Biodiversity and Conservation (Term 2, Year 2)

Diversity indices

Equations that attempt to estimate the true species richness of an area. e.g. Simpson's and Shannon-Wiener. They area combination of total abundance, species richness and relative abundance (D or H). It attempts to summarise most information needed - but they are not the whole story. Other important factors may include threat status, role in ecological community, contribution to ecosystem services, endemicity, nativeness and tourism value.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Legislation designed to comban international wildlife trade, abbreviated to CITES. International agreement came into force in 1975, aiming to ensure that international trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival in the wild. Can join voluntarily, but is legally binding. Provides framework, but each country has to adopt national legislation to implement it. A cautious 'success' of this is the decline in the import of wild-born reptiles with the increase of captive breeding in the UK.

Eukaryota

One of the three domains of life, characterised mostly by their membrane-bound organelles.

Bacteria

One of the three domains of life, no membrane bound nucleus or other organelles. They have thicker membranes around the whole cell and a capsule, not often a wall.

Archaea

One of the three domains of life, no membrane bound nucleus or other organelles. They have tough cell walls more often than bacteria.

Species accumulation curve(s)

Part of indirect estimation of global species number, also known as rarefaction curves, by looking at how long it takes to discover a new species and extrapolating that data. Currently the best strategy. Number of species on Y axis, number of individuals sampled or time spent sampling on the X axis. There are 8.7 eukaryotes globally discovered at this point in time.

Expert estimations

Part of indirect estimation of global species number, done by simply by asking taxonomic experts their opinions. This ranges from 3-100 million.

Conservation progress

Something that the red list can be used to monitor on a global scale. Rodrigues et al in 2014 produced a graph displaying conservation measured by species positions on the red list. 50% of global deterioration in red list status of birds, mammals and amphibians is concentrated in 1% of the surface area, and eight countries: Australia, China, Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico and USA.

Pacaya Samiria (National Reserve)

The National Reserve in Peru, founded in 1940s as a fisheries reserve. 100,000 people were removed and any kind of fishing banned, leading to frequent poaching. In 1997 fishing net confiscation lead to killing of a park guard and two biologists. Now local groups have management rights, poaching is greatly decreased and wildlife has recovered.

Extant (species)

The alive unit for biodiversity. Around 73% of described spp are metazoa, ie animals, the majority of those being insects. Around 4000 species of mammals.

Gharial

The archosaur species (Gavialis gangeticus) that was classified as critically endangered on the IUCN red list in 2007. It has had a >96-98% population decline with threats not ceasing, and has <250 mature indivduals worldwide. Threats include over-hunting (skins/trophies), egg collection for consumption, killing for medicine and by fishermen and waterway engineering.

Climatic niche

The area of weather and temperature over 30 years where an organism can live. The areas where this organism can live may change but they may not move. Populations will go extinct in areas that become too warm/dry. Populations could colonise areas that were previously too cold but become warmer/drier. This may mean moving uphill or towards the poles. Can already be seen as species ranges shift - speckled wood butterfly range moving northwards.

Latyhrus anuus

The binomial classification of a wild relative of the pea, an economically important species. The genetic diversity held in this species and others like it may help farmers perform better under climate change. Species that support humans directly (e.g. food) or indirectly through supporting ecosystem services. These may be species to prioritise in conservation.

Edge

The boundary between a species' habitat, and another kind of habitat, usually disturbed or developed. These can be ecological traps, if more individuals stray and die or are killed outside the habitat. There can be increased predation (brown headed cowbird is a brood parasite that only lays eggs at forest edge - more fragmentation, fewer songbirds), loss rate, ecological disturbance (forest edges have more light and dense undergrowth promoting fire), and human pressure. Can also be invaded - argentine ants example. This can be seen in fishing incursions at the borders of reserves - fish leave reserves and are caught.

The Ivory Trade

The buying and selling of mostly elephant tusks internationally. Potential to be used for good - sale of few, very expensive trophy hunting rights with sale of stockpiles from poached animals with the money going to elephant monitoring and protection. Proposals to flood the market and reduce the price, as well as legal trade being more easily controlled than illegal trade, using funds specifically to finance anti-poaching enforcement and beat corruption. Eight of the 12 African countries with the most elephants are in the bottom 40% of the most corrupt countries in the world. This could be due to unpaid rangers, low wages and food shortages. Poaching is often run by violent, well-armed organised crime networks. To be effective, legal ivory must be 100% traceable internationally.

Genetic drift

The chance/random change in the frequency of a variant over time. This is common problem for populations with small effective population size. A stochastic event.

Natural Selection

The change in frequency of a variant as a function of its effect on reproductive success (fitness).

Grosberg 2012

The citation for the paper that observed many differences between marine and terrestrial environments. Most marine areas are far less productive (have less energy input and output) than terrestrial areas) - less diversity. Most of the ocean is the homogenous pelagic zone, and varies little in temperature with depth - less diversity in comparison to terrestrial. However, higher dispersal rates in marine environments due to buoyancy and ocean currents, leading to populations breeding over longer distances - however this means less likely to under allopatric speciation. Many species also move from sea to land, but not many from land to sea.

Vega and Wiens 2012

The citation for the paper that observed that oceans have more phyla and 90% of classes are marine, but 85% of macroscopic species are terrestrial.

Tropical niche conservatism

The concept that each species in the tropics requires a very specific climatic 'niche', so most species from families originating in the tropics must remain in the tropics. Lots of families originated there for other reasons, and diversity just builds in the tropics without outside colonisation.

Pristine myth

The concept that the Americas weren't the unspoilt paradise that they were made out to be, before the 16th and 17th centuries. Cahokia mounds in Illinois in 700-1400AD could have house around 100,000 people. Early disease had killed so many, that population counts were hopelessly inaccurate. 'Only to the white man was nature a wilderness' - Luther Standing Bear, Chief of the Oglala Sioux, 1933.

In-situ (conservation)

The conservation of organisms in their 'natural/normal' environment. Occurs on a scale of this to ex-situ: wild (original location), wild (relocated), game park/reserve, zoo/garden, cryobanked.

Ex-situ (conservation)

The conservation of organisms outside their 'natural/normal' environment. Occurs on a scale from virtually in-situ to totally this: wild (original location), wild (relocated), game park/reserve, zoo/garden, cryobanked. Motivations for this may involve loss of natural habitat, build up numbers for reintroduction, insurance (e.g. cryobanks), research, education and awareness.

Urbanisation

The construction of human environments, usually stretching out from previously built ones. It is a major cause of habitat destruction.

Fisheries

The consumptive resources gathering setups that catch >90 millions tons of fish annually for consumption, providing 19% of the world's protein, 200 million jobs. Worldwide 25% of commercial fish stocks are overfished. Ecological consequences include collapse, fishing down the food chain and bycatch.

Chytridiomycosis

The disease caused by chtrid fungus such as Batrachochytrium dendrobatdis, a lethal skin disease to amphibian species, found in 285 species in 36 countries. Causes many extinctions, spreading through amphibian trade. This also has allwed recombination between strains causing hypervirulence.

Convention on Biological Diversity 1992

The document that was created as a result of the Rio Earth Summit, in order to conserve biodiversity.

Saltmarshes

The environment investigated by Deegan et al (2012) (in Nature) with the effect that nutrient loading has (particularly on cordgrass). In <10 years above-ground plants grew taller and heavier, below ground plant parts grew smaller - cordgrass fell over. Decomposition rates were slower, and the creek banks collapsed and retreated to leave mudflats. Long-term impacts will be reduction in C-sequestration, N-cycling, fisheries production and flooding. This environment may be lost completely because of nutrient loading on Long Island.

Species-area relationship(s)

The fact that the species richness increases with the geographic size of the sample. e.g. Bird populations on Finnish islands are more likely to go extinct on smaller islands because populations are smaller. Therefore, smaller area harbours fewer species because extinction rates are higher. This has been extrapolated to estimate global species numbers. This varies in accuracy dending on where the samples are taken from, and may need to be done in multiple environments. They can be used to determine how much area to protect - which are the most valuable and where will protect the most species? Used also in climate change risk assessments.

Yellowstone

The first American national park, created by Henry David Thoreau and John Muir. Wolves were absent here for around 70 years, but when reintroduced in 1995/96 with a founder population of 31 wild-born individuals from Canada and 10 in 1997 from Montanta they transformed the environment. Now there are >200.

Grand Banks Cod

The fishery on the east coast of North America that suffered a great collapse from 1968 - 1974 (800,000 -300,000 tons). 45,000 jobs were los with a cost of >$2 billion in income support and retraining. International culprits - from the 1950s-1976 Canada allowed to control waters <12 miles from the coast. Huge freezer factory trawlers came from Britain, Germany, Spain, France, Portugal, USSR, China and Japan.

International Union for the Conservation of Nature

The full name for IUCN. The red list is used for monitoring threats and setting priorities, as well as monitoring conservation progress on a global scale.

Sea level(s)

The general height of the ocean up on the shore - this will rise with global climate change.

Alien (species)

The general name for a species that is not in its natural habitat. This may or may not establish or end up being invasive. Also known as non-natives 34% of UK mammals are this (23), 24 birds, 3 reptiles, 7 amphibians, 14 fish species. £100s of millions goes into controlling these, ~1200 alien plant species, costing between £200-300 million. Major impacts come from 20-50 species. Impact types include: competition, predation, hybridisation, disease transmission, parasitism, poisoning/toxicity, bio-fouling, grazing, chemical/physical/structural impact on ecosystem and interaction with other aliens. (Blackburn et al 2014).

Tens rule of thumb

The generalisation of how many species become invasive. Out of 1000 introduced species, only 100 manage to escape into the wild, 10 establish and only 1 will become a pest. It is outdated and not wholly reliable, but a useful approximation when considering risk.

Island biogeography

The global pattern of biodiversity that means fewer species are local on small, isolated island than on large islands close to the mainland. This is partially because of higher rates of extinction on smaller islands. Colonisation probability decreases with isolation from other land masses - diversity depends on both factors. Can also apply to semi-isolated habitat patches.

Climate Change

The gradual anthropogenic warming of some parts of the planet and cooling of others - 5th IPCC report said there was 'incontrovertible evidence' that this is happening and man made. Artic will warm more rapidly than the global mean, mroe frequent hot and cold temperature extremes over most land areas, and very likely that heat waves will occur with a higher frequency and duration.

Logistic Population Growth Curve

The graph created when time is plotted against population size, sigmoidal. This shows population growth is fastests (exponential) in the middle. This suggests populations should be sustainably harvested to this point, so that they can recover quickly and be harvested again. (Zabel et al 2003).

Crocodillian(s)

The group including crocodiles, alligators and caiman that have had farms replace their sustainable harvest schemes. This however means there is no incentive to maintain their habitat, and often the introduction of dangerous invasive species. The economic benefits go to the farm owner and a few staff only (Thorbjanarson 1999).

Bushmeat

The hunting of wild animals for food, typically in humid tropical forests for both subsistence and cash. It is a major threat to mammals. In central Africa the harvest is approximately 1 million tonnes (6x maximum sustainable rate). Transimssion of zoonotic diseases can happen through this (Ebola, SARS, HIV). An increase in trade of this linked to mammal declines and availability of other food. The problem is it is a dietry staple, not a treat. When other food sources abundant, wildlife recovers. Conservation in this field linked with economics, politics, poverty/food security, management, ethics and law.

Argentine ant(s)

The hymenopteran species that suppresses native ants within 50m of riparian corridors. Effects diminish to undetectable levels by 200m. This is an example of edges being invaded. (Holway 2005)

Edge effects

The impact of the boundary between a species' habitat and another kind of habitat, usually disturved or developed. Many species can't live near this boundary, leading to effective patch size being much smaller than true patch size. This can be minimised by selecting the correct shape - rounder ones have less boundary. Need a greater area:circumfrence ratio.

Brown bear

The large mammal that was hunted for meat and fun around 900 AD

Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981

The large scale legislation signed by Margret Thatcher in order to protect species and sites. Staff 500-780, budget £6-39 million. Gave the power to prosecute landowners and prevent development on SSSIs.

Rio Earth Summit

The largest gathering of people concerning biodiversity, that lead to the creation of the Convention on Biological Diversity, in 1992.

Asymptote

The leveling off point of a graph such as rarefaction curves, or any with diminishing returns. On rarefaction curves, this is total species number. It requires many different samples to build up a reliable number.

Marine Ecosystems of the World

The main regional classification for marine biomes, including 12 realms, 62 provinces and 232 ecoregions (Spalding et al 2007). Realms are as follows: the arctic, temperate northern pacific, tropical eastern pacific, eastern indo-pacific, temperate south America, temperate northern atlantic, tropical atlantic, temperate southern Africa, western indo-pacific, central indo-pacific, temperate australasia and the southern ocean. These are futher divided into provinces and ecoregions.

Critical Reserve Size

The minimum area that a protected area must be in order to give a species suitable room to live. A larger home range could mean more encounters with habitat edge.

Environmental Economics

The monetary aspects of interdisciplinary conservation - countering the exploitation with economic arguments to use resources sustainably. This could be used to encourage people motivated more by economics to invest in conservation. This includes direct use values, indirect use values, option values and existence values.

Introgression

The movement of a gene from one species into the gene pool of another by repeated backcrossing of a hybrid with one of its parent species. Often arises due to human-induced introductions, resulting in the decline or the extinction of numerous native species. Conservation genetics can be used to identify this, mitochondrial DNA is maternally inheritic. Population-specific mtDNA haplotypes of paternal population can be identified, and then screened for suspected hybrids for these haplotypes.

WildCru

The name for a wildlife conservation research unit that benefited greatly from the death of Cecil the Lion. It brought in £230,000 in donations, enough to fund research for at least 18 months.

Sweetwater Chimpanzee Sanctuary

The name for an ape conservation reserve in the Ol Pjeta conservancy, Kenya. Collaboration with Jane Goodall Institute, specifically for these apes from West and Central Africa. Often orphaned by the bushmeat trade, abused as pets/attractions. Large natural inclosure ensure privacy and development of natural communal behaviour, while paying visitors can walk around the edges generating revenue. Currently 42 individuals in two groups, females with contraceptive implants.

Mass extinction

The name for an event on a geological timescale where Earth loses >75% of its species within 2 million years. Some species affected more than others. Drivers of this biodiversity loss include habitat destruction and degradation, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation and pollution (particularly nitrogen and phosphorous). All of these factors in all environments are on the increase or continuing impact, apart from habitat change in temperate forests (which is decreasing). This was part of the millenium ecosystem assessment.

Coral Bleaching

The name for high temperatures stressing corals, producing a toxin that expels symbiotic alage. No symbionts means no photosynthesis, so corals starve. This gives the coral a white appearance. This is happening partially as a result of climate change.

(conservation) investments

The name for money given by banks and NGOs, in this case to conservation priorities (regions and species). These priorities are focal points. >$750 million spent on hotspots over 15 years.

Common Fisheries Policy

The name for the collection of EU legislation that controls the total allowable catches of different species, along with management methods of non-quota species. By 2020 fishing quotas to be established exclusively on the basis of scientific critera, all stocks fished within MSY, bycatch counting towards quota with no discards, applies to EU fishers outside Europe (e.g. Africa). Legislating MSY is difficult due to drastic socio-economic consequences, along with subsidies/training/alternatives likely required, and the targets themselves being disputed.

Anthropocene

The name for the human orientated geological time period we are currently living in. Partially due to the mass extinction, and partially due to the huge increase in population - 8 billion predicted by 2025.

Latitudinal biodiversity gradient

The name for the pattern that occurs, where there is a greater number of species towards the equator. It is shown more strongly in some groups than other, e.g. very strongly in chiroptera, not so much in non-volant mammals. The general pattern is clear but not constant over latitudes. However correlation does not equal causation - need to go to other planets to test this hypothesis.

Cheatgrass

The name for the plant species (Bromus tectorum) that has a huge ecosystem impact in the American desert. It degrades land used by cattle grazing and increses size of wildfires. Costs billions of dollars to sort.

(the) Millennium Seed Bank

The name for the seed bank at the Royal Bontanic Gardens, partnered with Kew. The orignal aim was to store seeds from every UK flowering plant and every arid and semi-arid species (10% of worlds flora). However, their 2020 vision is now to have 25% of all seed-bearing species secured. Collections are used in habitat restoration and improving food security (skill development, technical support, seeds).

(Conservation) Triage

The name for the three things that conservation decisions can be based on. These are costs (including opportunity costs incurred by not protecting resource), benefits (to biodiversity and stakeholders) and the likelihood of success.

Annalies Ilena

The name for the world's largest fishing trawler, an example of the scale of fishery overexploiting.

Biodiversity Engine

The name give to the tropics with all the evidence supporting the tropics as a cradle. (Mittlebach eta 2007). This could be because historically they are older with less environmental peturbation, more space for speciation, less likelihood of extinction, high solar radiation meaning increased primary productivity, seasonal stability allows niche specialisation, biotic interations are more important in the tropics (local co-evolution leading to speciation and no dispersal away from the other species) and low seasonality. Niche conservatism strengthens any of the previous factors.

Marine Conservation Zone(s)

The name given to the 127 areas proposed in 2012, for sustainable use only. 64 very small 'reference areas' also proposed with no fishing permitted. The cost of this would be £10 million. By 2015, 50 of these were designated, no reference areas.

Extinction-area relationship(s)

The name given to the concept that populations in smaller habitat patches are more likely to go extinct due to the smaller supported population. This is because stochastic environmental or demographic variation events are more severe for small populations.

The big 5

The name given to the main game attraction animals on the African savannah. This includes the lion, elephant, buffalo, leopard and rhinoceros. 40 airlines banned trophies of this group as a response to the Cecil the lion killing.

Turtle dove

The name of a bird species that is contracting in range due to climate change, as suggested by models. Shrinking to the south east of England. (Araujo and Rahbek 2006)

Cecil the Lion

The name of a famous feline that was hunted and killed by a dentist from Minnesota, paying £35,000 to kill it with a crossbow. It was lured out of the park and shot with a crossbow then finished off with a bullet, skinned and beheaded.

(tropics) as a museum

The name of a potential reason why the tropics have a higher species richness - species origination rates are constant with latitude, but extinction rates are lower in the tropics. (Mannion et al 2014)

(tropics) as a cradle

The name of a potential reason why the tropics have a higher species richness - species origination rates are higher in tropical areas and extinction rates do not vary with latitude. (Mannion et al 2014) Palaeontological data demonstrates more taxa originate in the tropics than elsewhere, leaning towards this rather than the other concept.

Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation

The name of the charity that has invested $100 million in hotspots and high-biodiveristy wilderness areas.

Henry David Thoreau

The name of the man who lead to the 'preservation' ideology and the creation of the first National Park - Yellowstone.

Brown Tree Snake

The name of the species introduced to Guam from the South Pacific after WWII, as cargo in ships associated with the US military base. Nine of the 11 species of native forest-dwelling birds have been bxtirpated from Guam (five endemic). This specices in an example of predation by invasive species.

global (species) abundance

The number of a species present in the world, not in a specific area (which would be richness. It is a concern on the road to extinction, even small changes in this of common species can drive substantial ecological change. This declining is a common outcome of exploitation or environmental modification.

Critical Group Size

The number that a population needs to be at without allowing allee effects to reduce the population to nothing. Seen in Obligate cooperative breeders, such as African wild dogs.

National Cost of managing protected areas

The outputting money of a country going to conservation work. Varying between countries, 40 least funded countries contain 32% of all threatened mammals. Countries with low conservation costs are politically unstable - protected areas in apparent low-____ countries are more likely to fail. (McCreless et al 2013). Increasing this is not the only answer, other problems include high corruption, poor bureaucracy and human rights, and the potential effect on people.

Diminishing returns

The phrase describe the rate of increase in species richness decreases with area. This means the relationship is (often) a straight line when both axes are logged.

Wilderness Act 1964

The piece of American legislation that reads 'A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognised as an area *where earth and it's community of life are untrammeled by man,* where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.

Convention on Biological Diversity

The piece of international legislation (abbreviated to CBD) that requires the UK to 'contribute to the conservation of global biodiversity', through introducing biodiversity action plans. Considers the IUCN red lsit as the best available biodiversity index.

Maximum sustainable yield

The point where fisheries should be harvested to in order to encourage regrowth, the intermediate stage of the logistic population growth curve, where the growth is exponential. The average harvest rate should equal population growth rate, so harvests can be sustainable even when populations fall well below unfished level: 50-80%. It is the cornerstone of global fisheries management. Difficult to estimate - requires precise knowledge of natural mortality rate and population growth rates (historic consistent monitoring data, using variety of mathematical modelling tools, have to account for disruption events). Similar requirements to PVAs. Very hard to legislate without drastic socio-economic consequences. Difficult to police as well, as well as the fact it targets individual species and not ecosystems. (Zabel et al 2003).

Genetic Bottleneck

The process of a gene pool being narrowed to a fraction of its former diversity through the removal of individuals from the population. Reduces MHC polymorphism, in the Ngorogor lions significantly higher proportion of abnormal sperm than Serengeti males. Also means a lower adaptive significance - particularly for disease.

Reintroduction

The process of bringing an animal that was previously extinct back into an area. The populations are characterised by small effective population sizes, often isolated with limiting gene flow, and an increased effect of inbreeding. This all results in loss of genetic variation, which can have a substantial effect on long term population viability. Factors to be considered when doing this would be to maximise the genetic variation retained during population recovery and that mating systems and a degree of sociality can influence fine-scale genetic structure. e.g. population structure may be influenced by sex and kinship bias in dispersal patterns, inbreeding avoidance and social barriers to gene flow.

Ivory laundering

The process of poaching illegal ivory that is then falsely labelled as the legal/illegal are indistinguishable. This would be a problem with legalising the ivory trade - in July 2012 in New York two ivory dealers found guilty of selling illegal ivory.

Rewilding

The process of restoring an area of land to its natural uncultivated state, used especially through the reintroduction of species of wild animal that have been driven out or exterminated.

Beaver

The rodent that was hunted for its pelt and musk, going extinct in the 16th century.

Giraffe(s)

The savannah ungulate that was one species before 2007, but was separated into six (or 11) reproductively isolated species, revealed by DNA. Splits occurred 0.13-1.62MYA. Changed many threat levels - 160 Nigerian version, few 100 Rothschild.

Natural History

The science focussed on the conservation of resources. It was a Victorian obsession with this, egg collecting and shooting.

Conservation Biology

The scientific study of the status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction. It is interdisciplinary drawing on sciences, economics and natural resource management.

Baltic (sea)

The sea where a trophic cascade has been predicted due to the overfishing of cod, sprat and herring. This would lead to seal decline, increase in trophic level 2 and therefore decrease in trophic level 1 and productivity.

Albatross

The seabird group of which 19 of 21 species are endangered, contributed to by bycatch of air-breathing megafauna.

African Elephant

The species listed and vulnerable on the 2008 IUCN red list, recovering after being marked as endangered in 1996. In 1997 it was listed on appendix II of CITES under controlled trade, in '86 ivory quotas were introduced, however following a 50% population decline, there was a ban on the ivory trade with this species moved to appendix I. However due to recovery populations in some states have been transferred back to appendix II with specific annotations. Despite protection 2011 saw more illegal ivory seized since global records began in 1989, estimated 100,000 individuals killed in 2010-2012 (Wittemyer et al 2014). Expensive to keep in an ex-situ environment - cost to keep one in a zoo is 50 time the cost to keep one in a national park.

White Rhino

The species that was legalised for hunting in South Africa, which motivated landowners to reintroduce the species. Numbers increased from <100 to >11,000. A limited number were killed as trophies.

Shrimp

The species which when being trawled catches 1/3 of the world's fish bycatch. Global weight ratio of bycatch:this species is 5.7:1.

Pi

The symbol in diversity indicies that represents the probability of picking species i (its frequency within the total number of individuals sampled).

CR

The symbol of critically endangered on the IUCN red list.

DD

The symbol of data deficient on the IUCN red list.

EN

The symbol of endangered on the IUCN red list.

EW

The symbol of extinct in the wild on the IUCN red list.

EX

The symbol of extinct on the IUCN red list.

VU

The symbol of vulnerable on the IUCN red list.

Over-exploitation

The taking of too much of a resource in the natural world. Bushmeat can fall into this category.

Resting Period

The time allocated that means no new proposals to CITES of deals of ivory. The last were 1997-2007 CITES approved various one-off deals of limited quantities with Japan and China. The funds MUST go towards elephant conservation and community development. In 2010 Tanzania and Zambia proposed downlisting their elephant populations to appendix II but that was rejected, studied for 2015 meeting.

(the) Green Revolution

The time period of agricultural intensification which damaged a lot of SSSIs.

International Wildlife (Trade)

The trade that includes food, fur, pets, traditional medicine and materials that is worth $10 billion/year (excluding edible fish). It also harbors the world's fourth largest criminal market - full of unsustainable use 1/3 bird and mammal species world-wide threatened as a result, 1000 timbers species threatened as a result of felling. It also transports disease and invasive species.

Global patterns of biodiversity

The trend noticed in many respects where some areas have higher species richness and evenness than others.

Effective (patch size)

The true habitat area of a species in a habitat fragment, due to edge effects reducing the true patch size.

Longleaf Pine Forest

The type of habitat that Damschen et al (2006) used for experiments examining corridors, examining if connectivity worked. Controlled for patch area and shape by adding wings or extra area to non-connected patches. After 5 years, connected patches had 20% more plant species than non-connected patches. Hypotheses as to why this was were: increased seed dispersal between patches (proven by seed dispersal by birds being greater between connected patches), greater recruitment due to increased pollen movement, and increased rodent seed predation, decreased invertebrate. Rodents eat early successional species so decrease inter-plant competition.

Species

The unit of biodiversity, more than 40 concepts of this, broadly falling into two categories - phenotypic and biological. Defining this is important for measuring biodiversity, endangered lists and law.

Sustainable use

The use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long term decline of biologicla diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.

Biodiversity

The variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems and the ecological and evolutionary processes that sustain it. Species are often used as the unit of this (richness, evenness, diversity, rarity). Conservation of this is motivated by philosophy, aesthetic and curiosity value, resource needs and ecosystem services.

Nez Perce War 1877

The war that happened in order to exclude Native Americans to make way for Yellowstone.

Desertification

Where areas of the world become more arid due to global climate change and changing management patterns. It is a major cause of habitat destruction.

WWF Ecoregion(s)

200 areas worldwide assigned by the WWF that harbour exceptional biodiversity and represent the planet's ecosystems. They are one way of assigning area conservation priorities. Not to be confused with the way of classifying area of the world by Olsen et al 1998.

Cirl Bunting(s)

A UK bird species that has had a decline associated with change in farming practices - loss of hedge and scrub nest sites. They had a population survey done, annual monitoring demonstrating success of agri-environment scheme habitat management. This involved leaving winter stubbles, uncropped arable field margins, restoration of orchards and hedgerow management. In Cornwall - hand-reared birds introduced to roseland peninsula from 2006-2011, in 2014 39 pairs with >100 fledglings

Temperate broad-leaf deciduous forest

A biome characterised by a specific climate and type of tree that loses all its leaves over one season, over the winter. Once dominated UK and Europe, and still does in lots of north America. Can include species such as bears, finches, alligators, woodpeckers, cougars, lynx and deer.

Tundra

A biome characterised by barren or treeless land. Biota includes lichens, mosses, sedges and dwarf shrubs. Arctic foxes and reindeer also present.

Tropical rainforest

A biome characterised by the huge complexity, in both structure and species diversity. Home to many species, including sloths and huge diversity of trees, butterflies and amphibians.

Houbara bustard

A bird species from Saudi Arabia that had an attempted reintroduction but had suffered behaviour loss. The reintroduced birds were killed by predators. They tried again with behavioural training of chasing captive bred birds with a fox on a lead. This increased post-release survival.

Californian Condor

A bird species living in western USA that suffered a population crash due to hunting poisoning and habitat loss. In the 1980s eggs were removed from the wild for captive breeding in preparation for the 1996 release program. Estimated US$5mil /year spent since 1982. Wild population has recovered and is currently at 213 individuals.

Silent Spring

A book written by Rachel Carson which made people consider pesticide risk, moral responsibilities and grass roots.

Adonis blue

A butterfly species example that is confined to a south-facing calcareous grassland, a habitat that was extensively lost to agricultural 'improvement' during the 20th century. Has very low genetic diversity due to genetic drive in these small populations.

Pollution

A cause of biodiversity loss, primarily driven by nutrient loading (nitrogen and phosphorus) but also including greenhouse gases, pesticides, heavy metals, oil, litter, light and noise.

Habitat destruction

A cause of biodiversity loss, which can also lead to isolation and fragmentation of this area. This is usually human driven , and occurs in both terrestrial and marine habitats. Effect include small population sizes, edge effects and isolation (affecting genetics).

(ex-situ conservation) constraints

A collective term for the problems with ex-situ conservation. These include: extracting individuals may endanger wild populations, genetic constraints (adaptation, drift, inbreeding), disease threatens captive populations, behavioural change possibly making reintroduction impossible, continuity of funding (expensive), and only protecting one species at a time. These problems mean reintroduction following ex-situ conservation is highly taxonomically biased.

Mark-release-recapture

A common method when doing population censuses, that can provide very good estimates of population size - however it is expensive and time consuming. Assumes marks are not lost, and don't influence survival or behaviour (bustards reintroduced to UK killed by tracking devices, weighed down then attacked by foxes), all animals are equally likely to be caught, and all animals are equally likely to survive to the next capture occasion. m2/n2=n1/N n1 - number of animals caught and marked in 1st sample, n2 - number of animals caught in 2nd sample, m2 - number of marked animals in the 2nd sample, N - total population size.

Infra-red triggered

A descriptive phrase of a camera often used for camera trapping terrestrial mammals, often as a sampling technique.

Several Small

A design of nature reserves, in contrals to the single large approach. Unavoidable when the landscape is already fragmented (such as in the UK), suitable for species that are sedentary and often small. Connectivity between habitat patches is important, maintaining genetic diversity, recolonisation of patches when populations die out and to help maintain struggling populations.

Biodiversity Action Plan(s)

A designated area or species that was created through the convention on Biological Diversity, requiring the UK to 'contribute to the conservation of global biodiversity'.

Enforcement (of MSY)

A difficult aspect of MSY, involving policing - remoteness being a main issue. Options include total bans, closed areas, fixed quotas, regulated effort (fishing days, number of boats, gear restrictions), regulated seasons, limits on size or sex of capture.

Simpson's Diversity Index

A diversity index that works by indicating the probability of picking two organisms at random that belong to different species. Gives more weight to common or dominant species - a few rare species will not affect diversity. This is not good because rare species are also important. Represented by the symbol D - the higher the higher likelihood of sampling different species (greater diversity). D=1-(sum of)(Pi)^2

Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index

A diversity index that works by quantifying the uncertainty in predicting the species identity of an individual that is taken at random from the dataset. Assumes all species are represented in a sample and that they are randomly sampled - this is unlikely ever to be true. Represented by the symbol H - higher value equals greater uncertainty in predicting the identity of a sampled species (greater diversity). H=-(sum of)(Pi*lnPi)

Toxicity

A feature of an invasive species that causes problems due to it killing other species by poisoning them e.g. the cane toad.

Polymorphic

A feature of populations meaning there is more than one variation of a feature, e.g. head colour in gouldian finches.

Biological Corridors

A features that can be implemented to improve the connectivity of habitat patches, when species dispersal is low and distance between fragments is high. E.g. forests can be planted or left unlogged, similarly to hedgerows in the UK. Riverbanks are often used as this as they often have natural vegetation. They can also help movement through heavily developed areas. Even wilderness areas might need these to cross barriers.

Nile perch

A fish species (Lates niloticus) that was introduced into Lake Victoria in the 1950s to support the fishing industry. It predates invertebrates and other fish. loss of 200 (out of around 400) species of endemic cichlids. Indirect effect of deforestation to support drying of oilier introduced fish. It does support the fishing industry in central Africa.

Kakapo

A flightless parrot endemic to New Zealand. Slow to mature, slow to reproduce, non native predator of cats introduced leading to genetic bottleneck and inbreeding. Managed using the birds natural ecology and applied genetics to increase diversity. Tagging techology logs who is mating with who, which corresponds with hatching success. Molecular markers used to work out relatedness. Relocated males responsible for lots of paternity to other locations, and removed males iwth poor hatching success from breeding population (such as older males). Both males and females were moved to ensure highest genetic diversity from mating. Only breed every 3-5 years when Rimu tree fruits heavily. Intensive conservation began in 1977 after 62 were airlifted to a remote island after a population crash (cats and stoats). By 1995 only 3 offspring reared and 10 adults died - after which supplementary feeding of females and chicks, nest protection from rates, rebuilding nest sites, prevent infertile males from mating and artificial egg and chick rearing. Unbiased sex ratios achieved in March 2012 (126 individuals). Inbreeding still a big problem.

Demographic PVA

A form of population viability analysis, typically using stage or age-structured models, calculating the probability of an individual moving between each stage, e.g. probability of egg surviving to be a larvae, adult reproducing to produce eggs, a small tree (size class 1) becoming a bigger tree (size class 2). Was done of Pronghorn antelope in Baja, California. A model is only as good as the data. However, conditions might change unpredictably in the future - and small populations are hard to model accurately due to stochasticity. Difficult to cope with uncertainty in general.

Homozygous

A genetic feature meaning an individual has two copies of the same allele for a feature.

Heterozygous

A genetic feature meaning an individual has two different alleles for the same feature.

Plumage League

A group formed in 1889 that went on to become the RSPB. They campaigned against wearing exotic feathers (except ostrich). This was in response to the near extinction of Grebes and import of millions of exotic bird skins in a year.

Appendix II

A group of species in CITES that may be threatened with extinction if the trade is not regulated. This means you require permission to trade in this species. 32,500 species in this group.

Appendix III

A group of species in CITES that there are restriction in certain countries seeking to control trade. 300 species in this group, varying protection levels.

Appendix I

A group of species in CITES threatened with extinction, meaning a complete ban on trade. 800 species in this group.

Conservation priority

A heirarchical list of species which need the most help; it is very hard to assign. It could depend on IUCN red list (rarest? endemic? most vulnerable?), most feasable/cheapest, flagship species, surrogate species (ecological importance/keystone species, most charismatic, umbrella species), economic value, cultural value. These schemes are possible because we have a large amount of data on species distributions and environments. We also now have GIS softward to manage and map the data. Challenges are to manage taxonomic groups unevaluated, the gaps, and unknown whether species are adequately protected/viable ie reserves might be too small, too poorly managed or not contain good habitat.

Trophy hunting

A hobby of some people to hunt wild and exclusive animals. This is proposed as a method to raise money for conservation as a whole. A permit to shoot endangered black rhino in Namibia was auctioned off in the USA for $350,000. This country has been the site of almost 16000 of these since 2000. This was done with elephants in Zimbabwe, which has doubled the area of the country under private wildlife management relative to the 13% in state protected areas.

(Habitat) Isolation

A human impact on habitats, removing all the biological corridors and connectivity between a single habitat fragment.

(Habitat) Fragmentation

A human impact on habitats, splitting a habitat area into lots of different segments. This may or may not have high connectivity. Related strongly to patchyness and reductions in population sizes as small patches can only support small populations. Edge effects also increased.

Diversity monitoring

A key aspect of conservation strategies, as follows: 1. assess biodiversity in an area 2. determine conservation priorities 3. monitor populations 4. identify and diagnose ecological problems 5. plan solutions (species/habitat management) 6. use education/policy/development/research to resolve problems 7. monitor outcomes, then loop to 4

Coral Sea reserve

A large, no-take marine reserve off the coast of north east Australia to protect Humpback, Green Turtles, Tuna, White Sharks and mobile predators that follow the East Australian Current.

Ecological (biodiversity)

A level of biodiversity on the largest scale that includes biomes, bioregions, landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, niches and populations.

Organismal (biodiversity)

A level of biodiversity that includes domains, kingdoms, phyla, families, genera, species, subspecies, populations and individuals.

Genetic (biodiversity)

A level of biodiversity that includes populations, individuals, chromosomes, genes and nucleotides.

Alfred Russel Wallace

A many also known as the father of biogeography, also the man to bring forward the concept of evolution by natural selection with Darwin.

PIT tag(s)

A marking technique that stands for passive integrated transponder, that sends off gps locations and often other information.

Colour ring(s)

A marking technique used mostly on birds that involves putting a band around the legs with details and coding.

Direct Marking

A marking technique which involves putting a note on the individual itself, not on a tag attached to it.

Numbered tag(s)

A marking technique, that attaches digits onto animals that correspond with their identity.

Allelic diversity

A measure of genotypic diversity, average number of alleles per locus.

Heterozygosity

A measure of genotypic diversity, the average proportion of heterozygous loci. A loss of this also means a loss of fitness.

Recombination

A mechanism that increases genetic diversity - introducing new gene combinations into a population. 'Genetic shuffling' e.g. meiosis/sex.

Mutation

A mechanism that increases genetic diversity - random changes in the DNA which may be beneficial, neutral or harmful for the organism.

Gene flow

A mechanism that increases genetic diversity - the movement of genes from one population to the other e.g. through dispersal.

Population census(es)

A method of estimating species abundance. This was done to spotted eagles in Belarus and Cirl Buntings in the UK, among many other examples. Techniques involve direct counts, point counts, line transects and mark-release-recapture. Applications include: identifying and describing important sites, estimating population sizes, monitoring population changes/dynamics, determining species habitat requirements, determining causes of species declines and monitoring habitat managements. Best done over multiple years, multiple per site (stratified to be representative of habitat types), and censue area most representative of the habitat to be studied (ie not near edges). Can be affected by weather, the different recorder, visibility or time of day. Good to do this at time of year important for hte population.

Cryobanking

A method of ex-situ conservation where some organisms are stored long term at low cost, inert material stored at a low temperature. Often done with plants. A backup for reintroduction if needed, or human needs (medicine, crop disease-resistance genes). Potential in the future to preserve bacteria, fungal spores, sperm/eggs/embryos, however so far difficult/very expensive. Often require animals to gestate. Cannot store learnt behaviour but can take gametes from wild for future breeding.

Indirect estimation

A method of finding out how many species there are, by extrapolating from known patterns/trends. This can be done through expert estimations, species-area relationships and species accumulation curves.

Direct estimation

A method of finding out how many species there are, through sampling all environments, characterising everything you find. Current estimates suggest this will take about 480 years, and will change over that time period due to extinctions.

Supportive breeding

A method of helping wild populations by breeding individuals in captivity and releasing them. Can influence the gene pool.

(ex-situ then) Reintroduction

A method of releasing an animal back into its original area - it is extremely challenging with varying success. Of 116 published reintroductions 26% were successful. All the problems of conservation along with: mal-adaptation in captivity, inbreeding/outbreeding/genetic drift, loss of survival behaviours, selecting appropriate areas for this, long-term protection of these sites and populations.

Stud book(s)

A method of tracking which animals in a zoo have mated, making them a valuable resource for genetic visibility.

Line transect(s)

A method when doing population censuses, a linear version of a point count - a gradient with 2 recording bands, a boundary limit (e.g. 40m) and a detectability limit (e.g. 100m). Used in many contexts, as well as lots of sophisitcated analyses. Assumes constant rate of movement, and that the detectability doesn't change with distance/vegetation/species or if it does, it can be quantified.

Direct count(s)

A method when doing population censuses, by simply counting all the plants, animals etc. Can be easier when individuals are concentrated (e.g. migration spots). Not as easy as it sounds. Tools can be used, such as sweep nets and waders

Point count(s)

A method when doing population censuses, usually corrected for detectability distance. The simplest form uses 2 recording zones aroudn in a circle, counting the number of individuals in one zone and the other, at different radiuses around a point. However, assumes all animals at the point are detected, and no imm/emigration during the count. The observer presence could attract/disperse animals.

Reserve(s)

A name for an ex-situ conservation strategy that is halfway between in-situ and zoos. Removes species from immediate threats (poaching, habitat loss), whilst also accepting orphaned or captive mistreated animals where neither zoos or wild reintroduction would be suitable. Keeps animals semi-wild, not precluding reintroduction. Also known as parks.

Agriculture

A name for farming, the industry and all the science surrounding it. Cultivation is on 24% of terrestrial surface and a large cause of habitat destruction.

Molecular marker(s)

A name for molecules in a gel where proteins/DNA are placed, that shows the similarity between multiple placed in. There are various metrics but they are all concerned with quanitfying the structural differences between individual genotypes. Can be used to compare variation in different populations.

Site of Special Scientific Interest

A name for one of a network of areas where nature conservation not primarly land us but co-exists with agriculture, foresty etc. It was assumed land owners would manage it well, often not even notified of what their land had become. Some were degraded deliberately by their landowners in order to lose the designation, so they could develop on them. 10% of English SSSIs had to be 'denotified' from 1981-1985. Caused animosity from peat extraction, forestry and agricultural sectors.

Paper Park(s)

A name for protected areas that are planned out to satisfy conservationists, however never come to anything. An example of this is the 127 marine conservation zones, and the 65 reference areas, of which by 2016 only 50 MCZs have been designated and no reference areas.

Collaborative management

A name for working with local people to ensure that a protected area is successful, such as in Lobeke NP in Camaroon. Involves monitoring, adaptation of schemes, and the community 'owning' the resources - decide hunting territories and harvesting appropriately.

Northern Spotted Owl

A nocturnal bird species from the Pacific Northwest. MetaPVA was used to identify important patches and critical thresholds of habitat availability for survival.

Grizzly bear

A north American mammal species that has a critical reserve size of 1,000-10,000km^2, in comparison to the black bear, which has a critical reserve size of less than 100km^2. These are an example of why SLOSS depends on species. (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998)

Black bear

A north American mammal species that has a critical reserve size of less than 100km^2, in comparison to the grizzly bear, which has a critical reserve size of 1,000-10,000km^2. These are an example of why SLOSS depends on species. (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998)

Effective Population Size

A number differing for different species, the size of an idealized population. It has equal sex ratio, each individual having the same probability of passing genes to the next generation, and population size remaining consistent at each generation.

Biodiversity 2020

A paper produced, aiming to establish a well managed, ecologically coherent netowrk of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). By the end of 2016 this will contain in excess of 25% of English waters (or that was the plan).

Stakeholder(s)

A person that has an interest in a matter such as conservation, or development. There are many of these, such as farmers, local communities, governments, professionals in the area, NGOs, scientists, land owners/users and occupants, ecosystem service users and the public. Conservation problems are people problems, and therefore should be people solutions.

Outbreeding depression

A phrase referring to when progeny resulting from crosses between genetically distant individuals (outcrossing) exhibit lower that either of their parents fitness. Consequences include bad seasonality, breaking up of coadapted gene complexes, and introduction of new diseases to which local populations may lack resistance.

Risk averse

A phrase to describe investors that want certainty when they put their money into something, little to no chance of failure.

Cebu

A place in the Philippines where there is a Catholic celebration of the Holy Child of ____. The statue of 'Our Lady of Consolation' has an ivory head and hands. This is an example of how the challenges of the ivory trade go beyond where the target species lives.

Office Depot Policy

A practice done in workplace environments which is to phase out all paper products coming from rare and vulnerable forests, forests containing exceptional biodiversity values (hotspots). This is an example of how global prioritisations are focal points for corporate responsibility.

Connectivity

A principle which helps maintain the several small nature reserves design, essential for metapopulations. Individuals disperse between patches - bigger patches have bigger populations meaning more emigrants. Individuals can get lost or die on the way, with more individuals arriving at nearby patches. Some areas are easier to cross than others (e.g. roads vs grasslands). Patches can be: close and well linked, close but badly linked because of a barrier, distant and poorly linked, or connected by a habitat corridor. Also heavily depends on species dispersal ability. Can also mean better genetic diversity.

Allee effect(s)

A problem of small populations, that make the population growth rates slower or negative at low numbers. e.g. group defence in schooling tuna, in Kakapos difficulty in finding mates and/or biased sex ratio (only 54 left). These can be induced in some species, such fruit flies through sterile male release.

Population Viability Analysis

A process calculated to describe cumulative probability of extinction over time. Can give information such as minimum viable population size, which population is most likely to survive and what actions might most help a population. A simple method is to continue the trend line of the population, better than this to use a demographic model, incorporating all/biggest factors affecting population growth rate.

Recolonisation

A process in connected habitat patches where some patches may go extinct (through fire, bad weather, pollution) but can be restarted from the remaining patches. Survival of the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Connectivity helps fragmented populations survive in the long term.

Rescue effect

A process in habitat patches where immigrants from big nearby patches help populations in small patches to survive. Similar to recolonisation, but the population doesn't go extinct.

Spotted Eagle(s)

A rare bird species, that the Belarus population had a census done on it, in order to estimate how many there were - in general where the best site for protection was. Only 15 pairs were known before, but after the cenus estimated 170 pairs of only 900 in Europe, making Belarus a priority country for spotted eagles. Several important sites are now legally protected, and forests managed to be 'eagle friendly', as well as restoring floodplain habitats. Collected in an RSPB report.

(the) wave hub

A remote sensing, boat-towed, baited high definition camera used to monitor bethos and fish. It has been used to create a habitat map off the north of Cornwall where it has been towed. However it may have biodiveristy impacts (Witt et al 2012). Alongside this, seabirds and seals surveyed with point counts, cetaceans and fish also monitored acoustically (100s of fish tagged with transmitters). Abundance and movement monitored.

Frame quadrat(s)

A sampling technique for plants or sessile animals, simply a rectangle of different shapes, usually 1m x 1m.

Drift fence(s)

A sampling technique used for amphibians and reptiles, a large wall that the organism will travel along, then fall into a pot at the end of it. Generally set up around breeding sites, expensive in both time and money.

Bottle trap(s)

A sampling technique used for amphibians and reptiles, that involves catching them in a container with a one way entrance. Generally set up around breeding sites, expensive in both time and money.

Panel trap(s)

A sampling technique used for amphibians and reptiles, using a flat piece of tile or suitable alternative which the organism will hide under. They can be checked to find the individuals. Generally set up around breeding sites, expensive in both time and money.

Breeding Colony Estimate(s)

A sampling technique used for birds, guessing the number of individuals living together.

Mist netting

A sampling technique used for birds, the catching of birds in a specific type of net.

Purse seine netting

A sampling technique used for fish, similar to a fishing technique where the shoal is encircled by a net that it then pulled up from the bottom.

Gill netting

A sampling technique used for fish, where the fish are caught on mesh inside their opucular cavities.

Electro-fishing

A sampling technique used for fish, where the water has a current run through, and the fish that float to the top collected and can be indentified (dead).

Roost/Nursery censuses

A sampling technique used for terrestrial mammals such as bats, where they are counted when they are resting, or in some cases when they are young, being raised in a specific area.

Dung counting

A sampling technique used for terrestrial mammals, a proxy source using the excrement. This combined with use of genetic markers and mark-recapture analysis double the estimate of wild Pandas in the world to 66 (Zhang et al).

Rosette sampler(s)

A sampling tool used when generally surveying small zooplankton and phytoplankton. Could also use plankton nets.

Continuous plankton recorder(s)

A sampling tool used when surveying zooplankton >200 micrometers. They are generally very technologically advanced. Could also use plankton nets.

Rabbit

A small mammal introduced to the UK for meat and fur by the Normans around 1100AD. They are reservoirs of zoonotic disease for humans (E.coli VTEC) and livestock (paratuberculosis). Single biggest negative economic impact caused by wildlife in the UK (around £115mil to the agricultural industry). Around £5mil spent annually on rabbit control. However, they are a keystone species because they trim the grass to a level that encourages wildflowers.

House mouse

A small rodent that we have gained through Norwegian Viking introductions to the UK around 800AD.

Local (Biodiversity Action Plans)

A smaller scale version of a BAP, created in the 21st century in order to identify targets for species and habitats important to the local area, reflecting the values of local people. Also to stimulate effective _____ partnerships to ensure programmes for biodiversity conservation are developed and maintained in the long term.

Commons Preservation (Society)

A society formed in 1865 due to concern over restricted access to open land around cities, and development or enclosure of common land - ecosystem services. An activist society.

MetaPVA

A special type of population viability analysis that is used to assess metapopulations, fragmented populations.

Invasive (species)

A species introduced to a new region by humans, that forms self sustaining populations in new region (becomes naturalised), causing problems in the new region. These are very hard to spot, depending on the species and recipient ecosystem - very complex. Effects are so diverse it's hard to know what to look for, growth in international trade and transport is unstoppable - new problems constantly emerging. Often a long lag between introduction and invasive problems. However there are some common bad species - rats, cats, goats and pigs, hitchhiked or purposefully seeded by hungry sailors. Some feel we should focus on the species causing problems rather than in general to mitigate extinction risk (Gurevitch and Padilla 2004).

Surrogate (species)

A species that is conserved that in turn leads to the indirect conservation of many others. They represent a much wider array of taxa and can be used as a short cut to tackle conservation problems. Includes those of higher ecological importance, keystone species, flagship species (charismatic) and umbrella species.

European polecat

A species that the population declined nearly to extinction due to hunting. Populations now recovering but concerns for its genetic integrity due to introgression with domestic ferret.

Tuatara

A species the 'living dinosaur', ancient lizard, endemic to New Zealand. Molecular markers determined the genus Sphenodonpunctatus, actually consists of two species. Due to the taxonomic misjudgement isolated populations of one species have not been given high enough priority for management intervention, and 25% of all tuatara populations have gone extinct in the last century.

Florida

A state in the US that is the world capital for invasive reptiles. Pet trade accounts for 84% of the introductions e.g. spectacled caiman, burmese python and red-eared slider.

(the) inbreeding coefficient

A statistic that measures how closely related the parents are. Can be measured from pedigree data (genentic database of relatedness between individuals), or through genetic markers such as microsatellites. e.g. in great tits 1/4 is the number representing children born of brother-sister matings, 1/16 the children born of 1st cousins.

Lobeke (national park)

A successful national park in Camaroon that works with local people, 20,000ha under total protection, 600,000ha multiple use zone for the community, hunting, sport hunting (tourism) and logging. Baka pygmies and Bagando people rely on the forest for food, medicine, building materials and cultural identity.

Global gap analysis

A technique with the goal to include at least one viable population of each species in a protected area. It is impossible to know viability for this many species, so use % of each species distribution found in a protected area. (Rodrigues et al 2004). This showed 13% of all species analysed (1483 species) totally unprotected by PAs.

Bycatch

A term for organisms caught when incidentally when fishing, and discarded, usually dead. e.g. shrimp trawling catches 1/3 of the world's fish _______. The global weight ratio of this:shrimp is 5.7:1. Air-breathing megafauna are also included in this, estimated 1 million seabirds die annually as this. Seabirds, marine mammals and seabirds were all vulnerable particularly 1990-2008 due to longline, gillnets and trawling.

Inbreeding depression

A term referring to the reduced fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding, or breeding of related individuals.

Marine (biomes)

A type of biome that is more strongly influenced by ocean currents and topography than climate. Major regional classification scheme is the ______ ecosystems of the world.

Seed bank(s)

A type of cryobanking where starting material from flowering plants is stored. It is dehydrated to prevent ice formation then stored at -20°C. When the seed viability drops they are germinated and new ones harvested. Advantages are huge numbers can be stored, easy to transport, no evolution in captivity and being very cost effective, however there may not be habitat for them to resurrected into, and it may remove the incentive and moral obligation to conserve the habitat and the plants in-situ.

Direct use (value)

A type of economic value assigned to an aspect of the environment, derived from the use of a biological resource, can be consumptive or non-consumptive. Includes food (almost everything we eat), shelter, recreation (including ecotourism, hunting, even in the UK).

Indirect use (value)

A type of economic value assigned to an aspect of the environment, the 'benefits' provided by ecosystems that make human life possible. Globally, ecosystems provide at least US$33 trillion worth of services annually. Coastal systems are important to nutrient cycling (US$10 trillion annually). Forest provide raw materials and climate regulation (US$4.7 trillion annually). Wetland systems protect against floods and provide water (US$4.9 trillion annually). This and direct value is often high.

Existence (value)

A type of economic value assigned to an aspect of the environment, the appreciation of biodiversity without intended use e.g. aesthetic enjoyment, spiritual health. Not specific monetary value, only based on perception - 'the world is a nicer place with...' However this is challenged by development pressures e.g. urbanisation, monetisation, loss of faith.

Option (value)

A type of economic value assigned to an aspect of the environment, the present and future as-yet-unknown value of healthy ecosystems, which may be found across all biodiversity scales. e.g. foods, medicines, genetic resources, drug bio-prospecting.

Biological (species concept)

A type of species concept that defines species as group of inter-breeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other populations, sharing a common gene pool. This doesn't work with those 'species' that hybridise - 6% of European mammals, <=25% of plan species, bird species <=7-17MY after separation. Bacteria don't reproduce sexually at all so break this.

Phenotypic (species concept)

A type of species concept that defines species as groups of organisms that are ______________ more similar to one another than they are to other groups. It is more of a traditional approach. However, problematic at prioritising which are important features - different features priorities lead to different species diagnoses. Does not work with species with different morphs depending on conditions, or with those exhibiting batesian or mullerian mimicry.

alpha (species richness)

A type of species richess, also known as local sclae diversity which is the number of species within a habitat/sample size, defined by habitat type.

gamma (species richness)

A type of species richness, also known as regional scale diversity, the number of species at a 'larger' regional spatial scale.

beta (species richness)

A type of species richness, the change in species richness from one site to another (species turnover)

Indicator (species)

A type of surrogate species, a species which presence or absence can tell you things about the quality or general features of the environment - e.g. change, biodiversity, health of the ecosystem. Butterflies are good for this - high reproductive rates, short life cycles, low trophic levels meaning they respond rapidly to subtle habitat and climatic changes. Representatives for other wildlife (estimated ~80% of all species are insects). Easy to study, long-term monitoring data available to calculate population increase/decrease. Charismatic too.

Economically important (species)

A type of surrogate species, species that support humans directly (e.g. food) or indirectly through supporting ecosystem services. These may be species to prioritise in conservation. Can have a monetary value assigned to them. e.g. wild relatives of crop plants, bees.

Flagship (species)

A type of surrogate species, that is used to raise awareness or financial support - favoured by non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Attract tourists also to developing countries. Can play a positive socio-economic role, even if it is not an 'important' one (e.g. ecotourism). Bringing money in may reduce wildlife conflict (e.g. elephant/farmer).

Umbrella (species)

A type of surrogate species, that uses broad geographical areas or have such broad ecological requirements that by conserving them we conserve many other species. They are useful because it is so hard to understand the specific requirements of all these different species. e.g. African Elephant - sightings correlate closely with richness of other species and easy to detect. Migration corridors are very important.

Keystone (species)

A type of surrogate species, which due to their size or activity any change in population will have large effects on their ecosystems. e.g. Wolves. Eradicated from Yellowstone in 1924 because hunting of bison and elk. The elk population exploded, meaning declies in plants (willow aspen), beaver and songbird declines, rivers clogged up. Reintroduced in 1990s, grazing and vegetation appear to be equilibrating. Huge success with (most of) the public.

Consumptive (use)

A type of use that means the resource is used up. This includes animals for meat, skin, fur, medicine, sport, pet trade. Plants for food, fuel, medicine, ornamental plant trade.

Tree of life

A visualisation of the life on this planet, constructed from environmental DNA by Hug et al 2016. Used a sample of 3000 species (1000 new discoveries) but still needed a supercomputer. Meadow soils were shown to be one of the most microbially complex environments on the planet. This model is still incomplete and controversial.

Biome(s)

A way of defining global regions based on biodiversity, geographic areas containing major communities, classified according to predominant vegetation and characterized by environmental adaptations.

Biogeographic realm(s)

A way of defining global regions based on biodiversity, large regions where species share common evolutionary history, ie species have been isolated from other regions for millions of years.

Ecoregion(s)

A way of defining global regions based on biodiversity, within biomes, large units of land/water with characteristic natural communities. They share a majority of their species, dynamics and environmental conditions; used specifically as conservation units (Olsen et al 1998). Not to be confused by the WWF classification for area conservation priority.

Genera ratio

A way of finding the real species number, by looking at the number of species at a certain taxonomic level, and extrapolating that out.

Future-proof

A way to describe protected areas that mean they will still be effective in years to come. This may include accounting for climate change, shifting where species can live. Speckled Wood butterfly has extended its range northwards, but turtle dove is declining and retreating to the southeast. This means we will have a greater need for connectivity of habitat, and these protected areas need to be adaptable.

Seasonality

A word referring to how dramatically the environment changes throughout the normal course of a year. In this tropics, this is low, meaning that species have narrower physiological tolerances than other species, therefore cannot disperse across unfavourable environments. This increases allopatric speciation. (Janzen 1967).

Naturalize

A word to describe an alien species establishing in the environment it was introduced. This does not necessarily mean it will become invasive.

Hypervirulence

A word to describe something that is more intensely poisonous, and spreads faster than a previous version.

International

A word to describe when something is from a different country, and describes the way the fishing industry is moving. With decreasing fish catches, effort is moving from developed nations to Africa. Can also be seen in the Grand Banks Cod example, causing a collapse.

Complementarity

A word used to describe protected areas that represent many different species, closing the gaps for species that aren't covered by a protected area.

Taiga

Also known as boreal forest, a biome characterised by the continuous belt of confierous trees across north America and Eurasia. Includes wolves, beavers, many owl species.

Boreal forest

Also known as taiga, a biome characterised by the continuous belt of confierous trees across north America and Eurasia. Includes wolves, beavers, many owl species.

(IUCN) Natural Monument

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features.

(IUCN) Habitat/Species Management Area

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly for conservation through management interventions.

(IUCN) National Park

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. e.g. Banff, category II.

(IUCN) Protected Landscape/Seascape

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation.

(IUCN) Strict Nature Reserve

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly for science. e.g. Aldabra, Seychelles.

(IUCN) Managed Resource Protected Area

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems and resources. e.g. Great Barrier Reef, category VI.

(IUCN) Wilderness Area

An IUCN category of protected area, managed mainly to protect wilderness qualities. e.g. Sawtooth wilderness, category IIa.

Vulnerable

An IUCN red list category that means that there have been important declines in numbers (>50%) over last 10 years (threshold lowered to 30% if cause is unknown or irreversible). Fairly small and fragmented, shrinking or fluctuating extent of occurrence/area of occupancy. <2500 individuals.

Extinct in the Wild

An IUCN red list category that means the species only survives in cultivation, captivity or naturalised populations outside past range. e.g. Scimitar-horned Oryx (Oryx dammah).

Endangered

An IUCN red list category that means there has been substantial declines in numbers (>70%) over last 10 years/3 generations, or predicted in future (threshold lowered to 50% if cause is unknown or irreversible). Can also be small and fragmented, shrinking or fluctuating extent of occurrence/area of occupancy. <250 individuals. e.g. Preuss's monkey (threatened mostly by habitat loss but also bushmeat hunting.

Extinct

An IUCN red list category that means there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died after systematic exhausted surveys. e.g. Dodo

Data deficient

An IUCN red list category that means there is not enough information to draw a conclusions. e.g. Orca in 2013 - unknown if a single global species, or multiple sub-species.

Critically Endangered

An IUCN red list category that means they have massive declines in numbers (80-90%) over the last 10 years/3 generations, or predicted in future (threshold lowered to 80% if cause is unknown or irreversible). Can also be tiny, severely fragmented and shrinking, or fluctuating extent of occurrence/area of occupancy. Can also be <50 individuals. e.g. Gharial

Wealth from the wild

An IUCN report describing the direct use value of nature in the UK. 'Collectively [a wide range of species] are significant in socio-economic terms accounting for a minimum contribution of £4.87 biollion in the UK economy and supporting 58,000 jobs.' Lots of this comes from intense exploitation of relatively few species for food (e.g. marine fish), for sport (e.g. red grouse, deer stalking), and for wildlife viewing (birds and marine mammals). This and indirect value is often high.

MSY

An abbreviation for maximum sustainable yield.

SLOSS

An abbreviation for single large or several small, in reference to reserves. It is an argument made either way due to the diminishing returns on the species area relationship. This can depend on the current situation, and the species.

IPCC

An abbreviation of International Panel on Climate Change.

LBAP(s)

An abbreviation of local biodiversity action plans.

MCZ

An abbreviation of marine conservation zones.

RCP

An abbreviation of representative concentration pathways, a prediction of green house gas emission scenarios.

CITES

An abbreviation of the Convention on Interanational Trade in Endangered Species. There are 33,600 animal and plant species listed, with three appendices.

IUCN red list

An abbreviation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ___ ____, globally and taxonomically coherent protocols for assessing species extinction risk. Performed by ____ staff, ___ ____ authorities/collaborator (e.g. Birdlife) and reviewed by international experts. Species should be re-assessed every 5-10 years. Continually updated as assessments are completed. Major releases in 1964 (plants), 2007, 2008, 2012 and 2016. In 2016 76,000 species assessed, 23,000 threatened with extinction. Goal is to assess 16,000 spp by 2020. Strengths include clear, comprehensive and flexible criteria, documents on entire regions and clades (not just charismatic or rare species), evidence-based and peer reviewed, database can be used to assess threat sources and intensities and provide species ecological dta, can be used to prioritise species and sites (hundreds of millions of dollars invested yearly using priorities from the red list. Over time population changes can be modelled as well as observed.

Catch-share(s)

An alternative method of managing fish stocks, by assigning long-term quotas, rights or areas to individuals or groups. This provides a secure income, and gives the individuals/groups an incentive to protect it (against other people/poachers, harvesting so the resource is sustainable in the long term). Prevents tragedy of the commons 'race to fish'. Seen to slowly and eventually prevent fisheries collapse (Costello et al 2008).

Cane toad

An amphibian species introduced to Australia in 1935 to control sugar beetles (unsuccessful). Venom-secreting poison glands on adult stage ingested, venom causing rapid heartbeat, convulsions, paralysis, and potentially death.

Ngorogoro crater

An area in Tanzania where lions live in a naturally isolated population of 75 individuals. Decimated by biting flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) in 1961, 10 adults surviving reducing the effective population size. The current population is descended from found population of 7 females and 8 males with no further immigration after 1969. Example of a genetic bottleneck.

UK National Park

An area of species conservation, the first UK variety of these declared in 1951. Agreement, lease or purchase of land took place. By 1957, 10 of these in England and Wales, 5 of these direction areas in Scotland.

Buffer Zone(s)

An area put in place to minimize edge effects arising from human acitivities. This involves a protected core (e.g. flower rich meadow), and this area around it (e.g. semi-natural grassland/not-intensively managed farmland). This is managed so as to not affect the core, and can supply resources and livelihoods for local people. E.g. Royal Chitwan Park, Nepal.

Boundary demarcation

An aspect of a protected area that can make it successful, making it obvious not just on a map where the area begins and ends. Others include legality, knowledge of biodiversity inside and objectives.

Enforcement

An aspect of a protected area that is necessary for a good park - having patrols and people making sure that all laws are in effect and offenders prosecuted. Others include monitoring, budget security, relations with local communities, profitable and equitable managment of tourism.

Monitoring

An aspect of a protected area that is necessary for a good park - keeping a check on how the park is going and the species in it. Others include enforcement, budget security, relations with local communities, profitable and equitable managment of tourism.

Management effectiveness

An aspect of a protected area that relates to how well the people are working for the area. It correlates with law enforcement, education and awareness (both very strongly) and budget.

Biodiversity condition

An aspect of a protected area that relates to the species richness and evenness. It correlates with monitoring and evaluation, resource management, staff numbers and legal status.

Design

An aspect of a protected area which can make it good or bad, encompassing things such as location and boundaries.

Budget security

An aspect of a protected area, which if this is bad could ruin the park. This means that there is not enough money to sustainably support the area. Others include enforcement, monitoring, relations with local communities, profitable and equitable managment of tourism.

Disperal Ability

An aspect of a species to move from one patch to the next, essential to connectivity. Most individuals travel short distances, but a few will go a long way. Connectivity depends on how many invdividuals go a long way. Better this, means better connectivity.

Aesthetic enjoyment

An aspect of existance value, the fact that often nature looks quite nice.

Spiritual health

An aspect of existance value, the inspirational, religious or cultural benefit of nature. This can often be important in conservation - affords sustainable exploitation.

Nutrient-loading

An aspect of pollution that causes biodiversity loss, through the release of nitrogen or phosphorus. Nitrogen pollution of inland waterways has doubled globally since 1960 and increased tenfold in industrialised areas. Global economic cost of this is ~$16 billion annually, mainly due to human health impacts. Main impact is eutrophication of freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems, and acidification of freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems.

(species) evenness

An aspect of species diversity that is defined as the degree to which the number of individual organisms are evenly divided between different species of the community.

(species) richness

An aspect of species diversity that is defined as the total number of given species in a quantified area. Crudely done as number of species per area (hectare, square mile), or by a political region. Can be split into alpha, beta and gamma. Useful for simple comparisons of diversity between 'places' - does not account for relative abundance/evenness. Indices are the most common metric to measure/characterise diversity. This varies between biomes.

(species) diversity

An aspect of species measuring, alongside richness, evenness and rarity that increases resilience to environmental change and ecosystem function. Seen to be made up of richness and evenness.

Latitude

An axis of measurement on the globe, paralell to the equator. The number increases as you move away from this line. The lower the number, the higher the species diversity.

Zoo(s)

An ex-situ conservation strategy for animals that the public can see, generating revenue and education. Enclosures often designed for maximum visibility, not necessarily animal welfare. Valuable resource for genetic visibility if managed well e.g. stud books.

Managed Relocation

An ex-situ conservation strategy, moving the wild population to a location outside the species' historical range. Undertaken when threats in species' historical range will eventually lead to extinction and are irreversible. e.g. climate change making current range unsuitable, invasives eradicating focal species from limited range (islands). Advantages (climate change): allowing species to 'outrun' climate change that would not otherwise (species restricted to islands, mountains, slow moving/reproducing species, species trapped by cities and agricultural development). However, risks include: depleting of original population when success of relocation unknown, species may not be suited to new community (may become invasive with wildlife and ecosystem impacts) - it also may become legally and morally conservation-dependent. Limitations include: unclear legality (in the USA illegal to introduce populations to state-owned areas e.g. parks and reserves), possibility of landowners becoming legally responsible for an endangered species, needs suitable habitat and extremely long-term intensive effort.

Bay Checkerspot butterfly

An example of a lepidopteran species that has undergone managed relocation due to climate change. Habitat: serpentine soils near San Francisco, federally threatened due to habitat loss and invasive grasses, climate change threatening remaining fragmented distribution. Can't naturally disperse elsewhere - however host plants found widely across California, meaning it could be translocated within state.

Tatra mountain ibex

An example of a mammal species that has suffered from outbreeding depression. In the captive breeding and release scheme they were cross bred with domestic goats due to low numbers. The hybrids were unsuccessful in all documented cases. This is because the hybrid produced calves at the coldest time of year and they all died. Pubred was then tried but suffered inbreeding depression.

Wildebeest

An example of a migratory species that requires a large protected area during the dry season. Fences can't stop the movement, but not all of their area protected. They move through Grumeti Game Reserve, a privately owned hunting concession. This involves international cooperation due to them crossing the border between Kenya and Tanzania. This is a larger game reserve but still slightly fragmented, on the SLOSS spectrum.

Egmont (national park)

An example of a national park in New Zealand, where everything outside of it is destroyed. Shows how effective management of human activities outside parks is crucial.

Royal Chitwan Park

An example of a park in Nepal that has buffer zones. Local people can use forest areas surrounding the park. This will protect the riparian zone.

Cheetah

An example of a species that has undergone a genetic bottleneck and then inbreeding depression. Mass extinction event killed 75% of mammals 12,000 years ago, however this survived with a greatly reduced population. The production of offspring from individuals related by descent resulted in homozygosity, especially of deleterious genes.

Northern Right Whale

An example of a species that is impossibleto keep in an ex-situ environment. Others are too hard to capture and keep alive, whereas some are unsuitable due to expertise lacking in expensive nations, large facilities being needed and some requiring many personnel and long-term investment.

Partula snail(s)

An example of a species that zoo conservation works very well for, endemic to French Polynesia, however eradicated by carnivorous invasive rosy wolf snail. Small and easy/cheap to rear, with an aim for reintroduction by 2018.

Torreya pine

An example of a tree species that has undergone managed relocation due to climate change. <1500 individuals remain in Florida, remnants from disease outbreak - no reproduction for 40 years (local acitivists believing because of warmed climate). These people planting species in Appalachians and up to Ohio and Michigan - relying on private landowners and volunteer effort.

Red Kite

An example species that was given protection by Henry VIII value as a scavenger and cleanser (an ecosystem service). The first time a bird had been given protection for reason other than sport. Shooting because of threat to poultry resumed the following century. They were reintroduced after going locally extinct, in the 1940s with 10 pairs in wales, however suffered from poor area selection. Birds were brought from Europe, but reintroduced to upland areas where the habitat was suitable but human-wildlife conflict at grouse-shooting sites. Surprisingly successful in lowland arable areas. All birds released in 1989 to 2004 in multiple sites were tagged and continuously monitored.

Ecosystem impact

An impact of invasive species, changing not only the biological aspects of the environment but also the physical aspects. e.g. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) in North America.

Grazing

An impact of invasive species, destroying the plant species. e.g. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid.

Disease transmission

An impact of invasive species, when it is a vector of a pathogen, such as mosquitoes and west nile virus. 663 cases in humans in USA 2009. 30 deaths. The cost in Louisiana is around $20 million in one year. Also affects livestock and wildlife.

Hybridization

An impact of invasive species, when the invasive breeds with a native species and dilutes/fuses the gene pool.

Parasitism

An impact of invasive species, where an organism extracts nutrients from another living in or on its host. This happens when species are introduced for pest control, sometimes carrying a _________ microsporidia. e.g. in ladybirds, harmless to the invasive harlequin but lethal for UK native 7-spot ladybird Coccinella septumpunctata. (Vilcinskas et al 2015)

(invasive species) Predation

An impact of invasive species, where the introduced preys upon natives. e.g. The brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis). This is particularly devastating to island fauna (few or no large predators, no defences against predation (often more vulnerable as flightless/large) many species endemic.

Interaction with other aliens

An impact of invasive species, where they work with invasives to produce a bigger effect. e.g. the Eurasian seed-dispersing ant, Myrmica rubra, invades North America. Many Eurasian plants also introduced to this place (e.g. greater celandine Chelidonium majus). M. rubra is more likely to disperse seeds of C. majus than native plants.

(invasive species) Competition

An impact of invasive species. Once invasive species are homogenised with communities and landscapes, they can drive native species to the margins of habitats by being more suited to the habitat than them.

Bio-fouling

An impact of invasive species. This is when a species acts as a pollutant and ruins (particularly human) systems. e.g. Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

Trophic Cascade

An indirect interaction between two species at non-adjacent trophic levels, mediated by species at an intermediate level. Often results in extinction - can be seen in Jamaica's coral reefs 1950-1990. One has been predicted in the Baltic from overfishing of cod, sprat and herring. This would lead to seal decline, increase in trophic level 2 and therefore decrease in trophic level 1 and productivity.

Ruddy duck

An invasive bird species (Oxyura jamaicensis) from the US, invaded the UK in the 1930s and now almost eradicated here, but has spread to Europe where it hybridises with the white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala).

Hemlock Woolly Adelgid

An invasive insect species that has a grazing impact. It feeds on the sap of hemlock shoots, causing the tree to desiccate and lose needles. The tree dies in 4-10 years.

Zebra mussel

An invasive species (Dreissena polymorpha) that infests power plant intake pipes in the USA great lakes. It costs $3 million to clean the pipes per power plant, per year. It is an example of bio-fouling.

International Panel on Climate Change

An organisation made up of people from many countries in order to plan and work together against global climate change. Abbreviated to IPCC.

Pronghorn antelope

An ungulate species that a demograph PVA was carried out on - they are currently critically endangered (<250 individuals). The life history parameters of the model can be manipulated - removing a few individuals to start a captive population is okay. Female fawn mortality has the biggest effect on survival - 'supportive breeding' would help. Adult female mortality is very important - all these signs point to managing hunting.

Rarefaction curve(s)

Another name for species accumulation curves.

Biodiversity Hotspots

Areas of the world assigned by conservation international that according to Orme et al 2005, are not congruent with endemism or threat. Some definitions base this on richness, endemism and threat, however only 2.5% of current areas common to all 3 aspects. One definition says they must contain 1500 endemic vascular plant species each (>0.5% of total), some that have >70% of its original habitat destroyed. It is a way of assigning area conservation priorities. Where they are depends on how they are defined.

Deleterious alleles

Bad variations on genes that are normally recessive so won't propogate, but in closely related populations through inbreeding there is an increased chance of both parents carrying it. e.g. poor sperm quality or susceptibility to disease.

Protected Area(s)

'A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.' - IUCN 2008.