO2 Present atmosphere: N2, O2, < 1% CO2
What are goals of GMO crops? Who benefits?
Scientists are developing crops that look and taste the same as their non-GMO counterparts, but are resistant to insects and plant-specific diseases that can impact a farmer's harvest. Plants with traits that protect roots from insect damage have an additional benefit of using water more efficiently. Genetically modified (GM) crops have many potential advantages in terms of raising agricultural productivity and reducing the need for (environmentally harmful) pesticides. They might also pose hazards to human health, from toxicity and increased risk of allergies, for example Crops are genetically modified to achieve a desired trait, such as resistance to an insect or disease The genetic modification of plants to be tolerant to chemicals has improved weed control by the farmers that adopt GM crops. ... The yield increases that result from fewer weeds and insects contribute to increased food production.
reproductive isolation
Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring new species arise from this reduced gene flow b/w populations-- evolve and adapt separately goes in both directions of allopatric and sympatric
How was Dolly the Sheep made?
She was created using the technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer, where the cell nucleus from an adult cell is transferred into an unfertilized oocyte (developing egg cell) that has had its cell nucleus removed. ... Dolly was the first clone produced from a cell taken from an adult mammal. Take dna of one sheep and make an exact clone of a whole new organism -- diploid (same exact) Grows into full adult-- exact clone that is fully induced Somatic cell nuclear transfer-- anything not an egg or sperm (germ-line) Created an embryo-- stimulate egg into growing, produce viable embryo, insert it into a surrogate mother into another sheep-- nuclear dna of all cells are exactly same as white sheep up there Telomeres of white sheep are shorter Dolly did not live that long b/c she is starting out with shorter telomeres (not starting at same 0 starting point as white sheep would be)
Biological Species Concept
Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to produce fertile offspring. Sexual reproduction CAN interbreed with each other OR possible interbreed CANNOT interbreed with organisms outside their group (reproductive isolation) breeding behavior of populations in nature; species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. INTERBREEDING: reprod. isolated if can't make fertile, viable offspring "Natural Pops": wouldn't interbreed in the wild
When using DNA evidence in solving crimes, how is DNA fingerprinting performed?
Stem cells and forensics--The benefit of cloning in this instance is that the cells used to regenerate new tissues would be a perfect match to the donor of the original DNA PCR and tandem repeats allows us to just use a small amount of blood (b/c we can blow it up and make it bigger) Uses restriction enzymes ; Cutting up dna into different pieces DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to establish a link between biological evidence and a suspect in a criminal investigation. A DNA sample taken from a crime scene is compared with a DNA sample from a suspect. ... DNA fingerprinting is also used to establish paternity. Different DNA fingerprinting methods exist, using either restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or both. Each method targets different repeating polymorphic regions of DNA, including single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short tandem repeats (STRs). The odds of identifying an individual correctly depend on the number of repeating sequences tested and their size.
Importance and relevance of Endosymbiosis Theory (mitochondria, chloroplast)
The endosymbiotic theory describes how a large host cell and ingested bacteria could easily become dependent on one another for survival, resulting in a permanent relationship. Over millions of years of evolution, mitochondria and chloroplasts have become more specialized and today they cannot live outside the cell. In her theory of endosymbiosis, Lynn Margulis emphasizes that during the history of life, symbiosis has played a role not just once or twice, but over and over again. ... This process formed an interconnected tree of life in which organisms have multiple ancestors, even from different domains. Darwinian evolution proposes that all living organisms are formed by descent with modification from a common ancestor or cell. ... Endosymbiosis explains the origins of Eukaryotic cells by the theory that one prokaryotic cell absorbed another prokaryotic cell creating a cell with multiple membranes
allopatric speciation
The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another. different lands Geographic, physical, exterior to biology factors speciation that involves the geographic separation of populations. Most speciation involves geographic separation, followed by the development of intrinsic isolating mechanisms in the separated populations.
sympatric speciation
The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area same lands Ecological, temporal, gametic, behavioral factors, infertility, mechanical type of speciation that occurs in the absence of the geographic separation of populations. Polyploidy is a special form
Malthus
an English economist and demographer; all biological populations have a potential for increase that exceeds the actual rate of increase, and the resources for the support of increase are limited People reproduce much more quickly than their resources do. This results in competition for food and space, and in suffering and death. population growth checked by availability of resources to support them populations potential grow faster than food supplies Thomas Malthus-- clarified his idea/theory Human populations in realm of economy Looking at population growth and resources-- basis for competition-- so much supply of resources for this population-- put a LIMIT on this population-- population grows, competition gets greater Those able to capture resources will leave it behind Favorable-- preserved Unfavorable-- opposite Malthus came to prominence for his 1798 essay on population growth. In it, he argued that population multiplies geometrically and food arithmetically; therefore, whenever the food supply increases, population will rapidly grow to eliminate the abundance.
Mass extinctions
gave rise to speciation
PCR steps
goal: amplify DNA fragment steps: denaturing annealing (to DNA primers) elongation (by heat stable DNA polymerase) agrose gel electrophoresis (separate by size) 1. DNA sequence 2. Heat DNA to make single stranded 3. Use primers tickets to region of interest 4. DNA polymerase copies region 5. Cycle 30-35 X, double DNA each cycle
binary fission- asexual
is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramecium. In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.
Evolution of sexual reproduction vs. binary fission (prokaryotes) - how does this impact genetic diversity in a population?-- increase or decrease?
meiosis, fertilization, crossing over, independent assortment-- more reproduction of alleles = more sexual selection and population of genes grow Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells. Asexual reproduction differs from sexual reproduction in that it does not involve meiosis or fertilization of gametes. This process will eventually produce many millions of identical cells both increase-- making of new cells/genes Prokaryotic Cell Reproduction. Prokaryotic cells reproduce by a process that is called binary fission. The DNA in such cells is contained in a single circular chromosome called a plasmid within the cytoplasm. The reproductive process starts with the replication of the chromosome In contrast to most eukaryotes, prokaryotes reproduce asexually. While sexual reproduction in eukaryotes results in offspring with genetic material which is a mixture of the parents' genome, a prokaryote will reproduce clones of itself. During reproduction, eukaryotes generate genetic variation by sexual recombination. crossing over, process in genetics by which the two chromosomes of a homologous pair exchange equal segments with each other. Crossing over occurs in the first division of meiosis independent assortment. : formation of random combinations of chromosomes in meiosis and of genes on different pairs of homologous chromosomes by the passage according to the laws of probability of one of each diploid pair of homologous chromosomes into each gamete independently of each other pair. fertilization: A process in sexual reproduction that involves the union of male (sperm) and female (ovum) gametes (each with a single, haploid set of chromosomes) to produce a diploid zygote meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to generate four haploid cells often called gametes. Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.
Viruses
noncellular replicating entity that must invade a living cell to replicate itself Not living (but can carry out some of the same functions as living organisms-- if it can get inside a cell) Viruses-- interact with living things; not really alive Have a protein coat (dna or rna)-- insert into a host cell Goal of a virus-- not cellular To reproduce-- have to get into a host cell How to get into a host cell-- put on a uniform (virus is matched to a host) Mutated to point to have a key to unlock a whole new species-- specific to host they are into common cold flu aids NO: non-cellular, require host replicate, do not metabolize TRAITS OF LIVING ORGANISMS: genetic material, mutate, replicate (need host) Protein coat capsid, genetic material, glycoprotein protein capsule envelope- plasma membrane Can have an outer coat-- an enveloped virus Glycoprotein capsule-- mutate and access new species (some have an envelope and some do not)--detect if virus can infect host/tissues adapt to match host They have to gain entry into cell - so match host cell recognition proteins DNA based-- stable/time, easier treat vaccine RNA Based--change quickly, no error checking, errors/mutation, influenza (diff flu shot) Dna-- special enzymes that looks for errors and fixes them Rna-- high mutation rate, no based pairing to compare things to to fix things Dna-- easier to make vaccines for and eradicate vaccine all together Rna- get shot every year b/c they are constantly changing species jumping (bird to human virus)
Repeat tandem sequences
reveals unique patterns that distinguishes individuals Tandem repeats occur in DNA when a pattern of one or more nucleotides is repeated and the repetitions are directly adjacent to each other. Several protein domains also form tandem repeats within their amino acid primary structure, such as armadillo repeats. One of the current techniques for DNA profiling uses polymorphisms called short tandem repeats. Short tandem repeats (or STRs) are regions of non-coding DNA that contain repeats of the same nucleotide sequence. ... STRs are found at different places or genetic loci in a person's DNA.
Difference between transgenic and recombinant DNA
transgenic organism- an individual with a genetic modification in every cell (the organism) recombinant DNA- transferring genes between species (the process)
