Biology 2 Final Exam Notes

Phytoplankton

-base of the food chain -uses sunlight and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) -fix nitrogen (N2 into NH3) -convert raw material into proteins, fats, and charbohydrates -produce oxygen -prey for zooplankton

Define morphological species concept

-based on body form and structural features/ physical characteristics -compare and describe sizes and shapes of new fossils to similar and already describes species -relies on similarities in structure -accommodates asexual reproduction -species acceptance criteria can be subjective -used by scientist in classification

Define phylogenetic species concept

-based on evolutionary history -accommodates asexual reproduction -species acceptance criteria can be subjective -used by scientists in classification

Genetic Species Concept

-based on unique DNA sequences

Control Group

-baseline for comparison with experimental group

Fungi are responsible for parasitic disease in

-bats (white-nose disease) -amphibians -retiles -has caused extinction

The adults exhibit penta-radial symmetry. Is this true radial symmetry, similar to that in cnidarians? Why or why not? -echinoderms

-begin life bilaterally symmetrical

Other shape for bacteria and archaea

-bifidobacterium -lives in gut -branched rod-shape bacterium -Y shaped

What body plan is exhibited by these animals? (mollusca)

-bilaterally symmetrical -unsegmented animals -muscular foot (movement) -visceral mass containing organs -mantle which protects organs and secretes shell

Prodistom

-blastopore becomes mouth -deuterostome blastopore becomes anus

Gastrula

-blastula cells migrate and reorganize in to a hallow ball that fold inward at one spot to form a second layer this is called gastrula

3. AT the end of Cleavage a blastula is formed

-blastula is a hollow ball of cells -inside of that is called blasticill

Hypothesis

-board statement explaining a phenomenon -clean, general, testable

To what organism are plants most closely related? What characteristics do they share?

-charophyte green algae -also called charophyceans

Peptidoglycan

-chemical that makes up the cell wall around the outside of DNA in bacteria

Arthropods

-chitinous exoskeleton -paired jointed appendages -segmented body (head, thorax, abdomen) -open circulatory system What accounts for diversity ofr appendages? -regulation or sequence of Hox genes

Algae and seed plants both have

-chloroplasts

Holozoa can be divided into 2 sister lineages

-choanoflagellates -metazoans

The fact that choanoflagellates and collar cells of sponges resemble each other supports the inference that ________.

-choanoflagellates and sponges are sister groups

Jaws first occurred in which extant group of fishes?

-chondrichthyans

Second lineage of deuterostomes is

-chordates

What is the earliest fungi

-chytridiomycetes or chytrids -they share similarities with protist sister group, the nucleariids

Which group of fungi was once thought to be protists?

-chytridiomycota -bc of flagellated stage where they swim

What are the five important phyla that every biology major should know?

-chytridiomycota -zygomycota -glomerimycota -ascomycota -basidiomycota

What Fungi's relationship isn't fully sorted out?

-chytrids and zygomycetes -indicated on tree by multiple lines

Slide Clean-Up

-clean after viewing -was the coverslip and specimen into the waste container at bench -wash and rinse in sink -place in drying rack

What is different about the circulatory system of Annelids, compared to other Phyla you have learned about so far? Why do you think this might be an important advance in the development of larger, more complex types of animals?

-closed circulatory system with blood only in vessels

Choanoflagellates

-closest living protist relative for animals -share common ancestor with animals -free-living, unicellular and colonial flagellated organism -funnel-shaped collar of interconnected microvilli at base of flagellum

Basidiomycota

-club fungi -form spires in club -mushrooms

Seedless Vascular Plant Example

-club mosses -horsetails -whisk ferns -ferns

Bacteria and archaea have 3 basic shapes

-coccus (round) -bacillus (rod) -spirillum (spiral)

Significance of body cavity differences?

-coelom influences the shape of the animal, movement, where it lives -human coelom partitioned with membranes that separate compartments like dorsal cavity (spine and cranial cavity) and thoracic, and abdominal, ect)

COELOMATE

-coelom is completely lined by mesoderm, and suspends the internal organs

PSEUDOCOELOMATE

-coelom is not completely lined by mesoderm -between mesoderm and endoderm -only one side in contact with mesodermal tissue

Instead of a cell wall animals have

-collagen -main component of connective tissue in animals -most abundant protein in mammals

Ctenophores - radiata

-comb jellies -8 combs of cilia -lack nematocysts -large size range -no stinging cells

Eukaryotes are divided into 4 lineages or super groups based on DNA sequence, molecular and cell structure, and biochemistry

-common ancestor of eukaryotes -excavata -sar clade -archaeplastida -unikonta

Parazoans lack tissue but are still considered...

-complex multicellular animals bc they have many different cell types

What is the cell wall made of?

-complex polysaccharides

Why are flowers so diverse?

-complex reproductive structure that develops seeds within protective chambers -highly effective due to attracting pollinators -reproductive structure of angiosperms

Flowers

-complex reproductive structure that develops seeds within protective chambers -reproductive structure of angiosperms -highly effective due to attracting pollinators

Collagen

-component of ECM -strength and structural integrity -similar to cellulose in plants and chiton in fungi -

Dissecting Scope

-compound scope or sterio scope

Cephalization

-concentration of nerve cells at anterior end

Phloem

-conducts sucrose and other organic compounds -composed of living cells that distribute the products of photosynthesis -sucrose = primary carbohydrate produced in photosynthesis

Xylem

-conducts water/nutrients upward -moves water up tubes via capillary action as it evaporates from the leaves -lignin in cell walls of xylem makes the cell walls stronger and water-tight

Coniferophyta

-cone bearing -economically important -80% of timber comes from this

What structure is associated with asexual reproduction in fungi?

-conidiophores

Which of the following cells or structures are associated with asexual reproduction in fungi?

-conidiophores

What is a spore thats produced asexually called?

-conidium or conidia (for plural)

Gymnosperm Example

-conifers -cycads -ginkgoes -gnetophytes

Seeds

-contain an embryo packaged with a food supply within protective coating -prevent desiccation -increase chance of survival -increase dispersal of embryo with "wings" or "spikes"

What are seeds?

-contain an embryo packed with food supply within protective coating -prevent desiccation -increase chance of survival -increased dispersal of embryo with "wings" or "spikes"

Sori

-contain sporangia -ferns produce specialized sporophyte structures on the back of the fronds, called sori

Evidence that viruses are alive

-contains DNA or RNA -can communicate with host cell via chemical signals -can evolve in response to environment

Anther (part of flower)

-contains microsporangia -form pollen grains

Eumetazoans can either be

-diploblastic (2 tissue layers) -triploblastic (3 tissue layers)

Seeds

-diploid (sexual) -multicellular -macroscopic -stored resources -encased (coat) -longer lifespan

Meiosis

-diploid cell undergoes this -results in 4 daughter nuclei -contains 1 member of each homologous pair of chromosome -makes haploid cells

Dikaryotic cells are cells that contain two haploid nuclei because the hyphae fused but the nuclei did not. Eventually, the nuclei will fuse to form a zygote. The zygote will be ___.

-diploid unicellular

Karyogamy produces a _____.

-diploid zygote -fusion of nuclei

Define Taxis

-directed movement toward or away from a stimulus -positive taxis = move toward stimulus -negative taxis = movement away from a stimulus -most common taxis behaviors phototaxis, chemotaxis, thermotaxis, thighmotaxis

What are the three ways natural selection can alter the allele frequency?

-directional -stabilizing -disruptive

Alveolates

-diverse group of ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexa -alveoli, air sacs, under the plasma membrane the provides support for the cell wall -2 flagella -cilates

Alveolates

-diverse group of ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexa -have alveoli, air sacs, under plasma membrane that provide support for cell wall

Rhizarians

-diverse, few distinctive morphological or behavioral characteristics

What is unique about snakes in the reptile lineage?

-do not walk but slither -no limbs but has jaws

How do vascular seedless plants reproduce (ferns)?

-dominant sporophyte stage -asexual

In mosses, the gametophyte is the

-dominant stage of the life cycle

in ferns, the sporophyte is the

-dominant stage of the life cycle

"Field" Safety

-don't go outside alone -know your location -check weather -know your limits -bring water -wear appropriate clothing -watch out for bugs and wild life -sunscreen -bug spray -water safety -wash hands -allergys

Describe the general characteristics shared by all plants.

-eukaryotic -autotrophs -cell wall - cellulose -terrestrial -alternation of generations -embryophytes - protected embryo

Characteristics of all fungi:

-eukaryotic -heterotrophs -cell wall - chitin -filamentous - hyphae -no tissues

General Characteristics of Animals

-eukaryotic -multicellular -motile (nervous conduction and muscle tissue) -heterotrophic -lack cell walls/contain collagen -require oxygen for respiration -reproduce sexaully mostly -life cycle with embryonic period (develope thru mitotic division - cleavage)

What are the main characteristics of protists? What distinguishes them from prokaryotes? What distinguishes them from the eukaryotic kingdoms?

-eukaryotic -multicellular or unicellular -no tissue

Where on the phylogenetic 'Tree of Life' are protists placed? How is the classification of protists broken down differently than plants, animals, and fungi?

-eukaryotic organisms -biological junk drawer -phylogenu

Karyogamy

-eventually nuclei fuse forming diploid zygote stage

Macroevolution is

-evolution above the species level

Outline the transition of plants from bryophytes to angiosperms.

-evolution of flower -co evolved with insects giving ability to reproduce

Ecological Causes

-evolution of hard body covering = competition for resources -new body plan = diverse adaptations for feeding, motility, and protection -complex predator/prey relationships developed

Cambrian explosion -542 mya

-evolution of new body of plans and new phya

Phylogeny

-evolutionary history of a species

Mutual Symbionts

-example of mycorrhizal fungi -both parties benifit

4 super groups of eukarya

-excavata -SAR -archaeplastida -unikonta

At what taxonomic level do protists share common ancestry with true animals, plants, and fungi? What are the four main groups? What are the major clades and characteristics of the organisms in those clades that make up these groups?

-excavata -sar clade -archaeplastida -unikonta

Gene Flow

-exchange of genes between populations

Chytrids

-flagellated spores which are dispersed via water -reproductive cells are the flagellated ones -male/female gametes and spores are flagellated

Platyhelminthes

-flatworm phylum -phyla include free living animals -ex. aquatic planaria -beef tapeworms -liver flukes

Simple Fruits

-fleshy fruits -dry fruits

Eudicot Flowers

-flower parts are arranged in fours or fives -starting from outside and move in -first layer is sepals

What are incomplete flowers?

-flower that lacks 1 of the 4 main parts -stamen, carpal, petal, or sepals

Most successful group of plants and majority of extant plants

-flowering plants

Angiosperm Examples

-flowering plants -one phylum anthophyta

Angiosperms

-flowering plants -have pollen, seeds, flowers, and fruit

Angiosperms (seed plants)

-flowering plants -have pollen, seeds, flowers, and fruit

The most recent evolutionary event in plants is associated with the evolution of the angiosperms.

-flowers and fruit

What are complete flowers?

-flowers with both male and female parts

COELOM

-fluid filled body cavity between digestive tract and outer body wall -contains internal organs -not part of digestive system -provide cushion for internal organs, facilitating movement -only in triploblastic animals

Why are plants important to us?

-food -fuel -lumbar -rubber -clothing -medications

What are some uses for fungi?

-food -make quorn -soy sauce -cheese -yeast for bred or alcohol -fight disease

Amoebocytes function mostly in

-food dispersal

How do fungi impact humans? other organisms?

-food, agriculture, medicine

What structure is used for movement?

-foot

Phylum Porifera (sponges)

-form base of animal tree of life -sponges = sister group of all other animal life -lack true tissue -are asymmetrical

Glomeromycota

-form symbiotic relationship with plants -mycorrhiza -endo: mycorrhizae enter cell and interact with cytoplasm/membrane -ecto: increase surface area of root 2% -1cm of root = 3 meters of hyphae

List three differences in deuterostomes and protostomes.

-formation of coelom -fate of blastopore -deuterostomes have indeterminate cleavage -protostomes have determinate cleavage

What do all seed plants have in common?

-have vascular tissue -gametophyte housed within sporophyte

Evolution

-heritable change in a population -occurs in temporal continuum -2 types: microevolution, and macroevolution

Zooplankton (consumers)

-heterotophic protists (protozoa) -ciliates, amoebozoans, dinoflagellates

dinoflagellate

-heterotroph -consume chain of diatoms -photoautotrophs

Fungi are

-heterotrophs -have so consume organic barbon

Complex multicellular eukaryotes share three general characteristics, what are they?

-highly developed mechanism for adhesion -specialized structures that allow for cell communication -display complex patterns of cellular and tissue differentiation guided by regulatory genes

Complex multicellular organisms share 3 features:

-highly developed molecular mechanisms for adhesion between cells -specialized structures that allow cells to communicate with one another -complex patterns of cellular and tissue differentiation guided by a network of regulatory genes -kelp, sargassum

Directional selection

-individuals that display a more extreme from of a trait have a greater fitness than individuals with an average form of the trait

Darwins Inferences

-individuals who inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing tend to leave more offspring -unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in a population over generations

Disruptive selection

-individuals with either extreme variation of a trait have greater fitness than individuals with he average form of the trait -tends to increase genetic variation

Stabilizing selection

-individuals with the average form of the trait have the highest fitness

Prions

-infectious particles -consisting of proteins only -misfolded forms of a protein that is brain cell -when it enters the brain normal proteins are converted into misfolded prion -no cure for prion disease -very tiny

Viroids

-infectious strand of RNA without a protein capsid -small -circular RNA molecule that infects plants -causes stunted growth and crop losses

Gastrulation

-infolding beginning to occur

Protist

-informal name of the group of mostly unicellular eukaryotes that are not grouped with animals, plants, or fungi

Both animals and fungi are heterotrophic. What distinguishes animal heterotrophy from fungal heterotrophy is that most animals derive their nutrition by ________. Both animals and fungi are heterotrophic. What distinguishes animal heterotrophy from fungal heterotrophy is that most animals derive their nutrition by ________.

-ingesting materials

maternal inheritance

-inherit all mitochondria from mother/ mitochondrial DNA

Endocarp (fruit)

-inner layer that encloses the seeds -stone like in an olive pit -stiff and papery in apple

Which types of organisms are pollinators?

-insects -ex. birds, bats, butterflies, moths, wasps, beetles, flies

Milaria

-intracellular parasite when in blood

P < .05

-is statistical difference

You find what you believe is a new species of animal. Which of the following characteristics would enable you to argue that it is more closely related to a flatworm than it is to a roundworm?

-it has no coelom

How is the nucleoid region different from a nucleus?

-it's not enclosed by a membrane

What is a sub-viral component?

-items smaller than a virus

Apophysis

-just below columella -swelling of hypha

poly phyletic

-just descendants, no ancestor

Natural Selection

-key mechanism of population change: based on individual characteristics -if a new challenge arises the population's survival depends on having individuals that are already equipped to deal with the change -the more genetic diversity, the greater chances some will survive

What are the ecological roles of the fungi?

-key role in carbon cycle -fungi releases the carbon from the organic molecules back into the environment as a CO2 byproduct through cellular respiration

Explain the difference in taxis and kinesis.

-kinesis = random movement -taxis = response of an organism to stimuli

Trypanosoma

-kinetoplast, flagella,

Eukarya's kingdoms

-kingdom of protista -kingdom fungi -kingdom plantae -kingdom animalia -differentiate based on nutrition

Incomplete Flowers

-lack at least one of the four main parts (stamen, carpel, petal, or sepals)

How do tunicates differ from animals?

-lack backbones -still filter water

Non-Vascular Plants (bryophytes)

-lack vascular tissue -include mosses, liverworts, hornworms

Disinfectants

-non selective -used on inanimate hard surfaces -destroy cell wall -lysol, bleach, vinager

Viruses

-non-cellular replicators -not alive -can evolve -must use other cells -does have DNA or RNA -no metabolism -no homeostasis -genes packed into a protein coat -capsid

Plants are divided into 2 main groups

-non-vascular -vascular

There are four major lineages of plants:

-non-vascular plants -seedless vascular plants -gymnosperms -angiosperms

Land plants are everywhere except?

-north and south pole -high altitudes

Plesiomorphy

-not exclusive -relative to group of organisms

Protist Language

-not kingdom because it isn't a monophyletic group

What is the BIG innovation we share with all other chordates? It is the precursor to the ___.

-notochord (reinforces shape) -precursor of backbone

Eukaryote

-nucleus -membrane bound organelles -larger -complex -evolved from prokaryotes -DNA in linear chromosomes

What is the advantage of the amniotic egg?

-nutrient filled pouch for young

Fact

-observations of the world around us

Polination

-occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma

Bias

-occurs when the experimental results are not representative of the manipulation or measurements of an experiment -the systematic error introduced into sampling or testing by selecting or encouraging one outcome or answer over others

Dry Fruits

-older than fleshy fruits -dispersed by force -seed mature and ejected by pod shattering, swept by wind, or adhere to animal surfaces for transport (epizoochory)

Monocot

-one cotyledon

Asexual Reproduction

-one parent passes copies of all of its genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes

Microphylls

-one strand of vascular tissue -advantage over non vascular tissue -allows bulk flow -lycophytes have microphyll leaves

Animals are diploid through their life cycle

-only animal gametes are haploid

Bilateral Symmetry

-only one imaginary slice through central axis that will divide the animal into mirror images -have distinct top versus bottom, left vs right side, and anterior vs posterior ends

Ginkgos

-only one living species today -leaves have fanlike appearance

Animals are only diploid

-only the gametes are haploid

Apothecium

-open cup shape -asci form layer in bottom of cup, usually elongated -ex. morels, truffles

How do the sea stars take advantage of a hydrostatic skeleton? Which other organisms have you examined use this same method for movement? -echinoderms

-open mussel shells

BLASTOPORE

-opening into the primitive gut formed at gastrulation

Organization

-ordered structure - there are levels of organization from atoms to the biosphere

Germination

-organism grows from a seed or a spore -seed sprouting

Amniote

-organism that lays or retains eggs -2 tissue layers, allowing for gas and waste exchange

Define Mixotrophs

-organisms capable of switching between photosynthesis and heterotrophy -if sun is available they'll photosynthesize but if not they'll heterotrophy -because capable of photosynthesis they're considered algae not protozoa

Exocarp (fruits)

-outer layer -skin of fruit

Define Capsid

-outer protein shell

ECTODERM

-outside of the body

What are pressures from the environment that cause natural selection?

-overpopulation -resource competition -changing environment -predators

Which part of a flower develops into the seed?

-ovule

Geological Changes

-oxygen levels in ocean rose to modern levels -animals rely on oxygen to make ATP, now metabolism of more active organisms is supported -prior to this animals were small and sedintary

Cycadophyta

-palm like: found in tropical/subtropical regions -cone like structures for reproduction

Prokaryotes are a ........ group

-paraphyletic

Protists do not form a monophyletic clade they are a .....

-paraphyletic group

The second larges group of fungi are?

-parasites -parasitize victims by depositing spores and altering their behavior

Fruit

-part of flowering plant with seed in it

Endosperm

-part of seed that acts as a food store for the developing plant embryo

Xylem

-part of vascular tissue -conducts H2O and dissolved minerals -from bottom of plant to top

Phloem

-part of vascular tissue -conducts sugars (sap) -from leaves to lower part

Cleavage

-partition one cell into many smaller cells after egg is fertilized -partitions cytoplasm of one large cell -once egg is fertilized egg makes outer coating that prevents polyspermy

Monocot Flowers

-parts arranged in threes, or multiples of threes

Reproduction

-pass on genetic material (DNA) on their own -sexually or asexually

Domain Archaea

-prokaryotes -small, simple -inhabit extreme environments -phospholipid membrane has branched hydrocarbon tails -can from monolayer of phospholipid environment

Two types of cells

-prokaryotic -eukaryotic

Sepals (part of flower)

-protect the developing bud -outside of flowers -the green leaf-like structure that provides protection for the flower bud

Function of sepals?

-protect the developing buds

Things some viruses have

-protein spikes -viral envelope -enzymes

Cadherins

-protein which mediates cell adhesion and recognition -allow migration of cells to from tissue and organs -between and within cells

Gap Junctions

-proteins which connect the cytoplasm of two cells -allow ions and signaling molecules to move between cells -no endomembrane connection between cells

Secondary endosymbiosis is key to...

-protist diversity

Spore geminated to produce

-protonema -antheridium/ sperm form on male plants -arkagonium developes on female plant -egg froms with in arkagonium -sperm is realeased and swims to arkagonium -fertilization takes place within akegonium -zygote is formed -zygote divides by mitosis making new sporiphyte it form of stalk and capsule

Cleavage is spiral and determinate in

-protostomes

The blastopore becomes the mouth in

-protostomes

2 groups of triploblastic animals

-protostomes -deuteristomes

Which phyla are associated with each type of those two types of organisms?

-protostomes -have bilateral symmetry

Fungus-like protists

-slime molds -heterotrophs, absorb nutrients from dead or decaying matter -once food is depleted, they form resistant spores that germinate when conditions become favorable again

Describe the movement of echinoderms. Do they move quickly or slowly? -echinoderm

-slow moving -water vascular system -water filled vessels within body that move tube feet

Glomeromycetes or AM fungi (arbuscular mycorrhizial fungi)

-small group with distinct mycorrhizae with roots of vascular plants -hyphae invade plant roots and branch into tree like structures within plant root cells -called ENDOMYCORRHIZAE -only one that 100% asexual by producing glomerospores on tips of hyphae -spores produced at tips of coenocytic hyphae

Why is vascular tissue so important?

-allows plants to be fully terrestrial -allows plants to draw resources from 2 locations (above and below ground) -allow plants to be tall

Fungal disease and crop loss

-almost wiped out elm and chestnut trees in northeast -food spoiled by mold -billions a year in crop loss

Sexual

-alteration of generations

What are the several recognized groups of fungi?

-ascomycetes -basidiomycetes -chytrids -glomeromycetes -zygomycetes

6 groups of fungi covered in class:

-ascomycetes -basidiomycetes -chytrids -glomeromycetes -zygomycetes -basidiomycetes -ascomycetes

Cup fungi are in the phylum _____.

-ascomycota

Echinoderm tube feet

-assist with movement, food gathering, respiration, circulation, and excretion

Define Phototaxis

-associated with response to light

3 major body symmetries in animals

-asymmetry -radial symmetry -bilateral symmetry

How may species of fungi are there?

-at least 99,000 species described -about 1200 new species described per year -total number is over 1.5 million -6 fungal species for each native plant species

Parasitic fungi obtain nutrient

-at the expense if the host -can cause crop loss -enter plant leaves through stomata or a wound and infect plants

Apical Meristems

-at the tip of the root shoots -primary growth is growing in length, secondary growth is in thickness

Diseases/infections fungi cause

-athletes foot -ringworm -respiratory disease -yeast infection

Function of petals?

-attract insects and other pollinators

Petals (part of flower)

-attract insects and other pollinators

Why are angiosperms so successful compared to the other groups of plants?

-attract pollinators with flowers -pollination allows gamete dispersion

Basidiomycota

-bacidia = club -club fungi -form spires in club -mushrooms

How did animals become larger and more complex than the worms?

-backbone -duplicate genes twice and change them -4 times as many genes to make new structures

3 Domains (originating from luca)

-bacteria -archaea -eukarya

Three Domains

-bacteria, archaea, eukarya

Name the three domains and list the groups of organisms within each domain.

-bacteria, archaea, eukarya -bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes -eukarya = eukaryote

1. Sponges

-bag of tissue

Name five factors that can alter allele frequencies in a population. Which three alter allele frequencies directly and cause the most evolutionary change?

-small sample size -non-random mating -mutation -gene flow -natural selection

Microevolution

-small scale changes within population -allele frequency -incomplete reproductive isolation -change in allele frequency within a population

What are microphylls?

-small, simple leaves -1 vein -allows bulk flow

What would be the most direct effect of removing or damaging an insect's antennae? The insect would have trouble _____.

-smelling

Bivalves

-soft body protected by 2 hinged shells

Classification hierarchy

-species -genus -family -order -class -phylum -kingdom -domain -life

Commenalism

-species interaction where one participant benefits and the other is not affected

Model Organism

-species that has been well studied -mapped genome normally -used when humans can't be due to ethical concerns -easy to breed and maintain in a lab setting -ex. yeast, zebrafish, mouse, macaque monkey

Benefit of Wet Mounts

-specimen is flattened, making it easier to view -easier to stain

Fertilization occurs when

-sperm fuses with the egg, to from a diploid zygote

Protostomes

-spiral, determine cleavage -schizocelous development -blastopore develops into mouth -mollusks, annelids, arthropods

The black bread mold life cycle?

-sporangia (black) produced thru asexual reproduction -spore filled sporangia develop at top of hyphae -sporangia and hyphae are haploid -spores lands somewhere else and germinates and sends hyphae into new thing -can have sexual reproduction -plus and minus, reproduce sexaully when adjacent hyphae have opposite signals and release pheromones -they grow branches and share

Fungi reproduce by

-spores

What do sporophytes produce?

-spores

Sporopollenin

-spores -keeps spores from drying out -prevents desiccation

Plants moderate the climate

-they hold moisture and provide shade -trees reduce temperature -forests and marches help absorb energy and impact or storm and prevent flooding

Which of the following is true of annelids?

-they perform gas exchange across their skin

character reversal

-through evolution, the trait was lost a reversal to an ancestral characteristic ex: how extant snakes have reduced, or lost, their legs

What is hyphae?

-tiny filaments -strengthened by chitin (touch, pliable polysaccharide)

Bryophyte asexual reproduction

-tiny fragments of liverwort called gemmae are found inside structures called gemma cups on the top surface of the thallus -when a raindrop hits a gammae cup, gammae are bounced out and if they land in a good spot will develop into a gametophyte

Vascular Plants

-tissue differentiation = organs -

Meristem

-tissue where cells are reproducing

6. Tissue layer go on to produce

-tissues and organs in adults

Use of stains

-to add contrast to transparent structures -easier to view

Replicates

-to conduct a statistical test, the experiment must be repeated multiple times using independent samples called replicates

What is the purpose of Hyphae?

-to explore their environment for food and to transport nutrients

Gastropods

-torsion occurring during development -visceral mass rotates up to 180 degrees -results in the snail shell appearance

Field of View

-total area of the specimen seen through the microscope -how much specimen you can see

Two main types of stem cells

-totipotent -pluripotent

Horsetails

-tough stems bc contain silica -joints or nodes in the stem with whorls of side branches and leaves -produce strobili that hold sporangia -used in medicine -common in gardens bc looks like bamboo

Derived Trait

-trait that is an evolutionary advance -not present in ancestral groups

Pollination

-transferring pollens from one flower to another

What is the advantage of limbs?

-transition to land

Heritable

-transmissible from parent to offspirng

What are the labial palps used for?

-trap food and direct it toward the mouth

Experimental Group

-treatment group -group being tested

Trochozoa

-trochophore larval -can swim bc of band of cilia around the middle of the organism

Plant Growth Response

-tropism

Gymnosperms and angiosperms both have

-true roots -stems -leaves

What do all Eumetazoans have?

-true tissue -neurons (nervous system) -endodermic and ectodermic tissues

The most ancient branch point in animal phylogeny is the characteristic of having _____. The most ancient branch point in animal phylogeny is the characteristic of having _____.

-true tissue or no tissue

Which of these are amniotes?

-turtles -NOT AMPHIBIANS

Among protostomes, which morphological trait has shown the most variation?

-type of body cavity (coelom versus pseudocoelom versus no coelom)

Sporangiophore

-type of hypha -grows vertically -filled with haploid nuclei thru mitosis -swell at end of haploid nuclei and cytoplasm -cross wall called columella forms -has apophysis -eventually splits and releases haploid spores

Rhizoids

-type of hypha -r=root = anchorage -secrete digestive enzymes -nutrients absorbed here

Characteristics used to differentiate animal phyla:

-type of symmetry -number of tissue layers -type of body cavity -fate of blastopore -mode of reproduction -degree of mobility -presence of organized head and sense organs -presence or lack of segmentaion

Mutations

-ultimate source of new allele -rarely affects gene pool

Rhizomes

-underground stems -like roots

Tubers and Corms

-underground storage structure -develop in plants with fibrous roots

animal-like protists

-unicellular -ability to move -heterotrophic -traditionally called protozoans

Protista

-unicellular -more complex than bacteria and archaea -catch all category -all other eukaryotes

Diatoms

-unicellular -silica frustules -

Fungi

-unicellular or multicellular -decomposers -absorb food from environment

Ciliates: Describe the structure of cilia (it is the same structure found in eukaryotic flagellum)

-uniform in rows -requires ATP energy -mitochondria lines rows

Echinoderms are defined by their

-unique water vascular system

How do they feed in comparison to other animals? -echinoderms

-use hydraulically powered tubed feet -stomach goes out and wraps around prey to eat it alive

Sporophytes

-use meiosis -results in formation of spores -diploid plants -2 sets of chromosomes -reproduce asexually -diploid spore mother cell has meiosis and forms haploid (n) meiospores

Gametophytes

-use mitosis -results in production of gametes -haploid plants -1 set of chromosomes -reproduce sexually -gametes have fertilization or fuse, makes diploid (2n) zygote

3. We tend to focus on moving objects instead of the still background.

4. Plants are non-threatening so we don't notice them as much.

Parthenogenesis

A form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryo occur without fertilization

Define biological species concept

A group of individuals that can breed with one another, give birth to fertile offspring, and which cannot breed with other groups. -not applicable for extinct species -used by scientists in classification

Apomorphy or Derived Trait

A new characteristic or trait that has evolved from the common ancestor of a member of a clade -characteristic that is different from the form found in the ancestor

What is a silent mutation?

A point mutation where the base change does not result in an amino acid change during protein formation (benign)

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles -cell walls -no nucleus -DNA not contained -no membrane bound organelles -no mitochondria -no ER -no golgi apparatus

SAR CLADE

Comprised of 3 monophyletic clades: -stramenopiles -alveolates -Rhizarians

According to the phylogenetic species concept, what is a species?

a set of organisms with a unique genetic history

Define Trait

a trait that gives an organism a reproductive advantage in the current environment

Which of the following mechanism of evolution must precede all the others? a. mutation b. gene flow c. genetic drift d. stabilizing selection e. disruptive selection f. directional selection

a. mutation

Saprobe is the noun version of?

-saprophytic

Which of the following are thought to be most closely related to humans?

-sea stars

Monocots lack

-secondary growth

Fleshy Fruits

-seed dispersal depends on animals consuming the fruit and dispersing the seeds after digesting or discarding them

4 main groups of plants:

-seedless non vascular -seedless vascular -gymnosperms -angiosperms

Ferns

-seedless vascular -wet environment -still rely on water for fertilization -sperm are flagellated -first plants with vascular tissue -spores

Plant group associated with vascular tissue?

-seedless vascular plants

Evolutionary events associated with the evolution of the gymnosperms and angiosperms

-seeds and pollen

All Gymnosperms

-seeds do not form in an enclosed structure -undergo alternation of generations

Phylum of Annelida

-segmented worms -earthworm, leeches, polychaetes -show distinct body segements

How does the presence of these structures relate to the phototaxis response seen in the previous video?

-senses light for phototaxis

Columella

-separates haploid nuclei and cytoplasm from rest of rest of hypha in swollen tip

What are the two types of fungi?

-septate -non-septate (page 654)

Sponges

-sequential hermaphrodites (alternate between male and female) -adults are sessile, larva are free swimming -cadherin proteins for adhesion

How does basidiomycetes reproduce?

-sexual reproduction -produce fruiting bodies -rare asexual reproduction

How does zygomycetes reproduce?

-sexually via zygosporangia -asexually within sporangia

Kuru (prion disease)

-shivering for fear or cold -caused by cannibalism of a dead persons brain -neurological issues and death within one year

Herbaceous Stems

-short lived, fleshy, small -ornamental flowers, vegetables, lawn weeds

Arbuscules

-sight of exchange for phosphorus, carbon, water, and nutrients -when hyphae goes into root

Specialized structures that allow for cell communication?

-signaling molecules trigger gene expression, guides patterns of cellular differentiation -cellular pathway for targeted communication -plasmodesmata in plants -jap junctions in animals

All sponges in Hexactinellida have

-siliceous spicules within 4-6 points

Animals sister group is choanoflagellates

-similar morphological characteristics and function -flagella, ans microglia

Convergence

-similar traits evolve in 2 clades independently -common ancestor did not possess the trait -ex, birds and insects both having wings

Analogy

-similarity between organisms due to convergent evolution

Analogous

-similarity due to converja rather than ancestors ex. sharks and dolphin both having flippers

Homologous

-similarity due to shared ancenstryt due to shared genes and taxa

Evidence for Endosymbiotic Theory

-similarity in shape and size of bacteria and eukaryotic organelles -size and shape of mitochondria -mitochondria and plastids (chloroplast) replicate on their own DNA, produce own proteins INDEPENDENTLY from the cell

What are the differences between simple and complex multicellular organisms?

-simple has multiple similar cells, constrained by diffusion, all cells exposed to external environment -complex has differentiated tissue and organs, bulk flow

Monocots Leaves

-simple leaves -attached to stem by sheath -ID by parallel venation

Explain the differences between a simple multicellular organism and one with complex multicellularity.

-simple multicellular organisms composed of multiple similar cells, in eukaryotic tree of life -complex multicellularity- evolved from simple multicellular, differentiated tissues and organs

Prokaryotic

-simplest cell structure -oldest cells -small -reproduce quick -no nucleus -no membrane bound organelles -ribosomes -DNA -cell wall -flagella -single celled -DNA in circular chromosmes

Parsimonious

-simplest explanation

Maximum Parsimony

-simplest explanation = best -principle for when considering multiple explanations for an observation, start with the simplest explanation that is consistent with he facts

1. Fertilization

-single agg and single sperm come together and form zygote (unicellular and diploid)

Teast

-single celled fungi -asexual budding -produced CO2, water, alcohol

Domain Bacteria

-single celled organisms -procaryote cells -lack nucleus and other membrane bound organelles -found in every environment on earth -small simple -E. coli -have peptidoglycan -unbranched hydrocarbons -phospholipid bylayer

Ginkophyta: Ginkgo biloba

-single living species, others extinct (ginkgo biloba) -very resistant to insects, disease, and air pollution -fan like leaves (deciduous) -fleshy seed coat: produces butyric acid: smells like rancid butter -can't distinguish male from female till matured -in a lot of memory medicines

Define Monoecious

-single plant that bears both male and female flowers

Bacteria can be arranged in

-singles -pairs (diplo) -chains (strepto) -clusters (staphylo)

Alteration of Generations

-all plants have this -some but not all protists -alternate between haploid and diploid stages during life cycle

Revolutionary Theory (Darwin)

-all species are related -the number of species can change based on environment

Conifers

-all species produce cones -pines -redwoods

Taxon

-all species within a taxonomic entity -ex. genus or family

Extinct

-all survivors are deceased

Do you think Chara is a simple multicellular organism or a complex multicellular organism? Explain your answer using evidence from the chapter.

-

False

-

Which one of the parts listed above (i.e., dependent, independent, experimental, or control) is absent from an observational study?

-

Monocots

-1 cotyledon -usually parallel -petals in multiples of 3 -scattered arrangement of primary vascular bundles in stem -ring arrangement of primary vascular bundles in root

How many times did multicellularity evolve in the history of life on Earth?

-1.5-2 billion years ago -30 or more times

Oldest eukaryotes fossils

-1.8 billion years old -El Albani in Gabon, Africa = 2.1 billion year old fossils. Some claim they're prokaryotes

As magnification increases, field of view decreases

-100x to 250x = see less specimen but higher magnification

Convergent evolution

-2 branches of the tree developed the same characteristic independent of one another

Eudicots (pg. 103)

-2 cotyledon -usually netlike -petals in 4 or 5 -ring arrangement of primary vascular bundles in stem -central cylinder arrangement of primary bundles in root

Eudicot

-2 cotyledon (seed leaf)

divergent

-2 groups diverge from a common species -homologous

Define alternation of generations. Name the two major stages of the life cycle. How does the ploidy state of plants differ from that of humans?

-2 life cycles in plants -Gametophyte -haploid life cycle -Sporophyte -diploid life cycle

Diploblastic

-2 tissue layers endoderm and ectoderm -radially symmetrical animals

observational study

-2 types (retrospective study, and prospective study) -neither can apply cause and effect

SAR Clade

-3 monophyletic clades stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians -united bases on molecular sequences

Triploblastic

-3 tissue layers endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm -animals with bilateral symmetry

How many membranes do chloroplast that result from secondary endosymbiosis have?

-4 membranes

Fungi decompose about how much organic matter annually?

-4.8 tons

How old is fungi?

-460-455 million years -played essential role in colonization of land for vascular plants -molecular data suggests fungi could be one billion years old

Plants evolved from green algae approximately _____ million years ago.

-475

Define coenocytic and explain how this body form develops.

-6 groups characterized by coenocytic organization -the nucleus divides multiple times, but the cell does not -nuclei not partitioned into individual cells -results in a large cell with many nuclei -organisms where DNA/nuclei divide repeatedly but cytoplasm never partitions

Eukaryotic flagellum

-9 pairs of microtubules in an outer ring that surround one pair of microtubules in the middle of the flagellum -outer microtubules slide against each other bending one side or the other depending on which microtubules are activated

Vascular plants make up

-95% of all plants

Descent with modification

-A trait present in an ancestral organism is modified by natural selection over time in descendants of that ancestor.

Where is the pollen produced?

-Anther with small pollens (male reproductive cells)

40% of all fungi are

-Ascomycota

Cell Membrane

-Bacteria = unbranded hydrocarbons -Archaea = branched hydro carbons

Which of the following statements comparing symmetry in sessile and swimming animals is most probable?

-Bilaterally symmetric animals can be streamlined for swimming, but radially symmetric animals cannot.

Role of fungi in carbon cycle

-CO2 is fixed by plants (inorganic to organic molecules) -stored as organic compounds in plants. what eats the plant -fungi release the carbon from the organic molecules back into the environment as a CO2 byproduct through cellular respiration -then it's available again for plants to use

Which organism is responsible for red tides and ciguatera poisoning?

-dinoflagellates

A student encounters an animal embryo at the eight-cell stage. The four smaller cells that comprise 1 hemisphere of the embryo seem to be rotated 45° and to lie in the grooves between larger, underlying cells. If we were to separate these eight cells and attempt to culture them individually, then what is most likely to happen?

-Each cell may continue development, but only into a nonviable embryo that lacks many parts.

Which of the following domains consists of all the organisms whose cells have true nuclei?

-Eukarya

All protists are _____.

-Eukaryotic

How do bacteria acquire new genetic material

-Horizontal- sharking between unrelated organisms (not descendants)

Acts as a hydrostatic skeleton

-How do animals without bones move? Bones provide a hard structure for muscles to push against. In soft-bodied animals, the skeletal system is composed of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment. This creates tension and gives the muscles something rigid to push against, allowing the animal to move.

What is true of microevolution?

-It is the kind of evolution that can change the relative abundance of a particular allele in a gene pool over the course of generations.

What did Carl Linnaeus use to group organisms in his system?

-Linnaean System/ binomial nomenclature -organisms grouped from larger to smaller groups (taxa) based on shared similarities -bigger = more distantly related

Fungi and animals both belong to what group?

-Opisthokonta

Fungi and animals both belong to what group?

-Opisthokonta -fungi is more closely related to humans than plants

_____ are eukaryotic autotrophs that float near the surface of water and are the basis of the food chain

-Phytoplancton

Insiders: What is the most serious parasite of humans? How are Plasmodium and Trypanosoma transferred from one human to another? Are all insider protists harmful? Give an example of an organism that has a mutualistic relationship with protists.

-Plasmodium = milaria -parasite of RBC that gives chills and fever -transferred by mosquitos -trypanosoma = fly bites -not all insider protists are harmful -termite

All Eumetazoans have true tissue

-Porifera lack tissue

Filamentous, colonial, and multicellular protists are in what supergroups

-SAR -archaeplastida -unikonta

Best summarizes the underlying premise of cladistics and phylogeny?

-Taxa that share many homologous traits are more closely related than species that share few

The common ancestor of the protostomes had a coelom. What does this suggest? The common ancestor of the protostomes had a coelom. What does this suggest?

-The body cavity evolved before the lophophore.

Free Body Movement

-The outer wall can move independently of internal organs. The animal can stretch and bend without putting strain on the body organs.

What is true of all sexually reproducing plants and animals

-The process of meiosis produces haploid cells.

T or F. Without fungi, the carbon cycle would crash?

-True

Outgroup

-a basis of comparison used to develop phylogenetic trees

Autapomorphy

-a derived trait that is unique to one group

HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

-a fluid-filled body cavity that provides a rigid structure against which muscles can contract

What is a histogram?

-a graphical distribution of groups of data -shows size, age, or grade distributions

In a tide pool, a student encounters an organism with a hard outer covering that contains much calcium carbonate, an open circulatory system, and gills. The organism could potentially be a crab, a shrimp, a barnacle, or a bivalve. The presence of which of the following structures would allow for the most certain identification of the organism?

-a mantle

What is Mycelium?

-a mass of hyphae beneath the soil

What do echinoderms have in place of a brain? -echinoderms

-a nerve ring -coordinates movements of arms

Chordates have

-a notochord -tail -pharyngeal gill slits -dorsal hollow nerve cord

What is cordyceps?

-a parasite for ants and other insects -fungi grows into their air tubes and feed on insects soft tissue -when ready to reproduce fungi grows into ant's brain and alters perceptions of pheromones causing causing ant to climb to top of tree and clamp onto it -fungi's kills ant, sporangia sprout from ants head to release spores

Define Dioecious

-a plant group that includes distinct male and females

Which of the following organisms would you expect to have the largest surface-area-to-volume ratio? Assume that all of the following are the same total length. Which of the following organisms would you expect to have the largest surface-area-to-volume ratio? Assume that all of the following are the same total length.

-a platyhelminth

What is lignin?

-a polymer in vascular plants in addition to cellulose

synapomorphy

-a shared derived trait that separates one clade from another

Spore producing structures contain

-a single haploid nucleus

Strian

-a subtype od a bacteria, virus, or fungus

Fungi obtain nutrients through _____.

-absorbtion

Primary Literature

-accounts of research carried out personally by an individual scientist or as a collaboration by a group of scientists, which is published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal

4. Protostome is either

-acoelomates (don't have gap between folding in) -coelomates (celum not surrounded by mesoderm)

Meristems

-active growing region of root -cells undergo mitotic division -primary or apical lengthens roots -secondary increases root girth

What are the muscles that hold the two valves shut known as? (moluscu bivalves)

-adductor muscles

What is the purpose of pectin and plasmodesmata?

-adhesion between cells

Under what conditions does sexual reproduction occur for Rhizopus?

-adverse conditions such as drought

Describe the process of endosymbiosis. What organisms were incorporated by the host cell to form the organelles? Which organelles likely formed this way?

-aerobic bacterium using oxygen, and cyanobacteria doing photosynthesis -engulfed by other host cell and became mitochondria and chloroplast

Plants Produce Oxygen

-aerobic organisms rely on oxygen for production of ATP -provide majority of oxygen in atmosphere

Haploid

-after meiosis -4 daughter nuclei -1 complete set of chromosomes

Fertilization

-after successful pollination -fusion of male gametes and female gametes

Why do adult urochordates (tunicates) lack notochords, even though larval urochordates have them? Larvae use notochords to _____.

-aid in swimming; adults are sessile and thus no longer propel themselves.

Chytrids parasitize what?

-algae -other fungi (like water molds) -amphibians

Obligate Anerobes

-all animals require oxygen (o2) for cellular respiration

Shoot

-all of the aboveground portions -stems, leaves, and flowers

What changes occurred during the transition from water to land and why were they necessary or significant?

-alternation of generations /reproduction & dispersal -type of growth (apical dominance and indeterminate growth) -retained embryo -prevent moisture loss -obtain resources from two locations (air, soil) -support of plant body

Listed below are four adaptations of terrestrial vertebrates. Which is a characteristic only of truly terrestrial animals with no need to return to water at any stage of the life cycle?

-amniotic eggs

Which of the following can be found in the mesohyl of a sponge?

-amoebocytes -spicules -spongin -zygotes

Unikonta

-amoebozoans and opisthokonta (fungi, animals, choanoflagellates) -close relationship supported by comparison of myosin proteins and milecular sequences include animal-like and fungi-like slime molds -also fungi and animals -both groups characterized by amorphous shape and multiple nuclei

Unikonta

-amoebozoans in this group include animal-like amoebas and fungi-like slime molds, fungi and animals -characterized by amorphous shape and multiple nuclei

Standard Deviation

-amount of variation around the mean for your sample - in same units

What happened to algae in secondary endosymbiosis

-an algal cell is enclosed in a food vacuole of a heterotrophic protist but wan't digested -it was incorporated into the call and became a chloroplast -gave protist the ability to obtain food via photosynthesis when the other food supply is low

A terrestrial animal species is discovered with the following larval characteristics: exoskeleton, system of tubes for gas exchange, and modified segmentation. A knowledgeable zoologist should predict that the adults of this species would also feature _____.

-an open circulatory system

monophyletic

-ancestor and all decendents

Paraphyletic

-ancestor and some decendants

Roots

-anchor the plant -absorb and transport water and nutrients -some store sugars and starches

Name two symbiotic relationships most people are familiar within nature. Think about the coral example: Who are the partners involved? How is each partner classified? What does each partner gain from the relationship?

-anemone and clown fish -coral and the algae on it doing photosynthesis -coral eats the algae but doesn't break it down -algae lives within the coral, coral gets food

Plant group associated with flowers and fruit?

-angiosperm

Classification of living things

-animalia -plantae

3 types of flowering plants

-annuals -biennials -perennials

In moss, _____ produce sperm.

-antheridia

Fungi symbiotic relationship with leaf cutter ants

-ants can strip a tree in a night -ant's can't digest the cellulose in the leaves -fungi digest cellulose, and secrete enzymes that break down the cellulose into glucose and absorb glucose -ants build underground chambers where they farm fungi -fungi absorb the glucose and the ants feed on the fungi

Radial Symmetry

-any imaginary slice through central axis divides the animal into mirror images -often have distinct top and bottom with no right or left sides

Hierarchy

-any system where things are ranked

Gram positive

-appear purple -peptidoglycan cell wall then cytoplasmic membrane

Gram negative

-appear red or pink -lipopolysaccharide to outer membrane -then small layer of peptidoglycan -then cytoplasmic membrane

In what type of habitat are most protists found? Are protists primarily aquatic or terrestrial?

-aquatic

Plants are members of the eukaryotic supergroup...

-archaeplastida

Soon after the coelom begins to form, a researcher injects a dye into the coelom of a deuterostome embryo. Initially, the dye should be able to flow directly into the _____.

-archenteron

Lichens

-are an association between fungus and either cyanobacteria or green algae -cyanobacteria or algae are held within filaments that make up fungal body -symbiotic merge -mutualistic mostly can be parasitic

Bryophytes have a dominant gametophyte generation.

-are haploid and will produce gametes -gametophyte of bryophytes can reproduce asexually this lets them inhabit harsh environments

Decomposers

-are heterotrophs -play a key role in chemical recycling -include prokaryotic and eukaryotic species -break down waste products, leaf litter, and the bodies of dead organisms

Members of the phylum Mollusca _____.

-are soft-bodied and often covered by a shell

Example of predatory fungi?

-arthrobotrys -feeds on microscopic animals like roundworms in the phylum Nematoda -fungi produces snares that catch the roundworm then digest it alive

How does the blastopore form?

-as an indentation in the blastula, and becomes an opening during gastrulation -first opening in digestive system -primitive gut -second opening forms later

Gymnothecium

-asci surrounded by loose hyphal net, not completely enclosed -ex. yeast

Cleitothecium

-ascocarp completely enclosed globose structure -spores released as fruiting body disintegrates

The fungus that produces penicillin belongs to which of the following groups?

-ascomycetes

Which of the following groups of fungi is the most diverse?

-ascomycetes

Which groups contain dikaryotic cells?

-ascomycetes -basidiomycetes

Number of tissue layers

-diploblastic -triploblastic

What are two distinguishing characteristics of this Phylum that can be used to distinguish them from other groups of animals? (annalida)

-body cavity (coelom) divided into segments by partitions called SEPTA -fluid within coelom acts as HYDROSTATIC SKELETON -complete digestive tract -primary nervous system

Define Mycelium

-body of fungi -made of dense network of structures called hyphae

Radial Symmetry

-body parts radiate from center -organized circularly -slice thru at axis of symmetry would divide animal into 2 halves that are mirror images -organisms have distinct top (oral) and bottom (aboral) -no true right and left side

Researchers most often work with

-bone marrow cells -bone marrow and endue pluripotent state to make pluripotent stem cell

Prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

-both have DNA -have ribosomes (make protein) -cytoplasm -cell membrane/plasma membrane

What is the difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?

-both have seeds -gymnosperms do not have flowers -angiosperms have flowers

What do fungi and arthropods have in common?

-both use chitin for support

Zygomycetes or Zygomycota

-bread mold -fast-growing saprophytic fungi -reproduces sexually via zygosporangia -asexually within sporangia

Define Protozoa

-broad term that refer to any heterotrophic protist -paraphyletic term applied to many unrelated taxa (tubulinids, diplomonads, ciliates)

Define Algae

-broad term the refers to any photosynthetic protist -paraphyletic term applied to many unicellular lineages (chlorophytes, red algae, brown algae)

Plant group associated with dependent embryos?

-bryophyte -seedless non-vascular plants

The living plants that are most similar to the first plants to bear gametangia are the _____.

-bryophytes

Name the four major groups of plants and provide an example of each.

-bryophytes: -ferns -gymnosperms -angiosperms

What are the benefits of bulk flow?

-bulk flow in plants = vascular tissue -bulk flow in plants = circulatory system -bulk flows at rates and across distances larger than diffusion can

Sponges in class Calcarea have

-calcium carbonates spicules

No True Tissues

-called PARAZOANA -sponges

Where does natural selection occur?

-can be just the individual

Plant-like protists

-can be unicellular, colonial, filamentous, or multicellular -autotrophic -contain chlorophyll used to convert sun to energy -often called algae

Evidence that viruses are not alive

-can reproduce but only with another call's help -can't regulate internal environment -can only move passively -can't produce own proteins

Ascomycetes or Ascomycota

-can reproduce sexually and asexually -mostly asexual -aspergillus and penicillium only reproduce asexually

Pseudocoelomate

-cavity with no peritoneum -

Shared properties of simple multicellular organisms

-cell adhesion molecules cause adjacent cells to stick together -a few cells are specialized -relatively little communication or transfer of resources between cells -most cells retain a full range of function -nearly every cell is in direct contact with the external environment -cells are differentiated in time - different cell types occur at different times during the lifecycle

What are stem cells?

-cell that has the ability to continuously divide and differentiate into various other kinds of cells/ tissue

All 3 Domains have?

-cells -DNA -RNA -membrane -ribosomes -cytoplasm

What three things are required for complex multicellular organisms to exist and function?

-cells must stick together -cells communicate with one another -participate in a network of genetic interactions that regulates cell division and differentiation

How are unicellular and multicellular organisms different?

-cells of multicellular organisms are functionally specialized -cells of multicellular organisms can not preform all necessary functions

Filamentous

-cells that form long threads

What are the most abundant carbohydrates on the planet?

-cellulose -lignin -keratin

What important evolutionary advance is first seen in this group of animals?

-cephalization

Which group of mollusks is distinctly different than the others?

-cephalopods -only molluscs with a closed circulatory system

Evolution (Phenomenon)

-change in heritable traits of a population over time

Responce

-changes based on environmental conditions - physical and biochemical responses

Microevolution

-changes in allele frequency in population over time -incomplete reproductive isolation -organisms have similar characteristics

The larvae of some insects are merely small versions of the adult, whereas the larvae of other insects look completely different from adults, eat different foods, and may live in different habitats. Which of the following is most directly involved in the evolution of these variations in metamorphosis?

-changes in the homeobox genes controlling early development

Plasmodesmata

-channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells -tiny holes in cell wall that thin strands of cytoplasm extend from one cell to the next -intracellular channels lined by extensions of the cell membrane -connect endomembrane systems of the 2 cells -permit signaling molecules to pass between cells

Hox genes

-control formation of appendages (where and how many) -not controlled by number of genes just the cell formation of gene -foremen of embryonic development -turn genes on/off so the body takes the same general shape -responsible for all body plans in animal kingdom

Hox gene expression...

-controls the combinations of cells that result in the overall number, positon, size, and pattern of body parts -ex. eyes, legs, segments, plates that cover body, ect

What is diatomaceous earth?

-convert silicon into glass -gritty stuff in toothpaste -??????????

Without endosymbiosis, eukaryotic organisms

-couldn't aerobically respire or photosynthesize -(oxidative phosphorylation to regenerate ATP) -reduction of inorganic carbon into carbohydrates)

Angiosperms

-covered seeds -ovule covered ovary and ovary wall becomes fruit

5,300 products from sponges

-cribrostatin = antibiotics -manzamine a = malaria, tb, hiv -antivarals -antifungals -antitumor

Echinoderms include

-crinoids -sea cucumbers -sea stars -brittle stars -sea urchins -sand dollars

The importance of the mycorrhizal-plant association.

-critical to ecological and agricultural productivity -plant growth is enhanced in species that have this -important role in the water-to-land transition of plants

mycorrhizae (association with plant roots)

-critical to ecological and agricultural productivity-plant growth is enhanced in species that have this-important role in the water-to-land transition of plants

Lophophore

-crown of cilia used for feeding

Progression of life

-crust cools -life under water -photosynthesis -eukaryotes -complex multicellular life -animals -land plants -dinosaurs -flowers

What is the significance of the backbone?

-crux of every vertebrate's body -central part of skeleton -allowed us to get larger

Cuticle layer

-cuticle (cutin) -waxy coating on plant surfaces to help retain water

What is the difference in the function of the cuticle and sporopollenin?

-cuticle keeps water in -

Protostomes cleavage (spiral and determinate)

-daughter cell sit in a groove formed by previous cleavage

What selective pressures favored the evolution of simple multicellular organisms from unicellular organisms?

-death of a cell isn't a big deal

Most fungi are _____.

-decomposers

Fungi are

-decomposers -nutrients recyclers -eukaryotes

General characteristics of fungi?

-decomposers -parasitic -pathogenic -nutrients recyclers -eukaryotes -heterotrophs -osmotrophic

Saprophytic

-decomposers feeding on dead organic matter

How are antibiotic chemicals helpful to fungi?

-defend against bacteria and microorganisms

What were the key adaptations that distinguish the main lines of plants and which adaptation is associated with the rise of which plant group?

-dependent embryos -vascular tissue -seeds and pollen -flowers and fruit

How do plants prevent desiccation?

-desiccation = drying out -develop waxy coating called cuticle -traps moisture in

What are two distinct Deuterostome phyla and two distinct Protostome phyla?

-deuterostome clade = echinoderms and chordates

Cleavage is radial and indeterminate in

-deuterostomes

Echinoderms and chordates are

-deuterostomes

The blastopore becomes the anus in

-deuterostomes

Aggregated Fruits

-develop from a single slower with multiple carpels -raspberry, blackberry, magnolia, and strawberry

Multiple or Compound Fruits

-develop from the fusion of ovaries from many separate flowers -figs and pineapples

Secondary Roots

-develop to form the root system

Carolus Linnaeus

-developed the two part format for scientific names

Growth

-development -directed by genes found on DNA

Determinant Cleavage

-developmental fate of each cell in the adult organism has already been predetermined during formation

Phylogenetic tree

-diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms -hypotheses, not fact

Stramenopiles

-diatoms and thallus algae (gold and brown kelps) -have 2 flagell -1 with fine stiff hairs the other without -gliding across the surfaces by exuding a carbohydrate "slime"

Platyhelminthes

-diffusion not circulatory system -

Explain the difference in diffusion and bulk flow. Explain how the mechanisms for bulk flow enable organisms to achieve larger size.

-diffusion of oxygen into blood, effective only over short distances from higher to lower concentration -small distances, large cells -bulk is the flow of blood through circulatory system -bulk flows at rates and across distances larger than diffusion can

How do fungi absorb nutrients?

-digests food externally and absorb nutrients through cell wall

What is Dikaryotic Stage?

-dikaryotic cell contain 2 haploid nuclei because hyphae fused but the nuclei did not -eventually the nuclei will fuse to form a zygote -the zygote will be diploid unicellular

75-80% if akk toxic blooms are caused by

-dinoflagellas

Re-Arrangement in Independent Assortment

-during meiosis -chromosomes lined up randomly along metaphase plate, after crossing over, random chromosomes are selected to be pulled toward opposite poles -some of each parents chromosomes end up in each sex cell but it is completely random which chromosome combination end up in any given sex cell

Re-Arrangement in Crossing Over

-during meiosis (production of eggs and sperm) homologous chromosomes line up and exchange DNA at sites called chiasma -creates chromosomes with new combinations of alleles

Indeterminate development

-each cell of the 8 cell embryo is capable of developing into a complete organism if separated -embryonic stem cells

Ovules

-each has 1 egg with potential to become a seed

Ovules (part of flower)

-each has one egg that has potential to develop into a seed -The part of the flower that contains the eggs

INDETERMINATE DEVELOPMENT

-each of the 8 cell embryo is capable of developing into complete organisms if seperated

Binomial Nomenclature

-each species is given a two-part latin or greek name -Genus name + species epithet -name is the same world wide -both parts of name must be included -Genus name ALWAYS starts with an uppercase letter -species epithet is lowercase, when types it's italicized, when it's hand written it's underlined

What is the significance of jaws? Which animals were the first with bony jaws?

-eating microscopic plants to smaller animals and increase body size -fish = first bony jaws

Describe the similarities and differences in two deuterstome lineages (echinoderms and chordates).

-echinoderms -chordates

What are two distinct Deuterostome phyla?

-echinoderms -chordates

Stems

-elongate and orient plant to maximize photosynthesis and elevate the reproductive structures

Unites plants as monophyletic clade and distinguishes them from green algae

-embryo protection

This evolutionary event is associated with the evolution of the bryophytes, the seedless, non-vascular plants, which were the first true land plants.

-embryo protection -embryophytes

Multicellular in reproduction

-embryo, sporophyte, gametophyte

Define Cotyledon

-embryonic leaf in seed bearing plants -first leaves to appear from a germinating seed

land plants are also called

-embryophytes -refers to their synapomorphy of multicellular, dependent embryos

Explain what each part of the word endosymbiosis means: Endo, Sym, and Bio.

-endo = within -sym = together -bio = living

Metabolism

-energy processing - energy in the form of ATP is necessary for cellular activities -sum of all chemical reactions in the body that allow you to harness the free energy to live

Amoebas: What do amoebas eat and how do they do it? How do amoebas move? What cellular structure is driving this movement? How would you describe their shape?

-engulfs diatoms/ciliates -have house building skills, secrets house out of hole in bottom -difludia uses mineral bits to build house

Bacteria

-ester linkages in membrane -lipid bilayer -peptidoglycan -one origin of replication -nitrogen cycle -can be pathogens -ribosome -cytoplasm -cell all -double straned DNA in circle -can fave flagellum

Archaea

-ether linkages in membrane -lipid monolayer -cell wall and membrane but does not have peptidoglycan -pseudo peptidoglycan -several origins of replication -can't be cultured in lab

Euglenozoans

-euglena, trypanosoma -flexible pellicle allows movement

Are archaea more closely related to bacteria or eukarya?

-eukarya

A human is classified in domain _____ and kingdom _____.

-eukarya -animalia

A rose bush is classified in domain _____ and kingdom _____.

-eukarya -plantae

To what supergroup do fungi belong?

-eukaryote -unikonts

Domain Eukarya

-eukaryotes -larger, more complex cells -have nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles -organisms that have membrane-bound organelles, a true nucleus, and multiple linear chromosomes

Describe the general characteristics shared by all plants.

-eukaryotic -autotrophs -cell wall - cellulose -terrestrial -alteration of generations -embryophytes protect embryo

EUMETAZOANS

-have true tissue -both diploblastic and triploblastic

While looking at some seawater through your microscope, you spot the egg of an unknown animal. Which of the following tests could you use to determine whether the developing organism is a protostome or a deuterostome? See whether the embryo _____. While looking at some seawater through your microscope, you spot the egg of an unknown animal. Which of the following tests could you use to determine whether the developing organism is a protostome or a deuterostome? See whether the embryo _____.

-exhibits spiral cleavage or radial cleavage

Ovary Layers (fruit)

-exocarp -mesocarp -endocarp surrounds the seeds

phylogenetic trees

-explain the pattern if evolution -divergent, convergent

Endosymbiotic Theory (formation of eukaryotic cells)

-explains the formation of energy-conserving organelles, plastids (chloroplasts and mitochondria) -derived from bacteria cells

Morphological Causes

-expression of Hox gene

Nematoda - round worms

-external cuticle -lack circulatory system -pinworms

What is the function of fruit?

-extra layer of protection for seeds -aid in dispersal of embryo away from parents, less competition for resources

Fruit

-extra layer of protection for seeds -main purpose is to aid in dispersal of embryo away from parents so they are not competing for the same resources

Disruptive Selection

-extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values

Archaea and Bacteria

-extremophile -prokaryotes -no nucleus -no membrane bound organelles -have genetic material -cytoplasm -ribosomes classifies as autotrophs, or heterotrophs -do binary fission to reproduce

What are the two dark spots seen on the anterior end of the planaria?

-eyes -made of pigmented black cup lined by sensory cells that connect to the brain which is a collection of nerve cells

Independent Variable

-factor being investigated -ex, effect of a medication

Dependent Variable

-factor being measured, or response to variable -ex, ability to regulate blood pressure

3 Effects of Plant Blindness

-fail to recognize importance of plants -don't appreciate plants -rank plants lower than animals (people think plants are inferior to animals)

True or false? The endosperm tissue that nourishes the developing plant has the same nutritional characteristics regardless of the plant species.

-false

Define mold

-fast growing fungi

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (Mad Cow Disease) prion disease

-fatal brain wasting disease -from eating beef that is contaminated with brain or spinal cord issue of an infected cow

Indeterminate Cleavage

-fate of cell is not determined until growth hormones come in and give cell direction of what to bacome

Multipentant stage comes after pluripotent

-fate of these cells are predetermined

Ancestral Trait

-feature does not represent an evolutionary novelty -also called pleisiomorphy

What do megaspores develop into?

-female gametophytes

Carpel (part of flower)

-female organs of the flower -innermost part of flower -holds the female structures -comprised of 3 components: 1. sticky stigma that traps pollen 2. style that connects stigma to the ovary 3. ovary that holds the ovules

Function of carpel (stigma, style, ovary)?

-female structures -stigma is sticky and traps pollen -style connects stigma to ovary -ovary holds the ovules

_____ are an example of seedless vascular plants.

-ferns

Which groups have dominant sporophytes?

-ferns -lycophytes -monilophytes

Cross Pollination

-fertilization with 2 different plants

What are embryos?

-fertilized egg develops into a multicellular embryo attached to and nourished by the parent plant

Embryo Protection

-fertilized egg develops into a multicellular embryo attached to and nourished by the parent plants -protected :)

Blastula

-fertilized eggs undergo several rounds of mitosis to form hollow balls called blastula -formed of a single layer of undifferentiated cells

Rhizarians

-few distinctive morphological or behavioral characteristics -amoeboid cells with thread-like pseudopods

Which of the following characteristics allowed early gnathostomes to become successful predators?

-fins stiffened with bone that increased maneuverability and improved gas exchange in the gills

Seedless Vascular Plants

-first plants with vascular tissue -much larger than non vascular -wet environments because they still rely on water for fertilization -sperm are flagellated -spike and club mosses, ferns, and fern-allies

Plants are a key role in the carbon cycle

-fix CO2 to make carbohydrates -lessen impact of climate change

Unicellular protists may move using

-flagella (larger cells) -cilia (larger cells) -amoeboid movement via pseudopods -gliding

What propels protists in water? How do these cells compare to the protists that are exclusively photosynthetic?

-flagella or cilia -some just creep along using cell wall -some don't move at all

Chytridiomycota

-flagellated sperm -"protists" -death of frogs -lack hyphae -mostly aquatic -rhizoids

Chytridiomycota

-flagellated sperm -"protists" -death of frogs -lack hyphae -predominantly aquatic -rhizoids amphibian decline

Coal

-fossil fuel with remains of organic material -the seedless vascular plants and primitive gymnosperms fell into swamps and didn't decompose well, covered in sediment and became sedimentary rock -rock applied pressure to remains of plants and became coal

Define ubiquitous

-found everywhere

Whisk Ferns

-found in warmer climates -look like kitchen whisk -sporangia are little, yellow balls that develop on short side branches

Hornworm and liverworts can reproduce via

-fragmentation

Advantages of coelom?

-free body movement -development of complex organs -protection from mechanical and temperature damage -assist with respiration and circulation -hydrostatic skeleton

What type of body plan is exhibited by this group of animals?

-free living -parasitic

What body plan is exhibited by these animals? (annelida)

-free-living

Pericarp

-fruit part that can be eaten by humans

Ascocarp

-fruiting body

Roots

-function to anchor plant to soil and absorb water/ nutrients -like nitrogen and phosphorus -can store carbohydrates

What is a toadstool or mushroom?

-fungal fruiting bodies -release spores needed for reproduction

Toadstools and Mushrooms

-fungal fruiting bodies -release spores that either reproduce sexually or asexually -allows flexibility

Fungi Reproduction

-fungal spores are haploid -spore germinates dividing by mitosis to produce hyphae mass called mycelium

Plants have symbiotic relationships with...

-fungi -protists -animals

In lichens what does ear party get?

-fungi gets carbs -algae/cyanobacteria get a suitable habitat, protecton, nutrients, and water

Mycologist study fungi because

-fungi is an important food source -fungal diseases cause crop loss -fungi's role in the carbon cycle -importance of mycorrhizal-plant association -medical importance

Plasmogamy

-fungi sexual reproduction -when hyphae fuse -nuclei pair up but do not fuse

Rhizopus

-fungus -associated with bread mole -grows on fruit as well -looks fuzzy due to many hyphae that form a mycelium -saprophytic decomposer (feeds on dead organic matter) -asexual with spores -rarely under adverse conditions sexual reproduction can happen

In lichens what does ear party get?

-fungus gets carbs -algae/cyanobacteria get a suitable habitat, protection, nutrients, and water

Why do you think mutations that affect the gene pool would be restricted to sex cells?

-gametes pass on the mutation to the next generation (For most multicellular organisms, only mutations in cells that produce gametes influence microevolutionary events)

Sporophyte developes from

-gametophyte -receives much of their nutrients from gametophyte

gametophyts vs spore ofite

-gametophyte = haploid -sporophyte = diploid

Liverworts

-gametophyte dominant -first colonizers -nitrogen fixers -desiccation tolerant (resilient) -homosporous spores (male and female gametophytes)

Sporophyte

-gametophyte produce gametes (egg and sperm) thru mitosis -gametes fuse together making zygote -zygote grows into sporophyte generation -produces spores by meiosis -spores germinate -spores grow into gametophyte generation

How do bryophytes reproduce?

-gametophytes are dominant stage -rely on diffusion -flagellated sperm, requires water -are haploid -mostly sexual reproduction but can be asexual

What problem did this solution create and how did they overcome the problem of gas exchange?

-gas was trapped in the plant cells, CO2 needs to go in and O2 out -developed stoma or stomata = opening on the underside of the leafs -allows exchange of gasses in and out of leaf

Different cell types are formed during

-gastrulation

4. Blastula in folds on itself during a process called

-gastrulation - dramatic rearrangement of cells to make embryonic tissue layer

Asexual

-gemma cups -vegetative

What is the most important factor that holds a gene pool of a species together and prevents speciation?

-gene flow

How did baleens lose their teeth?

-gene inactivated in toothless whales -MMP20 gene is responsible for enamel formation

individual genera

-genera are italicized -species are in

Genetic program for cellular regulation and tissue differentiation

-genes -microenvironment -epigenetics (interaction of signals)

Mechanism that can result in microevolution

-genetic drift -genetic flow -natural selection (can all change alleles within a population

Changes occur because of...

-genetic drift (small populations) -non random mating -mutations -gene flow (all occur randomly) -natural selection (non-random changes)

Sulfolobus

-genius of archaea -80 celcius -acidic conditions

Binomial Nomenlature

-genus species

Why is taxis important to an organism such as Volvox?

-get energy from light photosynthetic

Which of the following groups of fungi are found exclusively in association with plant roots?

-glomeromycetes

What are protein spikes called

-glycoproteins

Most common technique used to identify bacteria

-gram staining

Plants are believed to share a common ancestor with what type of algae?

-green algae -charophytes (look up more)

Plants are most closely related to

-green algae -charophytes

Lycophytes

-ground pines, spiked mosses quillworts -some are endangered, used as Christmas decorations, or flash powder for photographs -have dominant sporophytes, microphyll leaves and can be homosporous or heterosporous

Taxon

-group of any rank -species, family, class

monophyletic group or clade

-group of organisms on a phylogenetic tree that share similar derived traits and ancestry: "a branch on the tree of life"

Taxonomic

-group organisms based on shared morphology -first used by Linnaeus

Define Tissue

-groupings of similar cells that carry out specialized functions in the body

Gemmae

-groups of cells that can detach and start a new plant that is a clone of the parent plant

phylogenetics

-groups organism based on shared ancestry -Darwin -cladistics grouping by clades -Will Hennig -based on unique DNA sequences and their evolutionary relationships

Primary roots are

-grow

Perennials

-grow for many years and can flower repeatedly. They have less showy flowers but bloom repeatedly year after year.

Biennials

-grow for two seasons, and flower and die the second year

Annuals

-grow in a single season or year and die after they flower. They flower continuously for one season

Nematodes and arthropods both ________.

-grow in conjunction with shedding of their exoskeleton

Stolon

-grows above substrate and creeps along horizontally -main role is to help fungus spread -type of hypha

Moss Sporophyte

-grows upward to help spore dispersal

Indeterminate Growth

-growth occurs throughout entire life time

Which of these was the dominant plant group at the time that dinosaurs were the dominant animals?

-gymnosperms

Plant group associated with seeds and pollen?

-gymnosperms -angiosperms

Examples of plants with secondary growth...

-gymnosperms -magnolias -apple trees

How do seedless vascular plants differ from gymnosperms and angiosperms?

-gymnosperms have seeds but not flowers -seedless vascular have spores, no seeds or flowers -angiosperm have seeds and flowers

4 main types of ascocarps

-gymnothecium -cleistothecium -apothecium -perithecium

Fungi produce _____ spores.

-haploid

Spores

-haploid (asexual) -unicellular -microscopic -no stored resources -exposed -shorter lifespan

Life cycle of moss

-haploid gametophyte dominates life cycle -only plant where diploid doesn't dominate

What is a gametophyte?

-haploid stage -produced gametes -produce zygote which sporophytes come from

Procaryotes and Eukaryotes both

-have DNA -have ribosomes -have cytoplasm -have a plasma membrane

Eudicot Leaves

-have a blade and petiole -petiole attaches to the stem at the node -have many shapes -simple leaves have a single blade and petiole -compound leaves are divided into leaflets that share a petiole -netted venation

CEPHALIZATION

-have a head region with a mouth, brain, and sensory organs -triploblastic -ex. human grasshopper, fish

Taproot System

-have a large primary root with small secondary roots -found in all seed plants except monocots

Complex Flowers

-have both male and female parts

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella ________.

-have different dtructures

Cycads

-have palmlike leaves

Gymnosperms (seed plants)

-have pollen and seeds -many have cones -include conifers (pines)

Woody Dicots

-have secondary growth laid down by lateral meristems -the vascular cambium and the corn cambium (bark)

Fibrous Root System

-have similar primary and secondary roots -no single root is more prominent than another -common in monocots

Excavata

-highly modified mitochondria -mitochondria either reduced or consist of a large mitochondrion with a kinetoplast -can have "excavated" ventral feeding groove -flagella are bundles of microtubules -giardia and trypanosoma responsible for parasitic disease

Excavata

-highly modified mitochondria that are greatly reduced or large with a kinetoplast -some have "excavated" ventral feeding groove -flagella are bundles of microtubules -include euglenozoans, parabasalids, diplomonads -giardia and trypanosoma are responsible for parasitic disease

Flowers

-highly specialized stem tip -unique to angiosperms -modified leaved (petals and sepals) clustered in whorls

What do scientist use to judge population?

-histograms with a bell curve

Opisthokonta can be divided into 2 sister lineages

-holozoa (animal like) -holomycota (fungal-like)

Characteristics that all life shares

-homeostasis -organization -metabolism -growth -adaptation -response -reproduction

Diploid

-homologous pair of chromosomes -one set from each parent

homologous

-homologous traits are shared by a similar ancestor -similar in position, structure, and evolutionary origin but not necessarily function -same structural features and pattern of genes

Fern

-horizontal root -frands coming off -have sori that are spore cases -sporophyte release spors -makes gametophyte called prothallium -makes gametes -fertilization -zygote

Bryophyte Example

-hornworts -liverworts -mosses

Depth of Field (DOF)

-how much specimen is in focus at one time -as magnification increases, DOF decreases

When do humans have gill slits?

-human embryos

Against which structure do the circular and longitudinal muscles of annelids work?

-hydrostatic skeleton

Fungi Sexual Reproduction (alteration of generations)

-hyphae fuse in process called PLASMOGMAY (nuclei pair up but don't fuse) -heterokaryotic mycelium developes -nuclei fuse making diploid zygote stage called KARYOGRAMY -zygotes undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores

Fungi Sexual Reproduction

-hyphae fuse in process called plasmogmay (nuclei pair up but don't fuse) -a heterkaryotic mycelium develops -nuclei fuse making diploid zygote stage called karyogramy -zygote undergoes meiosis and produces haploid spores

What is formulated before you design an experiment?

-hypothesis and predictions

Membrane enfolding and endosymbiotic theory

-hypothesis that membrane folding is responsible for the formation of the nucleus and endomembrane system (ER, golgi, mitochondria, and lysosomes)

Why does surface area to volume ratio limit the size of a cell?

-if the cell can't get enough nutrients or move things around the cell

Totipoten

-immature cell that can become any cell, including new embryo -0-4 days

Pluripotent

-immature cell that gives rise to several different cell types -about 5 days

What is the evolutionary significance of multicellularity?

-impact on the evolution and biodiversity of the eukaryotes, particularly the plants, animals, and fungi -complex multicellularity has evolved at least 6 times -it allowed for an increase in size and complexity

Homeobox genes (Hox)

-in all animas -control cell division and differentiation -highly conserved -can be studied in other animals bc same genes as in other animals -produce regulatory proteins for all cells

Sexual reproduction of Rhizopus

-in hypha that look similar but are chemically different -one a + one a minus strain -swelling between strains looks like growing toward one another -haploid nuclei in swelling on both sides and forms progametangia -cross walls form and nuclei form structures known as gametangia -suspensors support ganetangia -wall between gametangia dissolves and stuff mixed -many fertilizations forming many diploid zygote nuclei -get incased in tough walled zygospore -germinated by meiosis -haploid hypha emerges -haploid spores but genetically different

Where do Prokaryotes store DNA?

-in the nucleoid region

How did gymnosperms and angiosperms overcome the problem of difficulty of gamete dispersion?

-in water plants they can swim -in land plants they use pollen -pollen is a way of transporting gametes from one organism to another

What other hypothesis is mentioned that explains how the complexity of eukaryotic cells originated?

-in-folded -membrane fold in on the side to create some of the complexity

Plant Blindness

-inability to see 0r notice plants in ones own environment

Monilophytes

-include horsetails, whisk ferns, true ferns -dominant sporophyte and megaphyll leaves -can be homosporous or heterosporous

Lophorata

-include multiple groups of animals -all have lophophore

Gnetophytes

-includes three genera that vary greatly in appearance

Fungi are a diverse eukaryotic lineage

-including molds, mildews, yeast, and morels

Describe the major characteristics of deuterostomes.

-indeterminate cleavage -interminate development -can make embryonic stem cells

Where do stems cells come from that are used in research and medicine?

-indeterminate development = embryonic stem cells

Colonial

-individual cells held together by an intracellular matrix, but retain individual functions

convergent

-individuals not closely related have the same characteristics (usually due to environmental pressure) -analogous

Bryophytes

-lack vascular tissue -no roots, stems, or leaves -no bulk flow -limited height -rely on diffusion -flagellated sperm that require a film of water to swim from plant to plant to fertilize egg -small, flourish in damp or humid areas -many are epiphytic

Bryophytes

-lack vascular tissue -seedless, non-vascular -includes mosses, liverworts, hornworms

Asymmetry

-lacks symmetry -could not be cut in half to make mirror halves

what are megaphylls?

-large leaves -complex vascular tissue -more efficient photosynthesis -more sugars = support larger, taller plant -more efficient distribution of materials -increased reproduction

Macroevolution

-large scale changes above the species level (genus): major phenotypic differences -greater reproductive isolation

Phylum Mollusca

-large, diverse group -snails, slugs, octopi, oysters, scallops, chitons

Name three reasons multicellularity is advantageous.

-larger = safer -inside is protected by the outside -live linger bc bits can die and be replaces -next generation of cells are safe and tucked away

What level does life emerge at?

-life emerges at the level of the cell

Fungi and some bacteria can digest

-lignin and cellulose -releases carbon for carbon cycle

Glycoproteins

-like the name tag of a cell to recognize one another -binding site identification specific to species

Ingroup

-lineage that includes the species we are studying

ENDODERM

-lines the gut

If you think of the earthworm body plan as a drinking straw within a pipe, where would you expect to find most of the tissues that developed from endoderm? If you think of the earthworm body plan as a drinking straw within a pipe, where would you expect to find most of the tissues that developed from endoderm?

-lining the straw

Simple Multicellularity

-little differentiation -close contact with external environment -groups: uroglena, epostylis, prasiola -cell adhesion molecules to stick together -few specialized cells/ communication or transfer of resources between cells -retain full range of functions: reproduction -death of a cell isn't a big deal -nearly every cell is in direct contact with the external environment at least when the cell is squiring nutrients -most prominent among algae, slime molds -3 protist groups -4 eukaryotic groups -spirogyra, ulba

Extant

-living

Adaptation

-living things evolve

Bilateral Symmetry

-longitudinal cut = 2 equal halves -mirror images left and right size, and anterior verses posterior -most are motile and exhibit cephalization -diploblastic

Compound scope

-look at micro onjects

Define Hyphae

-look like plant roots -how fungi take up nutrients -release enzymes and digestive chemicals into environment so fungi can absorb

Name or describe the two main groups of animals that comprise the Lophotrochozoan clade.

-lophorata -trochozoa

Cell

-lowest level of organization that can preform all the activities required for life (7)

Which plant groups have microphylls?

-lycophytes

What leads to speciation?

-macroevolution

What do microspores develop into?

-male gametophytes

Function of stamens (anther, filament)?

-male part of flower -usually multiple per flower -filament provides support -anther contains microsporangia which form pollen grains

Stamens (part of flower)

-male part of the flower -usually multiple per flower -consist of a filament that provides support and the anther -the part of the flower that contains the sperm cells -the part of the flower that produces the pollen

What structure produces the shell?

-mantle

If a lung were to be found in a mollusc, where would it be located?

-mantle cavity

Megaphylls

-many strands of vascular tissue -increase photosynthesis efficiency -leaves can be broader, so more surface area for solar energy collection -more sugars, can support larger, taller plants with more efficient distribution of materials, increased reproduction -in monilophytes and seed plants -variety of shapes -fiddleheads are young, curled fronds -ferns produce specialized sporophyte structures on the back of fronds, called sori

All plants have alternation of generations, also seen in some but not all protists

-means plants alternate between haploid and diploid thought their life cycle

Highly Conserved

-means same through all of animal kingdom

Fronds

-megaphyll leaves of ferns

Basidia produce spores by a process known as _____.

-meiosis

Spores develop from?

-meiosis in capsule of sporophyte -spore capsule bursts and releases spores -diploid

Spores are produced by

-meiosis in capsule of sporophyte -spore capsule bursts and releases spores

Darwins Obervations

-members of a population vary in their inherited traits -all species can produce more offspring than their env can support and many will fail to survive

Evolution of eukaryotic cell

-membrane folding is resposible for the the formation of the nucleus and endomembrane system -(ER, golgi, mitochondria, and lysosomes)

How are tissue types isolated from one another?

-membrane layers

Explain the three lines of evidence that support the hypothesis that mitochondria were formed by endosymbiosis.

-membranes are v similar (double membrane same as bacteria) -mitochondria reproduce through mitosis, bacteria do binary fission. in our calls mitochondria make copies similar to how bacteria does -DNA in prokaryotic cell and mitochondria is similar. DNA looks v similar to another type of bacteria

Why is kuru more common in women and children?

-men get the prime cuts of meat -women and children end up eating the brain

Only triploblastic eumetazoans have...

-mesodermic tissue

Viruses can not preform metabolic activity alone

-metabolic activity only occur after taking over process of another organism

What is the disadvantage to being an endotherm (warm-blooded is an outdated term)?

-metabolisms that need constant fuel

What event allowed mammals to flourish?

-meteor wiping out dinosaurs -no more large predators

Cladistics

-method of phylogenetic classification -uses shared (homologous) traits and principles of parsimony -does not give info about ancestors "who came from whom" but indicates which organisms are closely related

There are three major groups of mammals, categorized on the basis of their _____.

-method of reproduction

Fungi body is called the thallus. What is it composed of?

-microscopic tubular cells called hyphae

MESODERM

-middle layer

Mesocarp (fruit)

-middle layer -normally soft and fleshy

Define obligate symbiont

-mitochondria can't live on their own -they get to live and we get energy -how we inherit mitochondria

In moss and ferns gametes are produced by

-mitosis

Plants use both of these to reproduce

-mitosis and meiosis

Fungi Asexual Reproduction

-mitosis produces spores -germinate into hyphae -hyphae makes mycelium -spore producing structure

alternation of generations in the asexual reproductive cycle

-mitosis produces spores -germinate into hyphae -hyphae makes mycelium -spore producing structure

Spores germinate by

-mitosis to make hyphae

Euglena

-mixotroph -producer and prey -phylogeny contested -binary fission

Many euglenoids and dinoflagellates are

-mixotrophic

Thorns

-modified stem -serve protective functions

Tendrils

-modified stem structures that permit a plant to climb -Virginia creeper tendrils have modified stems with adhesive disks at their tips, allow to climb on solid surfaces

In both mosses and ferns, ............. is required for sperm to reach the egg.

-moisture

The sperm produced by mosses require _____ to reach an archegonium.

-moisture

Are fungi a monophyletic clade?

-molecular data indicates yes -some mycologists say no

Display complex patterns of cellular and tissue differentiation guided by regulatory genes?

-molecular signals for development = the system of gene regulation of a program for coordinated growth/ cell differentiation for growth from zygote to adult -different cells exposed to different environments and different signal molecules molecules, different genes are turned on and off in cell

Fungi medical importance

-molecules from fungi can be used to make medicine -ex. penicillin and antibiotics

While sampling marine plankton in a lab, a student encounters large numbers of fertilized eggs. The student rears some of the eggs in the laboratory for further study and finds that the blastopore becomes the mouth. The embryo develops into a trochophore larva and eventually has a true coelom. These eggs probably belonged to a(n) _____. While sampling marine plankton in a lab, a student encounters large numbers of fertilized eggs. The student rears some of the eggs in the laboratory for further study and finds that the blastopore becomes the mouth. The embryo develops into a trochophore larva and eventually has a true coelom. These eggs probably belonged to a(n) _____.

-mollusc

Which plant groups have megaphylls

-monilophyte -ferns

Protists are not

-monophyletic

Land plants and charophytes form a

-monophyletic group called Streptophyta

Why was there such a dramatic increase in animal biodiversity?

-morphological causes -ecological causes -geological changes

Solid call of cells called

-morula

Totipotent cells occur in

-morula stage (early stage of development) -mass of cells making embryo. one cell pulled from mass can become entire other embryo -after that cells become pluripotent

Which groups have dominant gametophytes?

-moss -bryophytes -liverworts

Cephalopods

-most advanced invertebrates -sensory capable -well developed nervous system -can learn complex tasks -only molluscs with a closed circulatory system

Epiphytic

-most bryophytes -live on another plant but receive nutrients from the air

We only consciously process 0.0000016 of the visual data we see.

-most data about plants is discarded 2. when plant aren't in bloom their chromatic and spatial homogeneity make it difficult for us to see

Antiseptics

-non selective -can be applied topically to living tissue -alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and iodine

Ferns

-most familiar of monilophytes -abundant in warm, moist tropical habitats, temperate regions, and north of arctic circle -some in dry, rocky, or aquatic habitats -can be as large as 20m -significant economic value bc of bouquets, and house ferns -efficient building material bc they resist decay -in medicines -expectorant to help bleeding -has fronds

What is mycelium?

-most of the fungal body -below ground or occupying tree roots -web of tiny filaments called hyphae

What is the significance of flowers?

-most recent evolutionary event in plants -most successful group of plants and majority of extant plants

How does ascomycetes reproduce?

-mostly asexually can be sexually

Angiosperm reproduction

-mostly sexualy, sometimes asexually -seeds, pollen, flowers

Describe the four advances associated with each group of plants.

-move from sea to land (moss) -vascular tissues show up (fern) -seeds -flowers = angiosperms

Negative Taxis

-movement away from a stimulus

Positive Taxis

-movement toward a stimulus

Euglenids: How does Euglena move? What basic characteristics do they have including their shape and special structures? How does it move and what is the movement in response to?

-moves with flagellum -green ones choose direction by light sensitive region near flagellum shielded by red pigment = guidance system and swims toward light for photosynthesis -range in shapes and behaviors -astasia eats to get energy lost choloroplast -peranema uses flagellum for quick moves and to trap prey -many are mixotrophs

What characteristics do plants share with green algae?

-multicellular -uses chlorophyll and and b in photosynthesis -chloroplast enclosed in a double membrane -use starch as a storage product

Animalia

-multicellular -consumers

Metazoan Kingdom

-multicellular -heterotrophic -eukaryote -develops from embryonic layers

Common characteristics of animals

-multicellular -heterotrophic -no cell wall -obligate aerobes -mobility -sexual reproduction

Plantae

-multicellular -photosynthetic producers -make their own food

Largest and fastest-growing protist

-multicellular giant called Macrocystis pyrifera

Plants are

-multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryotes adapted to living in terrestrial environments

Polyspermy

-multiple sperms fertilizing an egg

2. Cleavage Occurs

-multiple, rapid rounds of mitotic cell division -size of embryo does not increase -increase in number of cells -makes morula

How has peat been beneficial to human survival and our understanding of previous societies?

-mummify and preserve bodies

Mesodermic tissue develops into?

-muscle and bone

Basidiomycetes

-mushrooms -sexual reproduction -produce fruiting bodies with club-shaped basidia which produce basidiospores -asexual reproduction is rare in the group

Fungi as a food source

-mushrooms -truffles -yeast for wine, beer, cheese, bread, and soy sauce -enzymes from fungi are used to flavor and improve characteristics of food

What conditions do scientists hypothesize are necessary for multicellularity to occur?

-mutant cell divided and failed to separate -cells velcro together -cells began taking on specialize roles -genes began controlling when it's time to grow

Over 80% of plants have what relationship?

-mutual symbionts with mycorrhizal fungi

How are the hyphae and mycelium related?

-mycelium is the mass of hyphae beneath the surface

The study of fungi is called?

-mycology

Gymnosperms

-naked seeds -no ovary or fruit -have pollen and seeds -may have cones -includes conifers (pines)

Gymnosperms

-naked seeds -no overy and no fruit

What are the obstacles and adaptations plants require for a life on land?

-need a system of absorption (ex. roots or rhizoids)

What two phyla are considered Ecdysozoans?

-nematoda -arthropoda

What do we have in common with the lancelet (Amphioxous)?

-nerve cord -body equipment -gill slits -segmented muscles -notochord

Types of tissue:

-nervous -epithelial -connective

Vascular Tissue

-network of thick-walled cells joined to narrow tubes thought the plants body -distribute water and nutrients -tissue includes xylem and phloem -allows bulk flow -allows plants to be larger and taller

Define ecological species concept

-niche based; interactions between organisms and their environment

Acoelomate

-no body cavity -cells in space between gut and body wall

ACOELOMATE

-no coelom -animals still has 3 tissue layers, coelom was secondarily lost -adaptive advantage for it being lost -flat worm

Asymmetry

-no distinct body shape -lacks symmetry -can't be cut into mirror halves -ex. sponge, placozoans

Gymnosperms reproduction?

-no ovary, no fruit -pollen is a way of transporting gametes from one organisms to another -have pollen and seeds -sexual and asexual phase

P > .05

-no significant difference

Define Kinesis

-non directed movement -increase in speed -angle of movement -amount of turning

Peat Mosses

-peat moss is common -used in planters to absorb and hold water -improve moisture and water-holding capacity of soil -wet, acidic habitats like bogs -they die but bc of the acidity, do not decay, they accumulate -peat can be used as fuel in some countries -can preserve human bodies for millennia

Highly developed mechanisms for adhesion?

-pectin polysaccharides in plants -transmembrane proteins in animals

What are the main parts of a flower? (pg. 106)

-petal -sepals -stamens (anther, filament) -carpel (stigma, style, ovary)

What structure did the planaria use to take in food?

-pharynx

How do protists obtain energy?

-photosynthesis -heterotrophy -mixotrophy

Which of the following best describes the physical relationship of the partners involved in lichens?

-photosynthetic cells are surrounded by fungal hyphae

lichens (association with cyanobacteria or algae)

-photosynthetic cells are surrounded by fungal hyphae -cyanobacteria or algae are held within filaments that make up fungal body

Phytoplankton (producer)

-photosynthetic protists -diatoms, dinoflagellates, and green algae

What type of phototactic response was shown by the planarian?

-phototaxis

What system replaced the Linnaean system?

-phylogenetic systematics -cladistics -Willi Hennig -uses DNA

Most fungi grown on MEA plate are from

-phylum Ascomycota -genus penicillin, aspergillus, cladosporium

Red Algae

-pigmented with chlorophyll and phycobiliproteins

Green Algae and Land Plants

-pigmented with chlorophylls a and b but lack phycobiliproteins

Meristems

-plant growth confined to meristems -population of actively dividing cells at the tips of stems and roots -permanently undifferentiated cells the repeatedly undergo mitosis -bc of their walls, plant cells can't move, roots grow by cell division of the undifferentiated cells in the meristem region at the root tip

Thallus

-plant like body that lacks true roots, stems, and leaves

What is the mycorrhizal relationship between plants and fungi? What do plants and fungi each get from the relationship

-plants give some of the carbohydrates from photosynthesis -get phosphorous, magnesium, and copper back from fungi collected from soil -90% of plants have this relationship

How do plants differ from green algae?

-plants have embryo protection

Horizontal Gene Flow

-plasmids transported through conjugation -transferred material is incorporated into DNA called recombinant DNA

Chitons

-plates that cover dorsal surface, protects and allows to contour to the rock it adheres to

Self Pollination

-pollinates itself

For flowering plants to reproduce

-pollination and fertilization must occur

Do the two (pollination and fertilization) occur simultaneously or at different times?

-pollination, then fertilization

Where does evolution happen?

-population, can happen below that -whole population

Marsupial

-pouched animal

Pressures that favor multicellular organisms

-predator avoidance (algae with protist predator) -access light/prey (better positioning. better mobility) -longevity and cell replacement (doesn't matter if a cell dies, longer life span) -gamete/embryo protection (all plants are called embryophytes) -feeding advantage (can store food)

Action of Penicillin

-prevents formation of cross-links in peptidoglycan -narrow spectrum = only targets gram postive bacteria

Gastrulation is the process that directly forms the _____.

-primary germ layers

Infolding forms the

-primitive gut -during some cells from outside the embryo move to the inside -genes in cells become active signaling molecules to trigger gene regulation that directs development and differentiation of the cells into layers or germ layers to become tissue

What is speciation?

-process where on species splits into two -responsible for for diversity in life

7. After gastrulation occurs organogenesis occurs

-process where organs and tissues by cell division and differentiation -see difference from plurry potent to multipotent

Homeotic genes (in all eukaryotes)

-produce regulatory proteins -animals gene is called Hox genes

Antibiotics

-produced by other bacteria or fungi -can be synthetic or manufactured -normally taken orally to kill bacteria within the body -2 main types: Narrow-spectrum are effective against a limited group of bacteria ex. penicillin Type 2 breads-spectrum like tetracycline which is effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria

What does a gametophyte produce?

-produces gametes (egg and sperm) through mitosis -make sporophyte

Fruits

-product of successful fertilization of flowers -primary function is to distribute seeds -fruit also called "ripened ovaries" -ovary has 3 distinct layers -3 categories

Heterocyst

-prokaryote so has no organelle -functions in anaerobic environment to convert nitrogen -increases rice yield by 158% -

Plant Primary Producers

-provide carbohydrates by converting solar energy into chemical energy -carbohydrates support the plants themselves, as well as virtually all other organisms in the terrestrial habitat - the entire food web is dependent on the carbohydrates

Plants are primary producers:

-provide food oxygen -building material -medicines -convert solar energy to the chemical energy of carbohydrates

Why are seeds advantageous?

-provide growing embryo with food in form of endosperm

Secondary Literature

-publications that rely on primary sources for information -not a requirement for the authors to have done the work themselves -purpose is to summarize and synthesize knowledge

Tertiary Literature

-published works that are based on primary or secondary sources and that are aimed at scientist who work in different areas from the subject matter if the publication

2. Symmetry

-radial -bilateral (clear left and right)

Deuterostomes Cleavage

-radial cleavage = daughter cell sit directly on top of the previous cleavage -indeterminate cleavage = fate of cell is not fixed -only in early stages of cleavage, cell fate will eventually be fixed (except stem cells) -if cells split at the very early stages of cleavage, they can form separate embryos and become identical twins

Deuterostomes

-radial, indeterminate cleavage -enterocoelous development -blastopore develops into anus -echinoderms, chordates

experiment

-random assignment to treatments -explanatory variable - factor uses participants/ experimental units that are given the treatments -may use different levels of treatments -can be used to imply cause and effect

Archaeplastida

-red algae, green algae, and land plants -most have cell wall of cellulose -have plastids called chloroplasts -lack centrioles -mitochondria with flat cristae

Archaeplastida

-red algae, green algae, and land plants -red algae are pigmented with chlorophyll a and phycobiliproteins -green algae and land plants are pigmented with chlorophylls a and b, but lack plycobiliproteins -most have cell walls of cellulose -all have plastids called chloroplasts -typically lack centrioles -mitochondria have flat cristae

Homeostasis

-regulation; maintain the necessary internal or cellular environment -negative feedback loops

What is the function of the nerve cord?

-relay commands from the brain

How are hyphae different from plant roots?

-release enzyme and digestive chemicals into environment so fungi can absorb nutrients

Standard Error

-reliability of the mean (similar or different from the population)

Define Desiccation

-removal of moisture from something

Nodes

-represents a common ancestor in a phylogenetic tree

Branches

-represents the descendants in a phylogenetic tree -tips = most recent species

Land plants and charophytes have similar

-reproductive structures -cell division process -type of cellulose

Thermotaxis

-response to change in temperature

Chemotaxis

-response to chemical stimuli -normally positive chemotaxis = towards food source, or mate -negative chemotaxis = away from toxins or predators

Define Chemotaxis

-response to chemicals including food

Phototaxis

-response to light -normally photosynthetic organisms who want the most efficient light

Thighmotaxis

-response to physical contact (touch) -some insects (cockroaches) squeeze into crevices or corners driven by preference for close quarters

Define Thermotaxis

-response to temperature

Define Thigmotaxis

-response to touch

Lateral Meristems

-responsible for secondary growth

Mitosis

-results in 2 genetically identical nuclei -2 diploid cells

Rhizopus Structures:

-rhizoids -stolon -sporangiophore

What is the difference of roots and rhizoids?

-rhizoids are a root like structure found in some plants

Vascular tissue of plant

-root -stem -leaves

Plants prevent erosion and improve soil structure

-roots hold soil in place and prevent nutrients from being washed away -erosion can damage homes or negatively effect agriculture -plant parts fall the the ground, broken down by decomposers, and add organic matter to soil improving soils ability to hold onto moisture and nutrients

How do plants acquire water?

-roots or rhizoids

Vegetables

-roots, stems, leaves, un open flowers are edible -carrot -edible plant part

Ascomycota

-sac fungi -antibiotics -spores form on inside of sac

Ascomycetes

-sac fungi -antibiotics -spores from inside of sac

Ascomycota

-sac like fungi with ascus

Ascus

-sac where spores are produced -formed when hyphae aggregate and fuse into ascocarp

Ascomyocota reproduction takes place in...

-sacs called asci

What is the difference between microevolution and macroevolution?

-same thing but micro is small -microevolution is change in allele frequency in a gene pool -macroevolution is large scale, over a long period of time, speciation

Most fungi use this as their nutritional mode?

-saprophytic

How do gametophytes and sporophytes dominant groups differ structurally?

-sporophyte produces spores by meiosis within sporangium -sporophytes have 2 sets of chromosomes -gametophytes produce gametes by mitosis within antheridium -gametophytes have a single set of chromosomes

Most Swiss starlings produce four to five eggs in each clutch. Starlings producing fewer or more than this have reduced fitness. Which of the following terms best describes this situation?

-stabilizing selection

Law

-statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes a phenomenon of nature

Allows enough space for the development on complex organs

-storage area for gametes -during dissections of sea urchins or sea stars, it is not uncommon to find the coelom packed full with eggs

Sexual Selection

-subset of natural selection -di morphic = distinguish males from females

Bulbs

-such as onions -modified stem storage leaves around a short stem

Why are protists not grouped into one kingdom? On what are they basing the new groupings?

-such extreme evolutionary divergence -based on genetic material

Stems

-support leaves, flowers, and seed stalks -transport/conduction water and nutrients

Fungi release digestive enzymes into their _____.

-surroundings

Glomeromycota

-symbiotic relationship with plants -mycorrhiza -endo: mycorrhizae enter cell and interact with cytoplasm/membrane-ecto: increase surface area of root 2%-1cm of root = 3 meters of hyphae

What is mycorrhizae-plant associations?

-symbiotic relationships between fungi and plant roots -essential for plant growth

Cladogram

-synonym for phylogenetic tree

Sister Taxa

-taxa that share a recent common ancestor

Animal directed and organized movement

-taxis

zoochauvinistic" teachers

-teachers that focused on zoocentric examples in science class

Perithecium

-tear drop pear shape ascocarp open at one end -most common form is Sordaria in herbivore feces

Diatoms: What is the terrestrial equivalent to diatoms? What is the significance of their role in aquatic ecosystems? What type of pigment do they have? How does photosynthesis differ in diatoms and land plants? What is unique about the diatom house (how is it formed and of what is it made)?

-terrestrial equivalent = grass -photosynthetic pigment is yellow -convert energy from photosynthesis into oil dropplits used as energy reserves -remove dissolved silica from water and make glass cases -not all relatives are photosynthetic -fungi like water molds are included in this

Not alive...

-test tube organelles -protein -DNA

Body of plant without vascular tissue is called a

-thallus

What happens if cells in a multicellular organism attempt to live on their own?

-that cancer/tumors -cells that work in their own interest

Secondary Endosymbiosis

-the endosymbiont is an autotrophic, eukaryotic protist that has already undergone primary endosymbiosis

Primary Endodymbiosis

-the endosymbiont was a prokaryotic cyanobacteria

Macroeolution

-the evolution of whole taxonomic groups over long periods of time -greater reproductive isolation -organisms vary greatly

Determinant Cleavage

-the fate of the cell is fixed (already determined) -can only develop into specific tissues

Fungi Classification

-the fungi are classified according to differences in the life cycle, and the types of sexual spores they produce

Which of these contains two haploid nuclei?

-the heterokaryotic stage of the fungal life cycle

What is Hyphae?

-the main body of the fungi

Leaves

-the main photosynthetic organ -gas exchange, temperature regulation, and defense against herbivores/pathogens -often have hairs, thorns, release toxins like latex, ricin, cyanide, neurotoxins, and allergens

True backbone (the foundation of all vertebrates taxa)

-the notochrods

How do glomeromycetes reproduce?

-the only 100% asexual fungi -produce glomerospores on tips of hyphae

Seeds develop from ovules

-the ovary tissue undergoes a series of complex changes resulting in fruit

Leaves

-the primary organ of photosynthesis -main sight of gas change

What are spicules?

-the skeletal elements found in most sponges -provide structural support and deter predators -help characterize Porifera based on chemical composition and shape of it's members spicules

Stigma

-the top part of the female organ to which pollen attaches

Pistil

-the tube-like structure that connects the stigma to the ovary -the female organs of the flower

Theory

-the way we know something works -used to make predictions

The primary difference between a coelom and a pseudocoelom is ________.

-their developmental origin

What determines which type of triploblastic group and animal is

-their pattern of embryonic development

Control Variables

-these variables are held constant in both he control and experimental group -temperature, amount watered, ect. -3 types

To make wet mount

-use pipet to ass 1 to 2 drops of liquid on clean slide -hold coverslip at 45 degree angle to slide with one side in contact with slide -avoid air bubbles -air bubbles = thick black edge on microscope -specimen must be thin and less than a cm in length

Why do plants produce these toxic compounds we use for medicines, antivirals, and antibiotics?

-used as protection from predators -latex = great deterrent in rubber trees, milkweed, and various vines

Wet Mounts

-used to prepare specimens for viewing

Seedless Vascular Plants

-vascular tissue for the transport of H2O and nutrients -include the ferns -lycophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts) -monilophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns)

Eudicots

-vascular tissue in ring

Monocots

-vascular tissue os scatered

What do vascular plants use for support and conduction?

-vascular tissue with xylem and phloem -use vascular tissue system of internal pipes for support and conduction

2 main classes of animals

-vertibarted -invertebrates 80%

How diverse are protists in terms of their ecological role (niche)? How does each type carry out metabolism? How is energy obtained and broken down in each type? Would organisms with these nutritional modes be considered autotrophs or heterotrophs?

-very diverse metabolism -phototrophs or organotrophs

How diverse are protists in term of reproduction? Do protists reproduce asexually, sexually, neither, or both?

-very diverse, up to 13 different genders -sexually and asexually

Nonvascular Bryophytes

-very resistant -have dormant stage and wait for conditions to be right

Stereo Scope

-viewing macro organisms -top and bottom light -dissecting microscope

What structure houses all the organs?

-visceral mass

Amoebas

-voracious predators

What are two distinguishing characteristics of this Phylum that can be used to distinguish them from other groups of animals? (mollusca)

-water filled cavity -chambered heart (one ventricle and two atria)

Pollen

-way for plants to disperse sperm without water -via wind or animal pollinators

What separates us from other animals?

-we speak and write, passing on knowledge -our intelligence

Seedless vascular plants made up the major portion of the great swamp forests of the Late Devonian to Carboniferous period ~416-359.2mya

-were much larger then than today -club moss is 35cm tall but was 35m tall -ferns grew 8m -period of coal forming forests

Biggest difference between protistones and deudistomes is

-what happens with the mesodermal layers and how it is formed -also in gastrulation and how it occurs in bilateral and radial organisms (radial only has 2 tissue layers)

Prediction

-what you anticipate happening -specific to the experiment -explain how you will judge whether the data supports the hypothesis

Maximum Likelihood

-when considering hypotheses, take into account the hypothesis that is the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given rules about DNA changes over time

Pericarp

-when layers (mesocarp, endocarp, exocarp) fuse together -oranges, legumes

How does pollination and fertilization differ?

-when pollens joins with the ovules present in the ovary it's called fertilization -pollination is process of pollen transferring from anther to stigma, or reaching sticky tops of pistils

3. Protostome or Deuterostome

-where the anus is formed is used to identify here

Most bacteria on plates appear

-white, cream, or yellow -somewhat circular shape

Most fungi on plates appear

-whitish-grey with fuzzy edges -turn different colors from center outward -perfectly round -cream to pink color -yeast looks glossy

What are some symbiotic relationships that fungi have? Why are these relationships important?

-with 80% of plants -vital mycorrhizal relationships -help plant grow and produce more

Fungi symbiotic relationship

-with other eukaryotic organisms -vital mycorrhizal associated with plants

Vascular tissue includes:

-xylem -phloem

What is the difference in how the toadstools and yeast reproduce?

-yeast is asexual by budding -toadstool produces spores

Can fungi be preditory?

-yes, on protists and animals

Zygomycota

-zygo sperangia -resistant structure with spores in that must rupture to let out -sporangia -bread mold

Zygomycota

-zygo sporangia -structure with spores in that must rupture to let out -bread mold -fast growing

There is(are) _____ eukaryotic domain(s).

1

How did multicellular animals evolve from choanoflagellates?

1. Choanoflagellates evolved signaling molecules to interact/ adhesion to form colony 2. Cells formed hollow sphere = larger more efficient colony, less vulnerable to predators 3. cells became specialized and interdependent, cellular differentiation. reproductive and somatic cells 4. infolding and signaling molecules trigger the differentiation of cells and tissue types

Re-arrangement in sexual reproduction occurs in what 3 stages?

1. Crossing Over 2. Independent Assortment 3. Fertilization

Postulate for natural selection

1. Individual organisms that make up a population vary in the traits they posses 2. Some trait differences are passes on to offspring; heritable 3. Some individuals produce more offspring, and only a subset of the offspring that are produced survive long enough to reproduce 4. Individuals with certain traits are more likely to produce the greatest number of offspring

Postulates of natural selection

1. Individuals in a population vary in the traits they possess. 2. Individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. 3. Some trait differences are heritable. 4. Survival and reproductive success are variable among individuals in a population.

Natural Selection

1. genetic variation in a population 2. more offspring are born than survive 3. struggle for existence 4. differential survival and reproduction 5. difference between generations

Scientific Method

1. Observation 2. Develop hypothesis 3. Test hypothesis 4. collect data and analyze results (cyclical process) (revise hypothesis, experiments, interpret results)

There are many characteristics used to differentiate the various animal phyla including:

1. Type of symmetry 2. Number of tissue layers (diploblastic v. triploblastic) 3. Type of body cavity (coelom) 4. Fate of blastopore (developmental biology) 5. Molecular data

Describe at least three major characteristics in cell structure that are shared between the three domains.

1. both have DNA 2. ribosomes 3. plasma membraneFevoli

Explain the three components of modern cell theory.

1. cell is the smallest living unit in all organisms 2. All living things are made of cells 3. All cells come from other pre-existing cells

What are the four major groups of mollusks? Give examples of each group.

1. chitons -ex. 2. gastropods -ex. snail 3. bivalves -ex. clam 4. cephalopods -ex. fossil ammonite

3 categories of coelom

1. coelomate 2. pseudocoelomate 3. acoelomate

four key adaptations that distinguish the main lineages of the land plants

1. embryo protection 2. vascular tissue 3. seeds & pollen 4. flowers & fruit

Pluripotent cells can become 1 of 3 things (still a stem cell, just less versatile)

1. endodermal 2. mesodermal 3. ectodermal

Types of control variables:

1. environmental (temp, cage, maintenance) 2. organismal/ subject variables (species, age, initial health, size) 3. method variable (length of observation, concentration of solution)

Life cycle of mosses

1. mature sporophytes produce haploid spores, dispersed by wind 2. separate spores develop into female and male gametophytes 3. haploid eggs form in archegonia, and haploid sperm form antheridia 4. Haploid gametes undergo fertilization, forming a diploid zygote 5. diploid zygote develops into a sporophyte

In animals, there are three levels of tissue organization

1. no true tissue 2. diploblastic 3. triploblastic

Fundamental Bdy Plan Varibalies

1. tissue 2. symmetry 3. body cavities 4. developmental pathway

Theory of evolution by natural selection

1. variation 2. differential reproduction (better suited individuals survive and reproduce) 3. 4.

Percent of population is involved in producing food the food they consume

2.5% 1. Americans just don't spend much time outdoors

Fungi can brake down how much more leaf litter than bacteria?

36% -bacteria prefer meat waste

Plesiomorphy or Primitive Trait

A feature that does not represent an evolutionary novelty for that clade

1. spore of mycorrhizal fungi germinates in soil. 2. make way to nearest root 3. roots are colonized by fungi

4. mycorhriza is established 5. create internal network of fungal structures inside root cells 6. Plant and mycorrhizal exchange nutrients and sugars 7. Hyphae continue to develop outside of roots making network of fine filaments that cover up to 700 times the soil of the plants roots 8. this secondary root system brings in extra nutrients and water to support plant

1. spore of mycorrhizal fungi germinates in soil.2. make way to nearest root3. roots are colonized by fungi

4. mycorhriza is established5. create internal network of fungal structures inside root cells6. Plant and mycorrhizal exchange nutrients and sugars7. Hyphae continue to develop outside of roots making network of fine filaments that cover up to 700 times the soil of the plants roots8. this secondary root system brings in extra nutrients and water to support plant

How long ago did earth form?

4.6 billion years ago

Autapomorphy or Unique Derived Trait

A feature that is unique to a terminal group

Define taxonomy

A branch of science that encompasses the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms.

Eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles -only some have cell walls -more complex, larger -has nucleus -can have different types of membrane bound organelles

What is a point mutation?

A change in a single base pair

What are mutations?

A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA.

Akinete

A resting non-motile, dormant, thick-walled spore state of cyanobacteria and algae.

What does it mean that organisms have a nearly universal genetic code?

A specific DNA sequence encodes the same information in one species as it would in nearly any other.

Which term describes a trait that increases an individual's ability to survive in a particular environment?

Adaptation

What system replaced the Linnaean system? What does the new system use to group organisms?

Carl Woesse introduced the 3 domain system. -classifies organisms based on differences in their 16S rRna genes

Describe the relationship between the skeletal and muscular system? How are they similar or different from our own? -echinoderms

Calcareous Skeleton = hard, calcite plates called ossicles -give structural support and protection -outward extension of plates gives a bumpy or spiny epidermis -"spiny-skin" -capable of holding flexed longer than muscles

What causes mutations?

Can be caused by a variety of factors including... -exposure to UV light -particular toxic compounds -error in DNA replication process

Adaptations

Characteristic that is present (inherited, not gained) which enhances its survival-reproduction in a particular environment

In evolutionary terms, an organism's fitness is measured by its...

Contribution to the gene pool of the next generation.

What is the meaning of Darwin's expression "descent with modification"?

Descent with modification refers to evolutionary change over time.

What is the sister phylum to Chordates?

Echinodemata

Endoderm germ layer develops into the gastrointestinal tract during embryonic growth

Ectodemic tissue transition into the outer covering (skin) and nervous system

What domain are protists in?

Eukarya

Prokaryotic flagellum rotates in a circular motion like a boat propellor.

Eukaryotic flagellum beats back and forth in a wave motion due to 9+2 arrangement of tubules

Sporpphytes are diploid

Gametophytes are haploid

True or False. Theories typically rely on a single hypothesis tested several times; theories do not take into consideration multiple hypotheses.

False

What is the purpose of the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test?

Helps determine the appropriate antimicrobial to use, and the lowest concentration that will stop growth

Example of silent mutations

GGC --> GGA Both still are glycine so no change in protein development

Plants Reproduction

Gen 1 haploid - fertilization - gen 2 diploid - meiosis - gen 3 haploid

Genetic Flow

Gene flow results when alleles are transferred into or out of a population due to the migration of fertile individuals or their gametes. Gene flow can bring new alleles (beneficial, harmful, or neutral) into a population. -tends to reduce genetic difference -genes going into or out of a population -whenever that happens the 2 populations become more similar -discouraging speciation

How do genetic drift and gene flow differ from each other and from natural selection?

Genetic drift and flow are random, natural selection is NOT

Genetic Drift

Genetic drift describes evolution due to chance events and causes unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies. Genetic drift can have a particularly significant effect in a small population, such as during a bottleneck or founder event. -random -decrease population -hurricane

Define Clade

Group of organisms believed to have evolved from a common ancestor

Which term describes the ability of a trait to be passed on to offspring?

Heritability

Moss Diagram

In the life cycle of bryophytes, gametophytes are the dominant stage and are generally larger than sporophytes. The sporophytes of mosses are made up of a foot, a seta, and a sporangium. The foot is embedded in the gametophyte and absorbs nutrients from it. The seta, or stalk, transports the nutrients to the sporangium, which produces spores. Rhizoids, which resemble the roots of vascular plants, anchor the gametophytes to a substrate. Rhizoids are not vascular structures.

Natural selection does not create new adaptations.

It is a mechanism by which beneficial adaptations become increasingly abundant in a population over the course of generations.

Darwin's "Origin of Species" was unique becasue

It proposed a viable process for how evolution occurs.

Timing of the eukaryotic evolution is argued

Lead hypothesis: Theory of symbiogenesis (or endosymbiotic theory)

Who came up with the concept of viruses?

Martinus Beijerinck

Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve

Mechanism: use and disuse -acquired traits passed on to offspring -flaw: he thought an organism could change in it's lifetime

What is the key mechanism of evolution and why?

Natural Selection -it's the only non-random evolutionary mechanism where the population grows more fit to their environment over generations

Thought question- Do you think fertilization always occurs? Do humans always get pregnant when they have sex?

No

Darwin Observation vs Inference

Observation: data collected using one of the senses, noticing or perceiving Inference: a conclusion reached based on evidence and reasoning

What is the difference in a protostome and deuterostome?

P - spiral determine cleavage -schizocoelous development -blastopore becomes mouth -mollusks, annelids, arthropods D - radia indeterminante cleavage

Are Chordates more closely related to Platyhelminthes or Cnidarians?

Platyhelminthes

Which phyla is the outgroup of all animals?

Porifera

Which one of the following statements best defines artificial selection?

Process of human directed breeding aimed to produce selective traits in selected species

Can assist with respiration and circulation

The coelom can aid the distribution of oxygen and nutrients, particularly in animals that lack respiratory or circulatory systems and must rely on diffusion for those functions.

Protection from mechanical and temperature damage

The coelom cushions the organs and protects them. It acts like shock absorber. When your heart beats, does your whole body shake? No, because your heart is cushioned within the coelom.

Define species concept

The criteria a scientist uses to describe an organism to the species level is dependent on the information and data available for that organism -a hypothesis, a way to outline a specific set of criteria that can be tested and applied across many different types of life

If the diploid chromosome number of a sexually-reproducing species is 58, which of the following statements is true?

The haploid chromosome number is 29.

In a bell-shaped curve, the x-axis (horizontal direction) of the graph represents which of the following?

The value of a particular characteristic; characteristics of an organism can include such traits as size and color.

An explanation supported by a large body of observations and experimentation is referred to as an

Theory

In the two-kingdom system, why were fungi classified in the kingdom Plantae?

They are sedentary.

How does the lifecycle of fungi differ from plants?

They are very similar with the exception of the dikaryotic stage.

Cleavage

This rapid cell division without an increase in size occurs from the formation of the zygote until the blastula stage.

To calculate total magnitude

Total Magnitude = Magnitude of Ocular Lens x Magnitude of Objective Lens (in our lab the magnification of the ocular lens is 10x)

A farmer uses triazine herbicide to control pigweed in his field. For the first few years, the triazine works well and almost all the pigweed dies; but after several years, the farmer sees more and more pigweed. Which of these statements explains why the pigweed reappeared?

Triazine-resistant weeds were more likely to survive and reproduce

In organisms that reproduce sexually, most genetic variation results from?

Unique allele combinations that each individual receives from their parents. -occurs in 3 stages of sexual reproduction

How do you create a bacterial lawn?

Use a tryptic Soy Agar plate. Obtain the bacteria strain you intend to use. Using a Q tip start by making a line down the center of the plate. Next zig zag from top to bottom of the plate. Finally crosshatch to by sized across the diagonal of the plate.

Re-Arrangement in Fertilization

While crossing over and independent assortment ensure that each egg and sperm cell is genetically unique. The act of fertilization ensures that the sperm that fertilizes the egg is inherently random

coenocytic

an organism made up of a multinucleate, continuous mass of protoplasm enclosed by one cell wall, as in some algae and fungi.

prospective study

any study done by gathering data in the present (no treatments)

retrospective study

any study done by gathering data that already exists

To apply the principle of maximum parsimony to construction of a phylogenetic tree... a. choose the tree in which the branch points are based on as many shared derived characters as possible b. choose the tree that represents the fewest evolutionary changes, either in DNA sequences or morphology c. choose the tree that assumes all evolutionary changes are equally probable d. choose the tree with the fewest branch points

b. choose the tree that represents the fewest evolutionary changes, either in DNA sequences or morphology

One of the following is NOT a source of genetic variation. a. mutation b. genetic drift c. rapid reproduction d. sexual reproduction e. alteration of gene number or position

b. genetic drift

Prokaryotic cells are found in the domain(s) _____.

bacteria and archaea

Which of the following pairs are the best examples of homologous structures?

bones in the bat wing and bones in the human forelimb

systematics

branch of biology that focuses on the specification of organisms -method of classifying organisms -multiple ways -taxonomic, phylogenics -not the most accurate tree -narrow possibilities through maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood

Vascular Plants

broken down into -seedless vascular -vascular seed plants

Natural selection changes allele frequencies because some _______ survive and reproduce more successfully than others. a. gene pool b. loci c. individuals d. species e. alleles

c. individuals

Biological hierarchy

cells, tissue, organ, organ system, individual, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

Genetic drift produces variation for evolution when ________.

chance events cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably

Common root word/ suffixes

chromosomes = ploid same = homo- first = prim foot = -pod joint = arthr- both, double, 2 = amphi behind = post/ postero

suffix cyte refers to cells

cnidocytes function for protection and food acquisition

Some evolutionary mechanisms promote speciation. Which one of the following does NOT? a. founder effect b. reproductive isolation c. natural selection d. gene flow e. genetic drift

d. gene flow

Which of the following is the most predictable outcome of increased gene flow between two populations?

decreased genetic difference between the two populations

Stramenopiles

diatoms and thallus algae (gold and brown kelp) -2 flagella, one with fine stiff hairs and the other without -thallus-plant-like body that lacks true roots, stems, and leaves

Darwin and Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection was revolutionary because it _____.

dismissed the idea that species are constant and emphasized the importance of variation and change in populations

Limitations of the biological species concept

does NOT apply to: -asexual organisms -fossils -organisms about which little is know regarding gene flow

Systematists have used a wide variety of traits to reconstruct the phylogenies of particular groups of organisms. Which one of the following traits produces a good estimate of phylogeny? a. biochemical traits b. molecular traits c. behavioral traits d. gross morphological traits e. all of the above

e. all of the above

decent with modification is synonymous with what

evolution

Arrange the following in order from most general to most specific. 1 natural selection 2. microevolution 3. intrasexual selection 4. evolution 5. sexual selection

evolution, microevolution, natural selection, sexual selection, intrasexual selection

Adaptive radiation

is rapid speciation under conditions in which there is little competition. -mass extinction creates conditions that promotes this -or appaarebce ib ab evolutionary novelty

Which of the following represents the correct order of appearance of characters in fungal evolution?

hyphae → regular septa → chitinous cell walls → multicellular fruiting bodies chitinous

A heritable trait is one that

is determined at least in part by genes passed from parents to offspring.

lab mnual page 76-77

learn terms associated with taxis and kinesis

Animal kingdom is called

metazoans

In the five-kingdom system, prokaryotes are placed in the kingdom _____.

monera

Where do new alleles come from?

multiple sources, mainly mutations

What is the only mechanism that leads to adaptive evolution changes?

natural selection

Where do new adaptations come from?

new alleles being introduced into the population

Common Prefixes

other = allo- with/ together = co- first = proto- same = sym- father = pater (or patr-) equal = equi many = poly- true, good = eu-

What is the most common type of mutation?

point mutation

In the five-kingdom system, which kingdom consists primarily of unicellular eukaryotes?

protista

A biologist observes that a particular plant species is found in a forest but not in a nearby meadow. She hypothesizes that the plants could grow in the meadow but are not found there because their seeds have yet to land in the meadow. Which of the following would be the most appropriate way to scientifically evaluate this hypothesis?

scattering seeds in several areas of the meadow and observing whether they start to grow

Gastrulation comes after

the blastula stage of development

Stabilizing Selection

the population mean stabilizes on a particular non-extreme trait value -common phenotype is selected

X axis of a phylogenetic tree

time