biology 100 final exam

Interpret pH values in terms of relative concentrations of acids and bases

pH scale: 0 to 14 Water is 7 0-6: acidic 8-14: basic acids have a higher concentration of H+ ions because they do not absorb them bases have a lower concentration of H+ ions because they do absorb them

vestigal traits

remnants of features that had a function in the older members of the lineages, but are no longer functional and are reduced in size.

Solution

any combo of a solute and solvent

loci

the physical location of a gene on a chromosome

taxonomy

the science of classifying organisms into successively smaller subgroups - a branching Tree of Life.

gene therapy

-Gene therapy is a subset of genetic engineering, which permanently adds to or modifies the genes of an organism. -Gene therapy is an attempt to correct genetic disorders by replacing or supplementing flawed alleles with functional forms

genetic drift

-Genetic drift is when a population evolves (has allele frequencies in its gene pool change) by luck, not because some alleles are promoting more success. Genetic drift can have a strong and rapid effect on evolution - but only in small populations.

what has to happen for evolution

-A variety of different alleles must be present in the population. -Owners of some alleles produce more offspring than owners of competing alleles. -Over time, the gene pool of the population shifts in favor of the beneficial alleles

Predict outcomes of membrane transport and osmosis using appropriate terminology

-Active transport: the movement of substances that requires an input of energy -Move from lower concentration to higher concentration -Passive transport: movement of substance without an addition of energy -Move from higher concentration to lower concentration -Diffusion: the movement of substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, known as moving down a concentration gradient -Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and leave the cell by simple diffusion → the small uncharged molecules slip between the large molecules in the phospholipid bilayer without much hindrance -Water moves in and out through osmosis: form of diffusion because the water molecules are moving from areas of high concentration to low concentration -Facilitated diffusion: movement of molecules requires a channel of transport molecules

Describe how the smaller particles interact to make the larger particles, including bond types and their characteristics

-Arrow from atoms to ions= Bond type none, or ionic -Arrow from atoms to molecules= Bond type covalent -Arrow from molecules to macromolecules= Bond type covalent -Arrow from macromolecules to prokaryotic cells= Multiple bond types involved, accept ionic, covalent, hydrogen -Arrow from macromolecules to eukaryotic cells= Multiple bond types involved, accept ionic, covalent, hydrogen

describe ionic bonds

-Atom that has gained electrons: negative -Atom that has lost electrons: positive -When a negatively charged ion and a positively charged ion are in the same vicinity, they will attract to create ionic bonds.

Distinguish between correlation and causation, and describe the relationship between them

-Correlation means that two or more aspects of the natural world behave in an interrelated manner. -Causation means one variable causes change in another. (leads to correlation) *Confounded variables *If one aspect shows a particular value, we can predict a value for the other aspect. *But, the first aspect may or may NOT be the cause of the other aspect. *It's true that if two things are causally related, they will be correlated...but the reverse isn't always true (correlation can appear with no causal relationship.)

name two specific actions that happen during meiosis that contribute to the genetic variability of germ cells.

-Crossing-over: the physical exchange of chromosome segments between non sister chromatids in each duplicated homologous pair of chromosomes and occurs during meiosis I- prophase 1 -Independent assortment of chromosomes: the random distribution of the homologous chromosomes into daughter cells and Occurs during meiosis I Each homologous chromosome pair orients itself independently when it lines up at the imaginary metaphase plate.- metaphase 1

DNA vs. RNA

-DNA: Holds the information long term, and passes it to the next generation of cells. -RNA: Temporary copies of the information of the DNA of a single gene. Carries the information to the cytosol.

evolving in different directions

-Different selective pressures may act on each subgroup, driving them in different directions -Genetic drift has been instrumental in driving evolution in newly isolated subgroups. -Bottleneck effects where some disaster drastically lowers population size often sparks the evolution of a new species from its ancestral form. -The Founder effect is when a small number of organisms forms the subgroup and rapidly evolves to undergo speciation from the parent group.

polygenic traits (single traits governed by more than one gene)

-Environment plays a large role in determining how whatever alleles happen to be present are expressed. -So two people with identical alleles can have different outcomes, depending on their environments. -The traits are polygenic -The traits are environmentally influenced: multifactorial -Most important human characteristics, including appearance, intelligence, and personality, are polygenic -So many combinations of alleles are possible that there is a wide range of variation in the population

single gene inheritance

-Genetic trait: any inherited characteristic of an organism -Invariant traits are the same in all individuals of the species. -Variable traits differ among individuals of the same species. -Gene: the basic unit of information affecting a genetic trait; the stretch of DNA that carries instruction to make a protein for a particular job (which can create a trait) -Each gene has a predictable location on a particular chromosome -Allele: a particular form of the gene; different versions of a gene (Example, an important human blood type gene has three common alleles, A, B, and O)

homologous vs. analogous traits

-Homologous traits- shared characteristics inherited from a common ancestor -Analogous traits- look and work similar to one another, but do not indicate common ancestry

define horizontal gene transfer, gene flow, and artificial selection

-Horizontal gene transfer is when one adult organism passes some DNA to a different adult organism. -Gene flow- when alleles enter or leave a population from other populations of the species. When an immigrant comes into a community, the alleles they bring are an example of gene flow. -Artificial selection- a form of natural selection in which the selective pressure (the effect that makes organisms with some alleles more likely to reproduce) is humans, choosing which organisms to mate together.

complex inheritance

-Incomplete dominance: when neither allele is able to exert its full effect -Codominance: when the effects of the two alleles are equally visible in the phenotype of the heterozygote -Complex traits: a genetic trait whose pattern of inheritance cannot be predicted by Mendel's laws of inheritance

low genetic diversity

-Low diversity means alleles necessary to survive the next selective pressure may be absent -Low diversity means a lot of inbreeding, in the genetic sense. Any recessive alleles are more likely to show up in the homozygous state - and many of these are deleterious alleles.

phenotype vs. genotype

-Phenotype: the physical expression of a given trait -Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual for a given trait -Each individual will have two alleles for each gene -Genotype is one factor affecting phenotype. Sometimes genotype determines phenotype; often it only influences phenotype

reproductive isolation

-Preventing the subgroups from interbreeding is key to allowing them to evolve in different directions and accumulate differences. -Allopatric speciation is the easiest way to achieve reproductive isolation and it is where the ancestral group becomes divided by a geographic barrier that is seldom or never crossed. -Sympatric speciation is when the two subgroups remain physically in the same region, but don't experience gene flow for some other reason. -Mating isolation is when mate selection mechanisms are what prevents gene flow between the incipient species

binary fission

-Purpose: Make another cell just like the first -DNA replication is similar but not identical to eukaryotes; we'll look at details later. -There's only one circular chromosome and one set of genes in an adult cell, so at the end of copying there are two circular chromosomes with identical information. -Growth, accumulation of materials, and error checking occur; nothing unusual here. -Cytoskeleton proteins pull one chromosome to each end of the cell. -The cell wall is remodeled as the cytoskeleton cinches in the cell membrane to result in two smaller daughter cells, each with a chromosome.

transcription

-RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA and stresses the DNA so it opens. The single strands of DNA are exposed and the promoter tells the RNA polymerase which side to copy. -RNA nucleotides H bond to their complementary bases on the DNA strand. -The RNA polymerase catalyzes covalent bond formation between the RNA nucleotides, making them into a single strand. -When the end of the gene is reached, a terminator codon signals the end, and the mRNA production stops and the mRNA is pulled away from the DNA -No A--> U

Describe what living thing have to be able to do

-Reproduce (DNA for information storage and make reliable copies) -Defend→ infections, homeostasis (sensors, adjust) -Evolve as groups -Convert materials, build -Energy (getting energy from organic molecules and making it ATP→ mitochondria) -Solar energy→ mash into sugars→ chloroplasts -Border

DNA replication mutation

-Substitution: One nucleotide is substituted for another in a DNA sequence. -Insertion: One nucleotide is added to a DNA sequence. -Deletion: One nucleotide is deleted from a DNA sequence

DNA replication

-The DNA polymerase stresses the original double-stranded DNA. -The double-stranded DNA splits apart at the H bonds holding the strands together, because H bonds are weaker than the other bonds in the molecule. -The two strands are now separated. Each will replicate separately from here on. -The DNA polymerase latches on to a lone strand and exposes it. -Free nucleotides complementary to the exposed nucleotides of the parent strand come and hydrogen bond to the parent strand. -The DNA polymerase then catalyzes covalent bond formation between the phosphates and sugars of the newly added nucleotides -The newly added nucleotides are bonded into a new strand, H-bonded to and complementary to the original.

Mendel's laws

-The law of segregation: The two alleles of a gene are separated during meiosis I and end up in different gametes—egg or sperm cells. -The law of independent assortment: When gametes form, the two alleles of any given gene segregate during meiosis independently of any two alleles of other genes.

translation

-The tRNA matches the anticodons to the codons on the mRNA and attaches to the amino acid it correlates with into position, and uses it to form polypeptide chains which will eventually form proteins.

causes of mass extinctions

-Very strong volcanic emissions. The most potent effect here seems to be carbon dioxide accumulation leading to sudden warming -plate techtonics -One, the end-Cretaceous extinction, was apparently from a massive asteroid impact that caused a very sudden heating (foremost from raising water vapor, a potent greenhouse gas), then more long-term cooling (probably from atmospheric dust reducing solar energy incidence) -Sometimes one group of organisms has developed a new way of living that drastically changes the environment

bottleneck effect

-When populations drop low and then recover, you have a Bottleneck Effect -Bottlenecks reduce genetic variation to what it was at the lowest population point -Surviving alleles are often dependent on chance (genetic drift) -In some cases, specific alleles are selected for by the bottleneck event

sex and inheritance

-X-Linked Recessive Conditions Are Much More Common in Males -Males only have to inherit one copy of a rare allele; females have to inherit a copy from each parent. -Females are XX, so mothers will give one of their two X chromosomes to each egg. -Males are XY, so males will make half of their sperm with their X, the other half with their Y. -X-bearing sperm produce daughters -Y-bearing sperm produce sons -Sex determination is done primarily by the SRY gene, Fountainview don the Y gene

evolution

-a change in the alleles present in a population. -about populations changing over time. Individual organisms do not evolve (except in a very tiny way, by mutation).

mass extinction

-a relatively short period of time when many existing types of organisms completely disappear, never to return. -The mass extinctions are followed by a "restart" of the expected pattern, with the few types that did not go extinct rapidly evolving to produce entirely new kinds of organisms. -This diversification is called adaptive radiation. -The overall pattern is called punctuated equilibrium, because periods of relative stability (equilibrium) are interrupted (punctuated) by mass extinctions followed by adaptive radiations.

Describe the basic design of cell membranes, and the significance of the design

-a type of organic molecule that has a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail -Thus it is mostly impermeable barrier -When a phospholipid bilayer forms a sphere, or a liposome, the fluid inside the liposome can have different composition from the fluid outside

describe hydrogen bonds

-atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen share electrons in the bond unequally -Hydrogens are partially positively charged -The other counterpart covalently bonded to the hydrogen is negatively charged -The partial positive hydrogen is attracted to the partial negative atom of another molecule

six types of evidence for evolution

-fossil record: Fossils are generally found in sedimentary rocks that form when soft organic material settles, is eventually covered over, and with heat, time, and pressure converts into rock. and Successively deeper, older layers show related forms, but the forms get more primitive as the layers get older. -comparative anatomy: Comparative anatomy looks at the anatomical design of various organisms. Many organisms have features that wouldn't make sense if the creature was directly designed to live as we find it, but do make sense if they were adapted from previous designs. -comparative embryology: Comparative embryology compares the developmental patterns of various organisms, from single fertilized egg to adult. Similarities in patterns of development indicate a common ancestry, therefore a high level of evolutionary relatedness -biogeography: combined with the theories of how the surface of the planet has changed over time as determined by geology. -comparative DNA: Comparative DNA looks at the differences between DNA sequences among different species. Core principle: Genetic mutations occur at random, and at a fairly constant rate.Therefore, as time passes, more and more differences from the original will occur.

Identify the main differences between a plant cell and an animal cell.

-plants have cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole -plants do photosynthesis and animals do not

what is the basics of cellular respiration?

-we want ATP -we take ADP from photosynthesis and hook another phosphate onto it. this takes a lot of energy to do ~we get this energy by breaking up the glucose -all cells do cellular respiration at all times

Order and describe the levels of organization in the living world

1. Atoms which are the building blocks of matter. 2. Two or more atoms are held together by chemical bonds that become molecules. 3. Cells are the basic units of life. 4. A tissue is a group of cells that performs a unique set of tasks in the body. 5. Organs are body parts composed of different types of tissues coordinating to function together. 6. Organ systems are groups of organs that perform a specific range of functions. 7. Organisms have components that work as a well-knit whole. 8. Population is a group of individuals of the same species living and breeding in a shared environment. 9. Populations of different species that live and interact with one another in a particular place are a biological community. 10. A physical environment and its communities is an ecosystem. 11. Biomes are large areas of the world defined by shared physical characteristics. 12. The biosphere is all the world's living organisms and the places where they live.

Define and rank by size atom, ion, molecule, macromolecule, prokaryotic cell, eukaryotic cell

1. atom= is the smallest unit of an element that retains the element's distinctive properties. -Every atom has a nucleus: dense core that consists or -protons, and neutrons ----Protons: positively charged ----Neutrons: neutrally charged ----A cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounds the nucleus. ----Shell of electrons -------Innermost shell can hold up to 2 electrons -------Next two shells can each hold up to eight electrons. 2. ion= atoms that lose or gain electrons are called ions 3. molecule= are atoms linked by bonds 4. macromolecule= Our bodies function through actions of large organic molecules called biomolecules (or macromolecules) -------4 major parts: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids 5. prokaryotic cell= open floor plan, no nucleus, no organelles 6. eukaryotic cell= large and complex, thousand time greater than prokaryotes ----Have nucleus: contains organisms DNA ----Have organelles: membrane enclosed subcellular compartments

Interpret the common graphical presentations of different particle types

1. atoms= atomic symbols H, O 2. ions= atomic symbols plus charge H+, N+ 3. molecule= molecular formula or stick structure, C6H12O6 4. macromolecule= representation that shows a lot of individual subunits, such as a string of amino acids or a space-filling protein model 5. prokaryotic cell= diagram of a cell 6. eukaryotic cell= diagram of a cell

describe the flow of the scientific process

1. observations--> respectable facts 2. (question) 3. make an hypothesis (educated guess) 4. predict--> Outcomes if hypothesis is correct ;Other outcomes if hypothesis is incorrect "falsifiable" 5. test--> controlled environment 6. analyze data 7. communicate

Solvent

A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances

hypotonic

A solution has more water than the cell

DNA Replication pt 2

A with T and C with G

what four elements make up most of life?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

Pinocytosis

Cell drinking

Phagocytosis

Cell eating

what is the formula of cellular respiration?

Ch20 + O2→ CO2 + H2O

What is the equation for photosynthesis?

Co2 + H20→ CH2O + O2

organism organization

Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

the cell cycle

G0 -Considered outside the cell cycle, cell spends most of its time in G0 -Cell doing its job rather than preparing to divide G1 phase -Growth, materials collection, and preparation to replicate -DNA. Checkpoints to pass. S phase -DNA is replicated. Checkpoints to pass. G2 phase -Cells make final preparations for cell division, including checks.

Distinguish observations, hypotheses, theories, and predictions

Hypothesis needs lots of support -Once it gets lots of support it is called a theory Best current explanation Evidence has to support Based on evidence -If hypothesis wasn't supported→ revise or discard and try again (test) Scientific Law -Set of observations that gives a pattern

CRISPR

It can knock out genes, or knock out a gene and initiate a replacement.

meiosis

Meiosis I -Homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated into two different daughter cells. -The sister chromatids remain together. -Produces two haploid cells Meiosis II -Sister chromatids separate. -Produces four haploid cells (n) with unduplicated chromosomes -The phase is almost exactly like those of mitosis.

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

Discriminate between science and pseudoscience, and support your evaluation based on scientific principles

Real Science: -Fact based -Large samples -Control groups (good ones) * Identical except for test variable makes a good control group -Evidence * Relevance is the difference between facts and evidence -Repeatable -Really try to prove yourself wrong -Peer review * If a work is published it will state where it has been peer reviewed Pseudo Science: -Testimonials -Bais -Opinion rather than fact -Money or other special interest

species

a group of organisms similar enough to naturally interbreed with one another and produce fertile offspring

Genome

all of an organism's genetic material

what are the products of cellular respiration?

carbon dioxide, water, and ATP

isotonic solution

cells are surrounded by fluids with the same solute concentration as the cell interior

where does photosynthesis take place?

chloroplasts in eukaryotes prokaryotes are their own chloroplasts

Polar covalent

electron pair are not shared equally, atoms have different particle charges

Nonpolar covalent bond

electron pairs are shared equally, charge is evenly distributed

what are the products of photosynthesis?

glucose, oxygen, and ADP -sometimes other molecules like amino acids that make up proteins through covalent bonds and energy

cell theory

idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and new cells are produced from existing cells

hypertonic solution

if the intracellular concentration has a higher solute concentration than the cell's exterior

mitosis

interphase -Each chromosome is duplicated. -The cell grows and makes additional organelles: ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. They also make another pair of centrioles. -The mitochondria reproduce themselves. They have their own little chromosomes (left over from their history as free-living bacteria); the process works like binary fission. prophase -the chromosomes condense, folding back on themselves to make shorter, thicker, more easily moved forms - now they can be seen with a light microscope. metaphase -Cytoskeletal spindle proteins build out from the opposite sides of the cells and attach to the centromeres. -The spindles contract, playing tug-of-war that lines up the chromosomes on the cell's equato anaphase -The spindles contract further, splitting the centromeres so one sister chromatid of each chromosome goes to one side of the cell; the other sister chromatid to the other side cytokinesis divides the cell

Endocytosis

materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane

where does cellular respiration occur?

mitochondria in eukaryotes prokaryotes are their own mitochondria

organic molecules

molecules that contain carbon

how do new alleles enter populations?

mutation

Identify the most important molecule types used as monomers, the macromolecules that are built from each, and the primary jobs of each in living things

proteins: are the most numerous and versatile They are polymers: long strands of repeating units of small molecules called monomers.Allow for countless proteins that vary in size and shape, and function carbohydrates: the next most versatile biomolecules. They range in size. Some have sugar to make ATP Some are the body's energy source Fiber is a popular one nucleic acids: are DNA and RNA which form the basis of life itself These polymers consist of nucleotide monomers: DNA (deoxyribonucleotides) and RNA (ribonucleotides) DNA- provides living organisms with long-term genetic info (genes) RNA- provides a readable genetic language that enables genes to be expressed as proteins lipids: fatty acids, oils, non polar/ hydrophilic

receptor-mediated endocytosis

receptors on the membrane recognize and attach to specific substances to take them into the cell

sister chromatids vs. homologous pair

sister: Has exactly the same information at every point along the length of the molecule [A] homologous pair and sister: Has the same genes at every point along the length of the molecule [B]

what kind of energy does photosynthesis involve?

solar energy -most energy goes into glucose -some is lost in heat

Buffer

stabilize PH

different forms of selection

stabilizing- favors the average phenotype and selects against either extreme. directional- selection favors one extreme expression of the phenotype over average individuals or the opposite extreme (most common) disruptive- favors both extremes, but disfavors average individuals.

morphology

studies the organisms' physical characteristics

describe covalent bonds

the atoms come together by sharing one or more valence electrons - single bond, double bond, etc. -strongest type of bond

chemical bonds

the attractive forces that hold atoms together

differences between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

the equations are mirror images, resp breaks down, cell resp is constant

speciation

the evolution of new species and other large taxonomic group roles.

Solute

the substance that is dissolved

similarities between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

they all include sugar, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water, energy is lost as heat in both reactions

Compare and contrast the structures of viruses, prokaryotes, and eukaryotes.

use charts