Biodiversity Final

Explain the importance of the Endangered Species Act to conservation

(ESA), passed in 1973 and subsequently amended in 1978 and 1982. The ESA was created by the US Congress to "provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved [and] to provide a program for the conservation of such species." Species are protected under the ESA if they are on the official list of endangered and threatened species (FIGURE 7.20). In addition, a recovery plan is generally required for each listed species (Himes Boor 2014).

Discuss the general characteristics of introductions that have been successful

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Explain the intended role of marine protected areas, and their "rules of thumb"

- A marine protected area (MPA) is an area of sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biodiversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means. - MPAs should encompass a variety of marine habitats across a range of depths and environmental gradients. PISCO's monitoring programs have helped to elucidate how ecosystems and the communities they support vary across space and time.

In the restoration of a trout stream, which of the below is TRUE regarding restoration actions that may be taken?

- Adding rocks to stabilize the bank and reduce siltation of the stream is a physical modification - Planting native riparian vegetation to stabilize the stream banks is an example of biological modification - Preventing cattle from grazing the stream bank vegetation is an example of improved management - The more heavily degraded the stream is, the more likely both physical modification, biological modification, and management changes must be made to successfully restore the ecosystem services of the stream

Describe the restoration of Gorongosa National Park

- After a quarter century of civil war and political turmoil wiped out more than 95% of the large mammal population, a decade of renewed protection and careful conservation has brought the park back from the brink. - Approach By adopting a 21st Century conservation model of balancing the needs of wildlife and people

Describe the importance of management to protected areas

- Alternatively, many parks are actively managed according to carefully prepared management plans designed to prevent deterioration. Important considerations in management plans include protecting biodiversity, maintaining ecosystem services and health, preserving historical landscapes, and providing resources and experiences of value to local inhabitants and visitors - Management plans are needed that articulate conservation goals and practical methods for achieving them. Management activities can include controlled burns, enforcement of restrictions on human use, and the maintenance of keystone resources, especially water. - A central part of any park's management plan must be policies on the use of the park resources by different groups of people. In developing countries especially, restricting access to protected areas can cost people—who may have traditionally used the area and its resources—access to the basic resources that they need to stay alive.

Explain how the Kakapo and Black Footed Ferrets were rescued from extinction

- Another is the kakapo parrot, mentioned above; scientists harvest the birds' actual eggs and incubate them away from predation risk, replacing them with 3D-printed "smart eggs" that make noise like a newly hatched kakapo to prepare the mothers for the return of their chicks (Feldberg 2019). They also use drones to transport semen from "genetically important" males to receptive females on other parts of the island. - For example, captive black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) must be carefully handled and quarantined so that they do not acquire diseases from people or dogs that they might transfer into wild populations upon their release in North American grasslands

Explain why it is not always simple to decide on a goal when restoring a prairie

- Because they are species-rich, have many beautiful wildflowers, and can be established within a few years, prairies represent ideal subjects for restoration work - Many techniques have been used in attempts at prairie restoration, but the basic method involves site preparation by shallow plowing, burning, and raking if prairie species are present, or by eliminating all vegetation by plowing or applying herbicides if only exotics are present.

Explain how behavioral ecology must be considered when reintroducing animals

- Behavioral ecology is the study of an animal's behavior in the context of its environment and considers the adaptive significance of those behaviors. - In a review of conservation projects that use behavioral ecology, it was found that while foraging and dispersal behaviors were often considered, others, such as anti-predator behavior and social behaviors, were not, even though these are important issues for reintroductions (Berger-Tal et al. 2016).

How can conservation biologists obtain the necessary natural history and ecological information needed to inform conservation efforts?

- By searching the published literature - By conducting their own fieldwork - By searching the unpublished literature

Explain the difference between censusing and surveying

- Census: count of the number of individuals present in a population. By repeating a census over successive time intervals, biologists can determine whether a population is stable, increasing, or decreasing in number. - Censuses of a biological community can be conducted to determine what species are currently present in a locality. Censuses conducted over a wide area can help to determine the range of a species and its areas of local abundance. They are better for small populations - Survey: using a repeatable sampling method to estimate the abundance or density of a population or species in a part of a community - Surveys are used in large populations or with an extensive range

If I am interested in conservation of biodiversity, what can I do to as an individual?

- Contact my representative in my government frequently and let him/her know where I stand on environmental issues when they are being debated - When purchasing food or other products, look for sustainability certifications on the products - Make an effort to understand the science behind environmental issues like climate change, so that I can explain the evidence to my friends or family who may not understand it or who may have doubts. - Become a member of an NGO environmental organization, such as the World Wildlife Fund or the Nature Conservancy

Describe Dan Janzen's Tropical Dry Forest restoration project in the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste

- Daniel Janzen and Winnie Hallwachs have been working with Costa Rica's Ministry of the Environment, the resident staff, and the Guanacaste Dry Forest Conservation Fund to restore the biology and cultural connectivity of 130,000 ha of degraded forest and rangeland and 43,000 ha of overfished marine habitat in Area de Conservación Guanacaste - The restoration of these marginal ranchlands, low-quality farms, and forest fragments includes eliminating brush fires started by people, banning logging and hunting, and occasionally planting both native and exotic trees to shade out introduced African grasses. - A key element in this restoration plan is what has been termed biocultural restoration, meaning that ACG staff members teach basic biology and ecology onsite to 2500 students in grades 4 through 6 from 53 neighboring schools and also give presentations to citizen groups, all as part of the ACG core mission

Which of the below is TRUE regarding restoration ecology?

- Data from the field of restoration ecology have helped ecologists understand how communities are assembled - The discipline of restoration ecology informs ecological restoration efforts

Explain the DUE approach to selecting species for protection

- Distinctiveness (or irreplaceability) A species is often given high conservation value if it is taxonomically distinctive—that is, it is the only species in its genus or family. - Utility Species that have present or potential value to people, such as wild relatives of wheat, are given high conservation priority. - Endangerment (or vulnerability) Species in danger of extinction are of greater concern than species that are not

Which of the below are components of the Basel Zoo's Indian Rhinoceros program?

- Education of the public on threats to Indian Rhinos in the wild - Raising funds for conservation of Indian Rhinos in the wild - Captive breeding of Indian Rhinos and coordination of efforts with other European zoos

Explain how the Golden Lion Tamarin project brought this species back with the help of ex-situ conservation efforts

- Ex-situ: off-site conservation, It is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety or breed, of plant or animal outside its natural habitat - In Brazil, conservation and reintroduction efforts for the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) have become a rallying point for the protection of the last remaining fragments of the Atlantic forest. - In other cases, wild individuals serve as "instructors" for captive individuals of the same species. For example, wild golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) are caught and held with captive-bred tamarins so that the captive-bred tamarins will learn appropriate behavior from the wild ones. After they form social groups, they are released together.

Explain why wetlands restoration could potentially be used to reduce impacts of future hurricanes

- Experience has shown that efforts to restore wetlands often fail to closely match the species composition or hydrologic characteristics of reference sites - The 2005 destruction of New Orleans and other Gulf Coast cities by Hurricane Katrina, and to a lesser extent by Hurricane Rita soon after Katrina, was in part a result of development activities destroying the region's wetlands, which had protected the coast from the force of hurricanes.

Explain what the different Red List categories mean

- Extinct (EX) The species (or other taxon, such as subspecies or variety) is no longer known to exist. The IUCN currently lists 750 animal species and 122 plants species as extinct. - Extinct in the wild (EW) The species exists only in cultivation, in captivity, or as a naturalized population well outside its original range. The IUCN currently lists 34 animal species and 35 plant species as extinct in the wild. - Critically endangered (CR) The species has an extremely high risk of going extinct in the wild, according to any of the criteria A-E . - Endangered (EN) The species has a very high risk of extinction in the wild, according to any of the criteria A-E. - Vulnerable (VU) The species has a high risk of extinction in the wild, according to any of the criteria A-E. - Near threatened (NT) The species is close to qualifying for a threatened category but is not currently considered threatened. - Least concern (LC) The species is not considered near threatened or threatened. (Widespread and abundant species are included in this category.) - Data deficient (DD) Inadequate information exists to determine the risk of extinction for the species. - Not evaluated (NE) The species has not yet been evaluated against the Red List criteria. - Regionally extinct (RE) The species no longer exists within the country or region but is extant in other parts of the world. Not applicable (NA) The species is not eligible for the regional Red List because, for example, it is not within its natural range in the region (i.e., it has been introduced) or because it is only a rare migrant to the region.

Describe the main challenges to park management

- For park management to be effective, there must be adequate funding for a sufficient number of well-equipped, properly trained, reasonably paid, and highly motivated park personnel who are willing to carry out park policy - Buildings, communications equipment, and other appropriate elements of infrastructure are necessary to manage a park. In many areas of the world, particularly in developing, but also in developed, countries, protected areas are understaffed, and the park staff lack the equipment to patrol remote areas. Without enough radios and vehicles, they may be restricted to the vicinity of headquarters and unaware of what is happening in their own park.

Explain how gap analysis is used to prioritize areas for protection

- Gap analysis compares biodiversity priorities with existing and proposed protected areas - GIS is an effective tool for gap analysis. It uses a wide variety of information to pinpoint critical areas and species that are priorities for protection. 1. Data are compiled describing the presence and distribution of species, ecosystems, and physical features of the region, which are sometimes referred to as conservation units. Information on human densities and economic factors can also be included. 2. Conservation and social goals are identified, such as the amount of area to be protected for each ecosystem, the number of individuals of rare species to be protected, or the desired balance between wilderness and mixed resource management. 3. Existing conservation areas are reviewed to determine what is protected already and what is not (known as "identifying gaps in coverage"). 4. Additional areas are identified to help meet the conservation goals ("filling the gaps"). 5. These additional areas are reviewed in more detail and, if appropriate and practical, protected in some way (often by being directly purchased or designated as national parks). Management plans are then developed and implemented. 6. The new protected areas are monitored to determine whether they are meeting their stated goals. If not, the management plan can be changed or, possibly, additional areas can be acquired to meet the goals.

What does the below figure suggest regarding tallgrass prairie management via grazing?

- Grazing by cattle is associated with an increase in plant species richness - Grazing by bison is associated with an increase in plant species richness - Bison are slightly better management tools than are cattle

Explain how grazing might be an appropriate type of management for a park

- Grazing's ecological effects can be positive and include redistributing nutrients, keeping grasslands open or favouring a particular species over another. - In some wildlife sanctuaries, grasslands and fields are maintained by livestock grazing, burning, mowing, tree cutting, or shallow plowing in order to retain open habitat in the landscape.

Discuss the importance of connectivity and corridors for protected areas

- Growing numbers of conservationists argue that connectivity is important, and they are taking steps to link isolated protected areas into large systems through the use of habitat corridors—strips of protected land running between the reserves - Habitat managed for resource extraction can sometimes also be designated as important secondary sites for wildlife and as dispersal corridors between isolated protected areas.

Explain how restoration ecology has informed the field of community ecology in general

- However, some researchers argue that in the future, restoration ecology should devote more attention to the other major components of the community, including trophic interactions and food webs - Restoration ecology is increasingly addressing the issue of the moving target, especially as it becomes evident that so many ecosystems simply cannot be restored in the traditional sense

Describe the ways that protected areas are established around the world

- Human-dominated areas can pose unique challenges to biodiversity. Although many species have evolved with us and thus do well in our company, these tend to be (some of) the same species all over the world, leading to a "strip-mall" phenomenon; that is, the unique characteristics of a local ecosystem are lost as it becomes dominated by ubiquitous pigeons, rats, weeds and other human-adapted species. - In many parts of the world, areas with high biodiversity are inhabited by indigenous people with longstanding systems for resource protection and use. These people are important, perhaps essential, to conservation efforts in those areas.

Which of the below are principles of E.O. Wilson's Half Earth goal for conservation?

- Improved standards of living lead to declines in fertility, so, if current trends continue, global population will stabilize around 10 billion - Conserving 50% of the earth could preserve 80-90% of the earth's species - Improved agricultural techniques around the world could free up rural land for conservation - Technological advancements could lead to a decreasing ecological footprint

Explain the importance of GIS data in the conservation movement

- In gap analysis, GIS can help researchers integrate the wealth of data on the natural environment with information on species distributions - The basic GIS approach involves storing, displaying, and manipulating many types of spatial data involving factors such as vegetation types, climate, soils, topography, geology, hydrology, species distributions, human settlements, and resource use

Describe the conditions under which a novel ecosystem would be accepted by managers

- In many situations in which human activities have dramatically altered the environment, some biologists say we will have to accept novel ecosystems, in which there is a mixture of native and nonnative species coexisting in a community unlike the original or reference site - existing in a community unlike the original or reference site (Higgs 2017; Hobbs et al. 2013). These novel ecosystems may differ in species composition and function compared to historical conditions, reflecting the shifting nature of species, the alteration of the environment, and even human values

Which of the below people/groups are involved with establishing new protected areas?

- Indigenous peoples - Wealthy private individuals - Universities when establishing field stations - National governments

Describe the SLOSS debate and how it can be applied to mammals in North American national parks

- Is species richness maximized in one large nature reserve or in several smaller ones of an equal total area? This debate is known in the literature as the SLOSS debate - Large reserves are generally better able to maintain many species because they support larger population sizes and a greater variety of habitats. However, small reserves are important in protecting particular species and ecosystems.

Why is the long term persistence of many species in national parks uncertain?

- It can take many years for species to be lost from reserves due to effects predicted by island biogeography - Because of extinction debt - Climate change may reduce the suitability of habitat for some species within the national park - Because national parks are sometimes isolated habitat islands, local extinction of a species cannot be prevented by immigration of new individuals

Which of the below is TRUE regarding the rediscovery and reintroduction program for the black footed ferret?

- It has had mixed success---while it has maintained a wild population of ferrets, many of the released animals have perished due to disease - It involves giving vaccinations and booster shots to wild and reintroduced ferrets - It resulted from the chance rediscovery of a ferret population after they were thought to be extinct

Which of the below is true regarding the Conservation Northwest I-90 project?

- It is a project that puts underpasses and overpasses for wildlife on I-90 - It will allow animals to more easily escape wildfires - It will allow animals to find food and mates more easily - It seeks to reduce traffic deaths due to car--animal collisions

Describe methods for monitoring populations of threatened species

- Monitoring significant components of the ecosystem (numbers of individuals of significant species, vegetation cover, water quality, etc.), gathering the needed data, and then using the results to adjust management in an adaptive manner—a process sometimes referred to as adaptive management - Monitoring allows us to determine if effective population size is declining and to help determine reasons why, such as in response to levels of harvest or the arrival of invasive species - Long-term monitoring records can help to distinguish long-term population increases or declines (possibly caused by human disturbance) from short-term fluctuations caused by variations in weather or unpredictable natural events - Monitoring records can also gauge whether an endangered species is showing a positive response to conservation management, even to the point when it no longer needs special protections. - Monitoring sensitive species, such as certain insects, can be used to indicate the condition of the entire ecosystem - monitoring may be mandated by law as part of management efforts for endangered species and is often conducted in partnership with conservation organizations or university researchers. The most common types of monitoring are censuses, surveys, population demographic studies, and molecular monitoring.

Which of the below are taken into account when species are evaluated for listing on the IUCN Red List?

- Number of mature individuals currently alive - Total geographic area occupied by the species - Observable reduction in numbers of individuals - Probability the species will go extinct within a certain number of years or generations

Explain when fire might be a an appropriate type of management for a park

- One common way to do this is to set localized, controlled fires periodically in grasslands, shrublands, and forests to re-initiate the successional process

Which of below is TRUE regarding the restoration of Esteros de Ibera?

- One of the goals of the project is to provide economic opportunities for the local people via the development of ecotourism - It has involved the reintroduction of giant anteaters, tapirs, peccaries, and maned wolves - It has involved reclaiming lands that were previously used for grazing cattle - It is being spearheaded by a non governmental organization (NGO).

Explain how the introduction of grazers has changed the ecosystem of the Oostvaardersplassen park

- One place where trophic rewilding has been successful is the Oostvaardersplassen ("eastward-sailing wetland") - Reintroduced horses and other large herbivores in the Oostvaardersplassen in the Netherlands helped decrease the dominance of trees through grazing.

Explain how minimum viable population size is used in conservation

- PVA is also used to calculate the minimum number of individuals of a given species required for a population to persist over time. - A minimum viable population for any given species in any given habitat is the smallest isolated population having a 99% chance of remaining extant for 1000 years despite the foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and natural catastrophes. - In other words, the MVP is the smallest population size that can be predicted to have a very high chance of persisting for the foreseeable future

Explain why certain protected areas face the risk of degazettement

- Protected areas can be reduced in size by the government, opened up for exploitation, or even have their protected status removed (known as degazettement), particularly if they are found to contain valuable natural resources - it is important to recognize that the long-term survival of some species in protected areas, and even of the ecosystems themselves, remains in doubt because populations of many species and the area of the ecosystems may be so reduced in size that their eventual fate is extinction.

Describe the importance of protected areas in conservation

- Protected areas serve as environmental benchmarks for monitoring the health of natural systems and understanding the effects of climate change, pollution, resource extraction, invasive species and other stressors. - (1) they frequently protect much larger areas than do other types of protected areas; (2) they still provide habitat for many species that were present pre-extraction; and (3) they often border and can thus provide a buffer around, and wildlife linkage between, ca tegory I-V protected areas.

Which of the below are goals of all modern zoos?

- Raise funds for conservation of endangered species - Educate the public on the threats to biodiversity and the need for conservation - To establish breeding programs of endangered animals in coordination with other zoos world wide

Compare and contrast reintroductions, reinforcements, and introductions

- Reintroductions: reintroduction program are to create a new population in its original environment and to help restore a damaged ecosystem: involves releasing captive-bred or wild-collected individuals at an ecologically suitable site within their historical range where the species no longer occurs - reinforcement: program involves releasing individuals into an existing population to increase its size and/or gene pool to adjust age or sex structures; this approach is also referred to as restocking or augmentation. These released individuals may be raised in captivity or may be wild individuals collected elsewhere. - Introduction program: involves moving captive-bred or wild-collected animals or plants to areas suitable for the species outside their historical range.

Explain how plant reintroductions are different from animal reintroductions

- Researchers also use PVA (see Chapter 7) and other modeling tools to determine best practices for plant reintroduction, such as how many new populations should be established to reduce probability of metapopulation extinction - Because of climate change, certain plant species may no longer be genetically suited to their present sites, and conservation biologists may have to look elsewhere in the range of a species for suitable genotypes to plant.

Explain the difference between ecological restoration and restoration ecology

- Restoration ecology is a subcategory of conservation ecology, and the focus is mainly on repairing an ecosystem to its past natural state. This area focuses more on plants to restore the entirety of an area. Conservation ecology and preservation ecology focus on preventing future damage to environments and maintaining the current ecosystem.

Describe the conditions that would make having a small reserve appropriate

- Small reserves, even those less than a hectare in size, may effectively protect isolated populations of rare species, particularly if they contain a unique habitat type

Explain the difference between hard and soft releases in reintroductions

- Soft release: Some animal species may require special care and assistance immediately after release to increase their survival prospects. Animals may have to be fed and sheltered at the release point until they are able to subsist on their own, or they may need to be caged temporarily at the release point and introduced gradually, once they become familiar with the sights, sounds, smells, and layout of the area. - Another benefit of a soft release is the ability to study the behavior of captive-bred animals to ensure that they will be able to survive in the wild.

Which of the below is true of the California Condor and the its reintroduction program?

- The California Condor was once extinct in the wild - The California Condor's decline was partially linked to lead shot from hunters that contaminated their environment - It involved manipulation of the Condor's behavior, which induced them to produce twice as many offspring as they would in the wild - It involved training birds to avoid roosting on hazardous electrical poles

Explain why the Endangered Species Act sometimes is not successful

- The ESA mandates such strong protection for species that conservation and business groups often agree to compromises that allow some species protection along with limited development. - Overall, most listed species are still declining in range and abundance. Unfortunately, for around 20% of species the data are insufficient to determine whether their populations are changing over time. Due to their low numbers and consequent vulnerability, there is now recognition that even species that are candidates for delisting will still require some degree of conservation management to maintain their populations - The difficulty of implementing recovery plans for so many species is often not primarily biological but, rather, political, administrative, and ultimately financial

You go on an expedition to the mountain forests of the remote island of Halmahera, Indonesia. You discover a new species of arboreal primate. It is endemic to a single mountain range and is found nowhere else. Logging companies are beginning to explore the area and may start building roads soon in order to provide access to the remote forest for logging. You contact the Nature Conservancy about the new species and the urgent need to preserve the forest. Remarkably, the TNC is able to raise funds to purchase the rights of some of the land from the logging companies and create a reserve. Local peoples that live along the coast of the island have a long tradition of sustainable harvesting of forest products within parts of the area that will become the reserve. In order to ensure that the conservation project is successful long term, how should the Nature Conservancy interact with the local people that live along the coast of the island? Select all that apply. (You may need to select more than one correct answer.)

- The Nature Conservancy should facilitate the employment of local people as guides for the ecotourists that soon will travel to the island to see the new species of primate. - The Nature Conservancy should approach local people with knowledge of the area and hire them to help build reserve facilities - The Nature Conservancy should consider creating a zoned system that allows some sustainable harvesting of forest products in the outer boundary of the reserve

Which of the below methods of prioritization of areas for conservation qualifies as a "cold-spot" approach?

- The flagship species approach to conservation - The wilderness approach to conservation - The ecosystem approach to conservation - The indicator species approach to conservation

Which of the below kinds of natural history and population biology information is necessary for assessing the conservation status of a species?

- The geographic distribution of the species - The genetic variation in the species - The demography of the species' populations

Describe the Y2Y and Western Wildways projects

- The grandiose Y2Y project is an outgrowth of the "Mackenzie Decision," which created a 16-million-acre wilderness area in British Columbia. Private land lockup: federal and state agencies are, in essence, pulling the land right out from under the feet of private property owners as part of the United Nations' radical Wildlands Project. - Wildlands Network has a detailed plan, called the Western Wildway Network (previously the "Spine of the Continent Initiative"), that would link all large protected areas in the western United States and Canada by habitat corridors, creating a system that would allow large and currently declining mammals, such as bears and mountain lions, to coexist with human society.

Which of the below is TRUE regarding the US Endangered Species Act?

- The legal battle that precedes listing of a species often makes listing happen too late for endangered species - It is one of the most powerful pieces of environmental legislation in the world and was enacted with the swell of public support for environmental regulation that came after the publishing of Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring."

Explain what "de-extinction" is and what it hopes to achieve

- The process of bringing a species back in some form can potentially be accomplished by one of at least three methods - Back-breeding In this case, relatives of the extinct species may be hybridized or selected for specific traits. - Cloning This method involves taking the nucleus of an intact cell from an extinct species and inserting it into the egg of a living, close relative. - Genomic reconstruction Using the molecular tool CRISPR, it is theoretically possible to take genes from an extinct species and insert them into the genome of a living relative.

Explain the challenges that reintroduction programs often face

- The reintroduction or introduction of a species must be carefully thought out so that the released species does not damage its new ecosystem or harm populations of any local endangered species - These may include competition with or predation on existing species, impacts on food webs, modifications of the habitat, and even hybridization.

Which of the below is TRUE regarding ex-situ conservation efforts?

- They are usually more expensive than the conservation of species via preservation of natural ecosystems - They are usually considered a last resort, since they are less likely to be successful than in-situ efforts - They can be conducted by zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, and seed banks

Why might some species that are at risk of extinction not be listed as critically endangered on the Red List?

- They might not have been evaluated yet - They might have been evaluated, but are data deficient - They might not meet the criteria for the category of critically endangered

Which of the below are "rules of thumb" for designing networks of marine protected area design?

- They must be no more than 15 km apart - They must be at least 10 square kilometers in size

Explain why E.O. Wilson thinks that the next century will be the era of restoration in ecology

- Today, the science, politics, business, and practice - both professional and amateur - of ecological restoration are recognized as a global priority - our ecological footprint could go down - national parks - reserves

Gap analysis....

- Utilizes GIS data on species distributions and the location of different types of ecosystems - References the conservation and social goals of a reserve - Allows for the prioritization of different areas for conservation - Concluded that current protected area worldwide only includes 77-78% of important sites for biodiversity

Explain how the ecosystem approach would be used to prioritize different areas for protection

- When using this ecosystem-based approach, conservation planners should try to ensure that representative sites of as many types of ecosystems as possible are protected. - A representative site includes the species and environmental conditions characteristic of the ecosystem. - Where immediate decisions must be made to determine park boundaries and which species and ecosystems to protect, biologists are being trained to make rapid biodiversity assessments, also known as rapid assessment programs, or RAPs. RAPs involve mapping vegetation, making lists of species, checking for species of special concern, estimating the total number of species, and looking out for new species and features of special interest.

Which of below is TRUE regarding the restoration of Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique?

- While ongoing and far from complete, the restoration of Gorongosa is widely seen as a success story in ecological restoration - The project has involved providing economic opportunities for the local people

Explain the importance of Yellowstone national park in global conservation

- Yellowstone was set aside because of its geothermal wonders—the planet's most active, diverse, and intact collections of combined geothermal, geologic, and hydrologic features and systems, and the underlying volcanic activity that sustains them. - The incredible environmental protection and reintroduction of wildlife species back into healthy, thriving populations

Explain how head-starting helps struggling populations

- an approach in which animals are raised in captivity during their vulnerable young stages and then released into the wild.

. Explain how zoning can reduce conflicts between parks and the local people

- considers the overall management objectives for a park and sets aside designated areas that permit or give priority to certain activities. - The challenge in zoning is to find a compromise that people are willing to accept that provides for the long-term, sustainable use of natural resources. - Zoning allows the separation of mutually incompatible activities. MPAs are often zoned with no-fishing areas where fish and other marine organisms can recover from harvesting.

Describe the importance of cultural eutrophication and non-point source pollution on waterways

- cultural eutrophication, the accumulation of excess nutrients in the water caused by human activity. Signs of eutrophication include an increased prevalence of algal species (particularly surface scums of blue-green algae), decreased water clarity and oxygen content, fish kills, and an eventual increase in the growth of floating plants and other water weeds. - pollution from residential, agricultural, and industrial lands bordering the bay has caused a dramatic decline in the water quality, which affects all aspects of biodiversity. The economic consequences of this pollution have also been apparent: harvests of fish and shellfish have declined and the water has become unsafe for swimming. This type of general pollution from an entire landscape is referred to as nonpoint source pollution

Explain the importance of demographic studies in conservation

- follow known individuals of different ages and sizes in a population to determine their rates of growth, reproduction, and survival - Either the whole population or a subsample can be followed. - In a complete population study, all individuals are counted, aged if possible, sized, sexed, and marked for future identification; their position on the site is mapped; and tissue samples may be collected for molecular analysis. - Demographic studies provide data on the numbers, ages, sexes, conditions, and locations of individuals within a population. These data indicate whether a population is stable, increasing, or declining and are the basis for statistical models used to predict the future of a species.

Describe CITES and explain its importance to conservation

- one of the most important treaties protecting species at an international level is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) - Member countries agree to restrict trade in these species and halt their destructive exploitation. - International treaties such as CITES are implemented when a country signing the treaty passes laws to enforce it

Evaluate the success of the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone, and the effect on Oregon

- reintroduction in the Northern Rocky Mountains of North America is one example of a successful translocation program. Starting from zero in the 1980s, wolf numbers increased after reintroduction until they were delisted in 2017. - The wolves in Oregon today are part of the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population. They are descendants of wolves that naturally recolonized northwest Montana starting in the early 1980s and wolves captured in Canada and released in Yellowstone National Park and Idaho in the mid-1990s.

Explain the concepts of rewilding and trophic rewilding

- reintroduction of top carnivores in order to regulate the system from the top down - The idea that the restoration of an entire ecosystem can be facilitated by the reintroduction of one or more missing functional groups of animals is an approach that has also been referred to as trophic rewilding

Describe the North American Bird survey

- thousands of participants have been recording bird abundance at thousands of locations over the past 35 years along transects. This information is used to determine the stability of populations of over 400 bird species over time - The North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) is one of the most comprehensive biological surveys in the world, as shown by this map of survey routes. Intensity of the shading represents the density of observer routes, each of which includes predetermined stops to record the occurrence of each bird species.

The Area de Conservacion Guanacaste in Costa Rica is____________________

- using a strategy of biocultural restoration that seeks to restore knowledge and appreciation in the local people for the natural history of the area - A large scale passive restoration project in Costa Rica - An ecological restoration project focused on tropical dry forest

Explain why the Amazon, Congo Basin and New Guinea would be prioritized by the wilderness approach to conservation

-Wilderness areas are a related priority, in part because they are more likely to contain species and populations that need protecting, such as old-growth trees - Large blocks of land that have been minimally affected by human activity, have a low human population density, and are not likely to be developed in the near future are also perhaps the only places in the world where large mammals can survive in the wild. - It is worth emphasizing that even these so-called wilderness areas have had a long history of human activity and people have often affected the structure of the biological communities they contain.

According to the above graph that was produced using population viability analysis, how many extant populations of marsh fritillary butterflies are likely (greater than 25% chance) to go extinct within 100 years?

4

Based on the below graph, and your knowledge of how much of the earth's habitat is currently being protected, what proportion of species will ultimately be saved by conservation efforts? (The three data points on the curve represent potential outcomes.)

62%

If E.O. Wilson's goal for habitat preservation is someday realized, based on the below graph, what proportion of species will be saved by conservation efforts? (The three data points on the curve represent potential outcomes.)

84%

What is the difference between a census and a survey in conservation biology?

A census is a count of an entire population of a species, while a survey is a sample used to estimate total population size

Explain why Dan Janzen means by biocultural restoration

A key element in this restoration plan is what has been termed biocultural restoration, meaning that ACG staff members teach basic biology and ecology onsite to 2500 students in grades 4 through 6 from 53 neighboring schools and also give presentations to citizen groups, all as part of the ACG core mission

What is a "paper" park?

A park that has been implemented, but is not sufficiently managed, leaving it vulnerable to degradation

Explain the basic conservation biology that E.O. Wilson's "Half Earth" project is based on

A self level can be managed with a stabilized global population of 10 billion people, is at about 1/2 the Earth's land surface plus 1/2 the surface of the sea. This means that we would share 1/2 of the ocean and land with the other species on the planet.

What is a reference site in ecological restoration?

A site with an intact ecosystem that acts as a comparison site to the site being restored

Explain what adaptive restoration is

Adaptive reforestation is a climate change adaptation strategy designed to reduce the watershed's vulnerability to potential or expected impacts from climate change.

Describe the UN AICHI Biodiversity target 11

Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 calls for the conservation of "at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, " through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascape."

What is CITES?

An international treaty that aims to prevent trade in endangered species

How can the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone be characterized?

As a success, because their numbers have grown substantially and the population is expanding into neighboring states

Explain how goals of modern zoos are different from those of zoos in the early 20th century

As part of the World Zoo Conservation Strategy, which seeks to link zoo programs with conservation efforts in the wild, the world's 2000 zoos and aquariums are increasingly incorporating ecological themes and information about the threats to endangered species into their public displays and research programs.

Explain how bioremediation and biocontrol can restore damaged ecosystems

Bioremediation is the use of an organism to clean up pollutants, such as prokaryotes that break down the oil in an oil spill or wetland plants that take up agricultural runoff to clean the water (see the section "Ecosystem services" in Chapter 3), whereas biological control (also known as biocontrol) is the use of one type of organism, such as an insect, to manage another, undesirable, species, such as an invasive plant.

Below is a graph showing mammal extinction rates of national parks of different sizes. Based on the data in the graph for the below choices, which national park would benefit its mammal populations most by expanding its size?

Bryce

Describe the plight of the California Condor

California condor chicks (Gymnogyps californianus) raised in captivity are fed by researchers using puppets that look like adult birds. Conservation biologists hope that minimizing human contact with the birds will improve their chances of survival when they are returned to the wild.

Explain the importance of compensatory mitigation to the development of ecological restoration

Compensatory mitigation is "voluntary" when a project proponent's activities, payments, or in-kind contributions to conduct offsite actions to minimize the impacts of a proposed action are free of coercion or duress, including the agency's withholding of authorization for otherwise lawful activity, or the suggestion that a favorable outcome is contingent upon adopting a compensatory mitigation program. - Restoration efforts also can be part of compensatory mitigation or biodiversity offsets, in which a new site is created or rehabilitated in compensation for a site that has been destroyed elsewhere by development

Which of the below is a valid criticism of current efforts to bring back a wooly mammoth?

De-extinction efforts such as this could distract from conservation efforts aimed at extant species

Explain what E.O. Wilson believes is necessary to preserve life on earth and what proportion of species that he thinks it will preserve.

E.O. Wilson believes that in order for 80+% of species to be saved on Earth, we must set aside at least 50% of terrestrial land and ocean as protected reserves

Describe the main approaches to restoration and when they would be appropriate

Ecological restoration has its origins in older, applied technologies that attempted to restore ecosystem functions or species of known economic value, such as wetland creation (to prevent flooding), mine site reclamation involving adding soil and replanting vegetation (to prevent soil erosion and contamination of water sources), range management of overgrazed lands (to increase the production of grasses), and technologies to facilitate tree planting on cleared land (to reduce erosion, for timber, and other ecosystem values). 1. no action 2. rehabilitation 3. partial restoration 4. complete restoration

Explain how ex-situ conservation can be used to save species

Ex situ conservation—off-site conservation—used in place of or to complement in situ conservation can mean the difference between persistence and extinction for some species. - As an opportunity for research - By addressing threats - By offsetting impacts of stochastic demographic and/or environmental impacts - As a way of "buying time" - By restoring populations after threats have been mitigated - it is expensive - only protect one species at a time

Describe the Endangered Species Act and the protections that it affords listed species

Experimental essential populations are regarded by the US Endangered Species Act as critical to the survival of the species, and they are as rigidly protected as naturally occurring populations. Experimental nonessential populations have less protection under the law; designating populations as nonessential often helps to overcome the fear of local landowners that having endangered species on their property will restrict how their land can be managed and developed.

Minimum viable population size is usually 2 individuals of the opposite sex for sexually reproducing organisms. True or False?

False

Explain why the long term success of protected areas is less certain

Furthermore, it is important to recognize that the long-term survival of some species in protected areas, and even of the ecosystems themselves, remains in doubt because populations of many species and the area of the ecosystems may be so reduced in size that their eventual fate is extinction.

Describe the thresholds for restoration of ecosystem function

Generally, the most degraded, and therefore nonfunctional, sites will require overcoming abiotic constraints that contribute to the problem, such as plowing a field that is dominated by nonnative invasive species, removing levees from a river, and building structures for coral to grow on.

According to population viability analysis for African populations of small herbivores, large herbivores, and large carnivores in protected areas, 1,000 individuals is the minimum viable population size. What is the minimum dynamic area necessary to maintain populations of this size?

Greater than 1 million hectares for large carnivores

Successful reintroductions of rare/endangered mammal and bird species are difficult. Success usually depends upon all of the following EXCEPT:

How old the population was before it became endangered

Explain the UN protected area designations I-VI

Ia: strict nature reserve Ib: wilderness area II: national park III: natural monument of feature IV: habitat/species management area V: protected landscape/seascape VI: protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

Describe the restoration of Ibera by the Conservation Land Trust (CLT)

Iberá Wetlands has lost many of it's wild species. Because of this, we work to reintroduce native species of Iberá including the Giant Anteater, the Pampas Deer, the Collared Peccary, and our most ambitious reintroduction project yet, the return of the Jaguar.

Explain how managing ecological succession is critical to maintaining some types of parks

If protected areas that include these types of habitats are not managed, they will undergo ecological succession—a predictable, gradual, and progressive change in species over time—and many of their characteristic species will disappear as a few species of shrubs and trees become dominant.

Why have wetlands been the focus of most ecological restoration efforts to date?

In the USA, the Clean Water Act mandates "not net loss" for wetlands

What is TRUE regarding the long term monitoring of populations of threatened species?

It enables managers to discern between long term declines and short term fluctuations

Which of the below is a limitation of an Ex-situ conservation effort?

It is not suitable for many species

What is the significance of the Whooping Crane to endangered species conservation in the USA?

Its near extinction was part of the impetus for the first endangered species legislation in the USA

Which of the below is true of Oregon's wolf management program?

Its policy has adjusted to the delisting of some of Oregon's wolves from the Endangered Species Act

Describe limitations of ex-situ conservation efforts

Limitations of ex situ conservation include maintenance of organisms in artificial habitats, deterioration of genetic diversity, inbreeding depression, adaptations to captivity, and accumulation of deleterious alleles. It has many constraints in terms of personnel, costs, and reliance on electric power sources.

How might minimum dynamic area (MDA) differ for members of a food web with four trophic levels?

MDA would be largest for the tertiary consumer

Explain how population viability analysis is used to conserve populations

Monitoring data can allow us to calculate average mortality rates, average recruitment rates, the current age or size distribution of the population, and the area it occupies. This information can then be used to construct a mathematical model that estimates the ability of a population to persist in the future, a process known as population viability analysis (PVA)

In the year 2019, which of the below geographic locations still has intact rainforest wilderness of at least 500,000 square kilometers?

New Guinea

Explain how areas of the world are prioritized for conservation

Once the data collected on populations and species allow us to identify those species most vulnerable to extinction, it is useful to create a system to categorize extinction risk so that we can prioritize conservation efforts. - species approach: One approach to establishing conservation priorities involves protecting particular species—and in doing so, protecting an entire biological community and associated ecosystem processes. Protected areas are often established to protect individual species of special concern, such as rare species, endangered species, keystone species, and culturally significant species. - Another way in which the prioritization of species for conservation can be determined is by evaluating the degree to which it is "DUE:" distinctive, utilitarian, and endangered

Explain what studies have shown about the short term success of protected areas

One of the most used, successful, and surprisingly flexible of the tools for conservation is the creation of protected areas.

Which of the below is TRUE regarding different approaches in ecological restoration?

Partial restoration by planting seedlings of important trees can speed up the process of restoration relative to a strictly passive restoration approach

You go on an expedition to the mountain forests of the remote island of Halmahera, Indonesia. You discover a new species of arboreal primate. It is endemic to a single mountain range and is found nowhere else. Logging companies are beginning to explore the area and may start building roads soon in order to provide access to the remote forest for logging. You contact the Nature Conservancy about the new species and the urgent need to preserve the forest. Remarkably, the TNC is able to raise funds to purchase the rights of some of the land from the logging companies. Take a look at the below diagram at the three proposed conservation zones. You only have the money and other resources to choose one of these reserve plans. The total conserved area of each plan is approximately the same, and the habitat is generally the same over the entire island. Based on what you know about reserve design, which reserve design would have the biggest problem with edge effects?

Plan A

Based on what you know about reserve design, which reserve design would benefit most from the future construction of corridors?

Plan B

You go on an expedition to the mountain forests of the remote island of Halmahera, Indonesia. You discover a new species of arboreal primate. It is endemic to a single mountain range and is found nowhere else. Logging companies are beginning to explore the area and may start building roads soon in order to provide access to the remote forest for logging. You contact the Nature Conservancy about the new species and the urgent need to preserve the forest. Remarkably, the TNC is able to raise funds to purchase the rights of some of the land from the logging companies. Take a look at the below diagram at the three proposed conservation zones. You only have the money and other resources to choose one of these reserve plans. The total conserved area of each plan is approximately the same, and the habitat is generally the same over the entire island. Based on what you know about reserve design, which reserve plan would have the greatest problem with genetic isolation of its populations?

Plan B

You go on an expedition to the mountain forests of the remote island of Halmahera, Indonesia. You discover a new species of arboreal primate. It is endemic to a single mountain range and is found nowhere else. Logging companies are beginning to explore the area and may start building roads soon in order to provide access to the remote forest for logging. You contact the Nature Conservancy about the new species and the urgent need to preserve the forest. Remarkably, the TNC is able to raise funds to purchase the rights of some of the land from the logging companies. Take a look at the below diagram at the three proposed conservation zones. You only have the money and other resources to choose one of these reserve plans. The total conserved area of each plan is approximately the same, and the habitat is generally the same over the entire island. Based on what you know about reserve design, which reserve plan do you think would be the best course of action overall?

Plan C

Which of the below is TRUE regarding plant versus animal reintroductions?

Plants are not able to quickly disperse to the most suitable microsites within their new habitat, like animals are

Describe the basic principles of reserve design

Principles of reserve design that are based in part on theories of island biogeography. Imagine that the reserves are "islands" of the original biological community surrounded by land that has been made uninhabitable for the original species by human activities such as farming, ranching, or industrial development.

Explain the importance of a reference site to ecological restoration

Reference sites are central to the very concept of restoration; they act as comparison sites, providing explicit restoration goals and allowing for quantitative measures of the project's success.

Which of the below is an example of an ex-situ conservation effort?

Reinforcement of Wester Pond Turtle populations by the Oregon Zoo

Which of the below is TRUE regarding reintroductions, reinforcement, or introductions?

Reintroductions release species into part of their historical range

What is a difference between "rewilding" and bioremediation?

Rewilding uses organisms to mimic historical conditions and restore ecological balance, while bioremediation uses often novel organisms to remove elements introduced by humans into an ecosystem

Explain the conditions that make ecological restoration necessary

Rooted in ecological theory, ecological restoration requires an integrated approach of different disciplines; including soil science, hydrology and conservation biology, together with the relevant socioeconomical and political frameworks.

Explain why restoration goals can sometimes seem like a moving target

Since ecosystems change over time in response to climate change, plant succession, the varying abundance of common species, and other factors, the goals of restoration may have to be changed over time as well or modified to include temporal dynamics to remain realistic.

Explain how natural history and ecological information is relevant to management of threatened species

Study the species' natural history to determine its environmental requirements. Develop hypotheses for all the possible causes of the decline, including human activities and natural events, and list the predictions for further decline of each hypothesis.

Which of the below is generally true of reintroduction efforts?

Success is more likely when re-introducing herbivores

Explain how animals and plants are evaluated for the IUCN Red List

The IUCN uses quantitative information, including the area occupied by the species and the number of mature individuals currently alive, to assign species to conservation categories.

Evaluate the approach to conservation of the Komodo dragon

The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) of Indonesia is an example of a species that fits all three categories: it is the world's largest lizard (distinctiveness), it has major potential as a tourist attraction in addition to being of great scientific interest (utility), and it occurs on only a few small islands of a rapidly developing nation (endangerment).

Describe the Kew Millennium Seed Bank project

The Millennium Seed Bank hides an underground collection of over 2.4 billion seeds from around the world, banking them to conserve them for the future.

Describe Pacific Remote Islands Nat. Monument

The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was proclaimed a national monument on January 6, 2009, by U.S. President George W. Bush and follows his June 6, 2006, creation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands .

The flightless Kakapo of New Zealand is the world's largest parrot. It was originally thought to be extinct, but then was rediscovered in very low numbers on a single island. All of the surviving individuals were then collected and introduced to a new island. Why was it necessary to relocate these birds to a new island?

The new island was free of introduced mammals, which were responsible for Kakapo decline

Restoration ecology can be defined as ___________.

The science of restoration; the research and scientific study of restored populations, communities, and ecosystems

The Yellowstone to Yukon conservation initiative is an example of what kind of approach to conservation?

The species approach, since it was designed to conserve grizzly bears

Explain why some reserves are referred to as "paper parks."

These protected areas have gradually—or sometimes rapidly—lost species as their habitat quality has degraded

Explain the significant of UN protected area designations V and VI.

V: protected landscape/seascape: o protect and sustain important landscapes/seascapes and the associated nature conservation and other values created by interactions with humans through traditional management practices. VI: To protect natural ecosystems and use natural resources sustainably, when conservation and sustainable use can be mutually beneficial.

Explain why E.O. Wilson thinks that our global population will stabilize.

Wilson believes a stable global maximum of between 9.6-12.3 billion people will be achieved by the end of the century. The stabilization of the population is due to increased human rights and development which results in decreased fertility as women gain more social and economic independence. - Basically, as women receive more rights and autonomy, their ability to delay or control how many children they give birth to will help stabilize the human population.

Explain why E.O. Wilson thinks that more land will be freed up in rural areas for reserves in the future.

Wilson believes that, as the human population reaches a bottleneck, there will be a large influx of people leaving rural farm areas and moving to cities. As the majority of people live in cities, the newly vacant agricultural areas can be used for conservation and restoration by setting them up as reserves, while using a smaller portion of the rural land for more efficient/improved agriculture that has a smaller and less negative impact on the surrounding ecosystems.

Explain why E.O. Wilson believes that our ecological footprint could go down.

Wilson believes the digital world will shrink our ecological footprint because of "the nature of economic evolution: People want and they will select, if they have any choice, instruments and material goods that are smaller, consume less energy and material, and need to be fixed less frequently.

Elephants often leave reserves and cause large amounts of damage to nearby farms in Africa. Which of the below is an effective non-lethal elephant deterrent discussed in lecture?

bee hives that hang from fences

Which of the below is a challenge when restoring grassland ecosystems?

determining what the goals are for the project, since humans have been modifying grasslands for 12,000 years in North America

Describe the management of a Biosphere reserve

integrates traditional land-use patterns (such as farming, grazing, and managing forests), research, protection of the natural environment, and sometimes tourism at a single location. - At the center is a core area in which ecosystems are strictly protected, with all human activity either prohibited or tightly regulated. This core is surrounded by a buffer zone in which traditional human activities, such as the collection of edible plants and small fuelwood, are monitored and nondestructive research is conducted. Surrounding the buffer zone is a transition zone in which some forms of sustainable development, such as small-scale farming, are allowed. In addition, some extraction of natural resources, such as selective logging, and experimental research are also permitted.

Explain the "species" approach to conservation

species approach: One approach to establishing conservation priorities involves protecting particular species—and in doing so, protecting an entire biological community and associated ecosystem processes. Protected areas are often established to protect individual species of special concern, such as rare species, endangered species, keystone species, and culturally significant species.

Explain how minimum dynamic area differs among different kinds of animals

the minimum dynamic area—the area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the MVP—can be estimated by studying the size of the home range of individuals and colonies of endangered species