Biology

What is the advantage of a closed circulatory system over an open circulatory system?

A closed circulatory system moves blood more efficiently.

Why is breathing so important?

A fresh supply of oxygen must be constantly provided so that cells are able to metabolize glucose efficiently, and the carbon dioxide constantly produced by cells must be removed from the body.

Respiratory system

A group of organs that work together to facilitate gas exchange- the intake of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide between an animal and its environment

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced by the kidneys in response to oxygen deficiency; stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow

Erythrocyte

A red blood cell, which contains the oxygen binding protein hemoglobin and thus transports oxygen in the circulatory system.

Precapillary sphincters

A ring of smooth muscle between an arteriole and capillary that regulates the flow of blood into the capillary bed.

Lymphatic system

A system consisting of lymph vessels, lymph capillaries, lymph nodes, and the thymus, spleen, tonsils, and bone marrow. Helps protects the body against infection, carries fats from the small intestine to blood vessels, and returns excess fluid and small proteins to the circulatory system.

Explain what is meant by an open circulatory system AND give an example of an organism that has an open circulatory system. B) What is a homocoel AND what is the fluid called in an open type circulatory system?

A) An open circulatory system means that blood/hemolymph is not always enclosed within the heart or vessels. Instead, the blood/hemoplymph is pumped through vessels into a hemocoel. B) A hemocoel is an open space that surrounds internal organs and an example of an organism that has an open circulatory system is a spider.

Lobed-finned fishes

-bony fish, but their fins consist of both flesh and bone. -have an endoskeleton presence of paired appendages not covered by an exoskeleton. -presence of a neural crest during embryonic development

Double circulation

-creates two separate circuits of blood -the separation of circulatory routes between (1) the heart and lungs and (2) the heart and the rest of the body

A) DESCRIBE the unique endoskeleton of Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata). B) What are 3 functions of the water-vascular system of these animals?

A) Echinoderms have an endoskeleton made of calcium carbonate. The endoskeleton possess calcareous ossicles. The ossicles are beneath the outer layer and form bumps, which gives echinoderms skin its spiny appearance. B) Three functions of the water vascular system of these animals are: movement, respiration, and feeding.

A) Name the 3 Domains of life and give a specific example of an organism belonging to each domain. B) For each domain, tell if the organisms are prokaryotes or eukaryotes. C) For each Domain, tell if the organisms are unicellular, multicellular, or have both unicellular and multicellular organisms.

A) The 3 Domains of life are Domain Bacteria, Domain Archaea, and Domain Eukarya. And organism that belongs to Domain Bacteria is Salmonella. An organism that belongs to Domain Archaea is called a methanogen. An organism that belongs to Domain Eukarya is a bear. B) Domain Bacteria organisms are prokaryotes. Domain Archaea organisms are prokaryotes. Domain Eukarya organisms are eukaryotes. C) Domain Bacteria organisms are unicellular. Domain Archaea organisms are unicellular. Domain Eukarya organisms are both unicellular and multicellular.

Leukocyte

Any of the white blood cells circulating the blood

The major criterion that determines the rate of breathing is...?

Blood carbon dioxide level

The cellular components of blood are produced in the...?

Bone marrow.

Cardiac muscle

Present only in the heart. -the specialized muscle of the heart; able to initiate its own contraction, independent of the nervous system

In mammals, which blood cells have no nucleus?

Red blood cells.

How does the lymphatic system collect and return extracellular fluid to the circulatory system? Hint: There are ducts involved.

The lymphatic system collects and returns extracellular fluid to the circulatory system by being carries by capillaries and vessels, which flow through lymph nodes throughout the body. The lymph nodes filter the lymph, removing dead cells and waste product. The filtered lymph is channeled into veins, depositing back into the circulatory system.

What is the role/function of the thymus AND yellow blood marrow in the lymphatic system?

The thymus functions to produce lymphocytes and the yellow bone marrow functions to provide a site for development of lymphocytes.

DESCRIBE the 2 body forms found in cnidarians AND give an example of a cnidarian that is representative of each body form.

The two body forms found in cnidarians are called a polyp and a medusa. The polyp can be described as sessile bodies, cylindrical in shape, attached to rocks that have tentacles surrounding the mouth, which reach upward to capture prey. Corals are an example of a polyp body form. The Medusa can be described as motile, with a bell shaped body that has a mouth facing downward and tentacles that trail the body to capture prey; for example: a jellyfish.

Homocoel

a cavity within the bodies of certain invertebrates in which a fluid, called hemolymph, bathes tissues directly; part of an open circulatory system

Spiracle

an opening in the body wall of insects through which air enters the tracheae

Hypertension

arterial blood pressure that is chronically elevated above the normal level

open circulatory system.

bathes organs directly in blood. Found in most invertebrates including all arthropods and most mollusks.

closed circulatory system

confines the biked within blood vessels. Present in all vertebrates and in a few invertebrates and earthworms.

What is responsible for contractions of heart muscle?

electrical signals.

Atria

heart chamber that collects blood. contractions of the atria send blood into the ventricles

What type of animals use tracheae for respiration?

insects

Intercalated discs

junctions connecting individual cardiac muscle cells that serve both to attach adjacent cells to one another and to allow electrical signals to pass between cells

Blood that flows through the pulmonary veins will be carried to the...?

left atrium

In vertebrates, which heart chamber supplies oxygenated blood to the body cells?

left ventricle.

Through what sequence of structures would a volume of air have to travel from the mouth into the lungs?

mouth, pharynx, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

The two types of circulatory systems found in animals are..?

open circulatory systems and closed circulatory systems.

Which of the following is not a component of plasma? -fibrinogen -water -platelets -globulins -albumins

platelets

The most important factor in the return of blood back to the heart is...?

skeletal muscle contraction

Cardiac muscle

the alteration of contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers

Plasma

the fluid, non cellular portion of the blood

Bulk flow

the movement of many molecules of a gas or liquid in unison from one area od high pressure to an area of lower pressure

Systemic circuit

the pathway of blood from the heart through all parts of the body except the lungs and back to the heart

Why does oxygen diffuse from blood into the tissues?

the tissues have depleted their oxygen, and the oxygen in the blood is at a higher concentration than in the tissues.

Which chambers of the vertebrate heart pump blood through the lungs and to the rest of the body?

ventricles

Cartilaginous fish (the Chondrichthyes) Sharks/Rays/Skates

-Large marine predators. -Hinged jaws, used for grasping and chewing food. -Endoskeletons entirely cartilaginous -Chondricytes are cartilage forming cells -Paired fins -Leathery skin containing tiny scales -Respire using gills -No swim bladder present -Undergo internal fertilization

Reptilians

-evolved from amphibians -fully terrestrial -scaly skin w/ scales that have protein keratin that resists water loss -internal fertilization -improved lungs -females lay a shelled amniotic egg

Mammals (bats, deer, humans, dogs, cats, etc.)

-evolved from small reptiles that developed hair to retain heat. -homeothermic, like birds, mammals are able to maintain a constant body temperature using heat generated from their high metabolic activity and some adaptations to maintain the heat. -hair is present on the body and composed of keratin. -females have mammary glads to nourish young. -permanent teeth of different shapes and sizes -some have a placenta (bats, whales, seals, humans) -

Aves (chicken, ducks, songbirds)

-feathered vertebrates that took to the air. -evolved from reptiles -feathers made of keratin -homeothermic -enlarged sternum -endoskeletons consisting of mostly hollowed bones -have a beak (lack teeth) -females lay hard shelled amniotic eggs

Amphibians (toads, frogs, salamanders)

-first vertebrates to move onto land -evolved from ancient lungfishes -live in both aquatic and terrestrial environment -use skin and lungs for cutaneous respiration -external fertilization (mostly occurring in water so sperm can swim to egg) -jelly like substance surrounding eggs, no shell.

Ray Finned fishes (the Osteichthyes)

-the bony fish (salmon, tuna, panfish, perch, sunfish) -endoskeleton composed of bone -respire by gills covered by a bony operculum -swim bladder present -flattened, interlocking bony scales -paired fins ***considered the most diverse group of vertebrates

Agnathans (lampreys)

-the jawless fish -first vertebrates to evolve 430 may in the sea. -slit like or oval locking jaws -cartilaginous skeleton -lack scales

The vertebrate circulatory system has diverse functions:

-transports oxygen from the gills or lungs to the rest of the body -distributes nutrients from the digestive system to all body cells -transports toxic substances to the liver for detoxification and transports cellular wastes to the kidneys, where they are filtered from the blood and excreted. -distributes hormones from the glands and organs that produce them to the tissues upon which they act. -helps regulate body temperature by adjusting blood flow. -protects the body from diseases by circulating white blood cells and antibodies

All circulatory systems have what three major components?

1. A liquid blood that serves as a medium of transport for gases, nutrients, and cellular wastes. 2. A pump (the heart), that keeps the blood circulating. 3. A system of tubes (blood vessels), that consist of arteries that carry blood away from the heart, and capillaries that link arteries and veins and exchange materials through their walls.

A) During an Humoral Immune Response, how are the marked pathogens destroyed? Be specific. B) What are Memory B cells AND how are they involved in a future immune response to the same pathogen (a secondary immune response)?

A) During a Humoral Immune Response, marked pathogens are destroyed by macrophages and are also destroyed by antibody production which stimulates phagocytes. B) Memory B cells are the offspring of B cells generated by an immune response that "remember/recognize" a pathogen and will protect from future invasion of the pathogen.

A) Are ALL vertebrates chordates? B) During the early development of the vertebrate embryo, what structure does the vertebral column replace?

A) Yes, all vertebrates are chordates. B) During the early development of the vertebrate embryo, the vertebral column replaces the embryonic notochord.

For each of the following vertebrate groups, give 3 key/major characteristics/features that distinguishes the group from other vertebrates (these must be UNIQUE to the group - not a phylum characteristic) AND give an example of an animal (common name is fine) belonging to each group: Agnathans, Cartilaginous Fishes, Ray-finned Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Aves.

Agnathans: -Jawless fish. -Oval/circular shaped mouth. -Lacking scales. Example: Lampreys. Cartilaginous fish: -Hinged jaws. -No swim bladder present. -Two chambered hearts. Example: Sharks. Ray-finned fish: -Gills covered by bony operculum. -Swim bladder present. -Interlocking scales. Example: Salmon. Lobed-finned fish: -Fins consisting of flesh and bone. -Have both gills and lungs. -Can survive dry periods. Example: Lungfish. Amphibians: -Cutaneous respiration. -No shell present in eggs (jelly like substance surrounds eggs). -Larval stage is aqautic, adult stage is terrestrial. Example: Frogs. Reptiles: -Fully terrestrial. -Scaly skin that resists water loss. -Respire by using lungs. Example: Lizards. Aves: -Have a beak. -Have feathers. -Have an enlarged sternum. Example: Ducks. Mammals: -Have permanent teeth. -Have hair. -Feed young using mammary glands. Example: Humans.

Thrombin

An enzyme produced in the blood as a result of injury to a blood vessel; catalyzes the production of fibrin

Why are animals not considered closed, independent systems?

Animals are not considered closed, independent species because animals are dependent on the environment for nutrients and energy, exchange gases, and have to eliminate waste product.

Name 2 invertebrate chordates AND describe one of these animals.

Two invertebrates include lancelets and sea squirts. Lacelets are invertebrate chordates that resemble fish like animals. Lancelets are small and shaped like a blade with two pointed ends. A lancelet retains each of the four chordate structures into adulthood. As an adult, this sedentary animal lives buried in the sand with its anterior end exposed. This allows for the lancelet to capture food particles through its pharyngeal gill slits, where it is filtered by mucus and transferred to the digestive tract.

Name 2 phyla containing animals with a gastrovascular cavity AND tell what 3 functions this cavity.

Two phyla containing animals with a gastrovascular cavity include Phylum Platyhelminthes- for example: flatworms- and Phylum Cnidaria- for example: jellyfish. The three functions of a gastrovascular cavity include digesting food particles, a respiratory tissue to allow for gas exchange, and is a hydrostatic skeleton for muscle fibers to work against to change body shape.

DESCRIBE 3 major functions of the vertebrate lymphatic system.

When extracellular fluid leaks from tissues and blood capillaries, the lymphatic system functions to return the extracellular fluid back to the circulatory system by collecting the extracellular fluid and returning it to the blood. The lymphatic system also functions to transport fats from the small intestine to the blood. This happens when fat droplets in interstitial fluid enter through the spaces between the lymph capillary wall cells and then enter the bloodstream. Last, but not least, the lymphatic system helps support the immune system. This is possible, because some lymph vessels contain lymph nodes that act as filters for lymph fluid. The lymph nodes consist of lots of lymphocytes and macrophages.

Fibrin

a clotting protein formed in the blood in response to a wound

Atrioventricular veins

a heart value that separates each atrium from each ventricle, preventing the back flow of blood into the atria during ventricular contraction

Countercurrent exchange

a mechanism for the transfer of some property, such as heat of a dissolved substance, from one fluid to another, generally without the two fluids actually mixing; the two fluids flow past one another in opposite directions, and they transfer heat or solute from the fluid with nighter temperature or higher solute concentration to the fluid with lower temperature or lower solute concentration

Sinoatrial (SA) node

a small mass of specialized muscle in the wall of the right atrium; generates electrical signals rhythmically and spontaneously and serves as the hearts pacemaker.

Bone marrow

a soft, spongy tissue that fills cavities of large bones and generates the cell based components of blood

Atrioventricular (AV) node

a specialized mass muscle at the base of the right atrium through which the electrical activity initiated in the sinoatrial node is transmitted to the ventricles

Semilunar valves

a valve located between the right ventricle of the heart and the pulmonary artery, or between the left ventricle and the aorta. It prevents back flow of blood into the ventricles when they relax.

Ventricles force blood directly into the...?

arteries

Valves maintain the direction of...?

blood flow

What is meant by "oxygenated" blood?

blood that has had its oxygen levels restored after picking up oxygen at the lungs or gills.

Interstitial fluid

fluid that bathes the cells of the body; in mammals, interstitial fluid leaks from capillaries and is smaller in composition to blood plasma, but lacks the proteins found in plasma

In animals that have an open circulatory system, the interstitial fluid that functions as blood is called....?

hemolymph

Hemolymph

in animals w/ an open circulatory system, the fluid that is located within the hemocoel and that bathes all the body cells, therefore serving as both blood and interstitial fluid

The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle in order to...?

pump blood with greater pressure

Which set of chambers supplies blood to the pulmonary circulation?

right atrium and right ventricle.

The pulmonary semilunar valve is located in the...?

right ventricle

Systolic pressure

the blood pressure measured at the peak of contraction of the ventricles; the higher of the two blood pressure readings

Diastolic pressure

the blood pressure measured during relaxation of the ventricles; the lower if the two blood pressure readings

Heart rate

the number of cardiac cycles (heart beats) per minute

What is meant by the "gas-exchange" portion of the respiratory system?

the part of the anatomy where respiratory gases are exchanges between the air and the blood

Pulmonary circuit

the pathway of the blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart

Conducting portion

the portion of the respiratory system in lung-breathing vertebrates that carries air to the alveoli

Gas-exchange portion

the portion of the respiratory system in lung-breathing vertebrates where gas is exchanged in the alveoli of the lungs

Fibrillation

the rapid, uncoordinated, and ineffective contraction of heart muscle cells

Tracheae

the respiratory of insects consisting of a set of air-filtered tubes leading from spiracles and branching throughout the body

Deoxygenated blood is delivered to the heart through...

the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava

What was the first vertebrate heart to ever evolve?

the two chambered heart of fishes

How does the vertebrate heart work?

the vertebrate heart has muscular chambers capable of strong contractions

People with kidney damage tend to be severely anemic. Why?

there is a lack of erythropoietin.

Which of the following is not part of the lymphatic system? -thymus -thyroid gland -tonsils -spleen

thyroid gland

What is the role of bulk flow in respiration?

to transport gases carries in the blood and lung air.

What is the determining factor that stimulate erythropoietin release from the kidney?

too little oxygen in the blood

A) What is the difference between a tissue and a cell? B) How does an organ differ from a tissue? C) Name the largest organ in the human body ANDname at least 3 tissues that make up this organ. D) What is an organ system AND what is a specific example of an organ system in the human body?

1. A) The difference between a cell and a tissue, is that a tissue is a group of cells, where the cells are all similar and can function together, and a cell is a microscopic structure with organelles that are responsible for certain functions. B) An organ and a tissue differ, because a group of cells is what forms a tissue and an organ functions to play a specific role in the body. C) The largest organ in the human body is the skin and three tissues that make up this organ include: the epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis. D) An organ system is a group of organs that function together to carry out a certain task and a specific example of an organ system is the respiratory system.

List the 9 vertebrate phyla and for each, describe two key characteristics/features of each phylum that distinguishes the animals from the other invertebrate phyla.

1. Phylum Chordata- Have 4 structures: 1. Notochord, 2. Hollow nerve cord, 3. Pharyngeal gill slits, and 4. Post-anal tail. 2. Phylum Porifera- 1. Sponges belong to this phylum. 2. Filter feeders. 3. Phylum Arthropoda- 1. Have paired, jointed appendages. 2. Have tracheal systems. 4. Phylum Annelida- 1. Have 5 hearts. 2. Have excretory pores. 5. Phylum Platyhelminethes- 1. Have flame cells. 2. Some are free living. 6. Phylum Nematoda- 1. Have a nerve ring around the pharynx. 2. Have longitudinal muscles. 7. Phylum Echinodermata- 1. Have an endoskeleton. 2. Have a water vascular system. 8. Phylum Cnidaria- 1. Have tentacles with specialized stinging cells. 2. Tissues contain mesoglea. 9. Phylum Mollusca- 1. Have a muscular foot. 2. Have a mantle.

What are 6 major functions of the vertebrate circulatory system?

6 major functions of the vertebrate circulatory system include the transport of oxygen, the distribution of nutrients, the transport of waste products and toxic substances, the distribution of hormones, regulating body temperature, and acts as an aid to defend against foreign bacteria and viruses.

Venule

A narrow vessel with thin walls that carries blood from capillaries to veins.

A) What is a coelom and what are 3 functions of this structure? B) Explain the difference between acoelomate, psuedocoelomate, and coelomate animals and give an example of a phylum representative of each.

A) A coelom is a fluid filled cavity that is thinly lined with a layer of tissue, which develops from mesoderm. 3 functions of the coelom include: 1. Supporting the body by acting as a skeleton. 2. Providing protection to internal organs. 3. Allows for movement and more flexibility. B) The difference between acoelomate, psuedocoelomate, and coelomate is acoelomates have no body cavity; for example- flatworms. Psuedocoelomates have a body cavity, which is not lined completely with mesoderm-derived tissue; for example- the roundworm. Coelomates have a fluid filled cavity that is completely lined with a thin layer of mesoderm-derived tissue; for example- the earthworm.

A) Explain HOW a freshwater fish osmoregulates. B) Explain HOW a marine cartilagenous fish/shark osmoregulates.

A) A freshwater fish repeatedly takes in water across their body surface. They osmoregulate by eliminating large amounts of dilute urine and ingesting foods that have a high salt concentration to "make up" for the salts that are lost. B) Cartilagenous fish internal fluids are more concentrated than seawater because they have the reverse gradient, which by pressure, water is forced against the gradient. Because of repeated water intake, stemming from high amounts of urea in their blood, cartilagenous fish will osmoregulate by excreting large amounts of urine and also eliminating excess salt through rectal glands.

A) Explain how a positive feedback process differs from negative feedback. B) DESCRIBE a biological example of a positive feedback process in the human body.

A) A positive feedback process differs from negative feedback, because positive feedback amplifies the negative or unbalanced reaction that is currently occurring, whereas a negative feedback process helps regulate/maintain internal conditions. B) The human body temperature has a varied set point. If that set point has been exceeded (fever), the sensor sends the information to the control center. The control center compares the current body temperature to the desired set point and responds by directing the effector to use the correct tool to bring down the body temperature. For example, the effector responds by producing sweat to bring down the body temperature. Instead of the body's internal temperature returning to its desired set point, the metabolic rate increases, which rapidly generates more heat, faster than the body is capable of ridding. This results in an even higher fever and continues in a loop, stimulating further increase of the body temperature.

A) What kind of cells make up adipose tissue AND where is this tissue commonly found in the human body? B) Describe loose connective tissue ANDwhere is this tissue commonly found in the human body?

A) Adipose tissue are made up of adipose cells (or adipocytes) and this tissue is commonly found all throughout the body, between muscles, and around internal organs. B) Loose connective tissue consists of ground substance and a widespread, loose weave of fibers and this tissue is commonly found in the linings of organs.

A) What kind of skeleton (endoskeleton or exoskeleton) do Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) have AND what is the carbohydrate it contains that makes it hard? B) What is molting AND why do arthropods undergo this process? C) What are the fused segments of an arthropod body called?

A) Arthropods have an exoskeleton that contains chitin, which makes the exoskeleton hard. B) Molting is the process in which the exoskeleton is shed and this process takes place, because the arthropod grows, whereas the exoskeleton does not. C) Fused segments of an arthropod are called tagmata.

Describe HOW heat exchange occurs between an animal and the surrounding environment: A) convection, B) radiation, C) conduction, and D) evaporation. B) Provide a specific example to illustrate each of these processes.

A) Convection- Heat exchange occurs by movement of air or contact with a liquid. Radiation- Heat exchange occurs by the release of electromagnetic waves from objects the do not have direct contact. Conduction- Heat exchange occurs by direct contact between a body surface and molecules in the surrounding environment. Evaporation- Heat exchange occurs when the heat from a liquid is lost and the molecules change the liquid to a gas. B) An example of convection would be- cold water splashing on a human. There is a loss of heat from the movement of liquid. An example of radiation would be- A person sunbathing and being warmed by the sun An example of conduction would be- A lizard being warmed and absorbing heat from a rock. An example of evaporation would be- A human body producing sweat.

A) What is happening to the urine as it moves along the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting duct of the kidney? B) Name the hormone that increases the permeability of the distal tubule and the collecting duct to water AND describe the effect this hormone has on the urine produced. C) Name the duct that directs the urine away from the kidney AND name the organ where urine is stored until it is expelled from the body. D) Name the duct that expels urine outside the body.

A) As it moves along the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting duct of the kidney, the urine either becomes more concentrated or watery depending on fluid intake. B) The hormone that increases permeability of the distal tubule and collecting duct to water is called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and high levels of this hormone result in decreased amounts of urine that is less dilute and low levels of this hormone result in an increased amount of urine that is more dilute. C) The duct that directs urine away from the kidney is called uterer and the organ where urine is stored until it is expelled from the body is called the bladder. D) The duct that expels urine outside the body is called the urethra.

You have just taken eaten a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. A) Describe HOW the sandwich is broken down mechanically AND chemically in BEFORE it enters your stomach. B) What happens to the food in the stomach AND what role due proteases play? C) What is the material called that leaves the stomach AND what organ of your digestive system accepts this material? D) Describe the specific role of each of the these organs in digestion: liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

A) Before a sandwich enters the stomach, mechanical breakdown begins by breaking the food into smaller pieces (chewing). This stimulates chemical breakdown, where the salivary glands secrete the digestive enzyme amylase to further the breakdown of food particles. The tongue moves the food in the mouth to the pharynx where both chemical and mechanical breakdown continue- peristalsis occurs, and the broken-down food moves down the esophagus and into the stomach. B) The food in the stomach is further broken up by contractions. Then, secretions from the gastric glands are used to start the breakdown of proteins. Protease breaks down the protein into peptides. The secretions and food particles are converted into chyme, which is slowly released into the small intestine by the pyloric sphincter. C) The material that leaves the stomach is called chyme and the small intestine accepts it. D) The liver is an organ that acts as a storage unit for carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and iron. The liver also helps to regulate blood sugar levels, detoxifies substances that could be harmful, and produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder. The gallbladder releases bile into the bile duct, further releasing it into the intestine. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which is released through the pancreatic duct into the small intestine. The pancreatic juice neutralizes acidic chyme, which furthers digestion.

A) Besides body temperature, what are 4 other important internal conditions that are regulated by homeostatic mechanisms in the human body? B) Exaplain what is meant by "dynamic equilibrium" or "dynamic constancy" when describing the internal conditions of an organism.

A) Besides body temperature, four other important internal conditions that are regulated by homeostatic mechanisms in the human body include: water content, glucose levels, internal fluids pH, and salt concentration. B) When describing internal conditions of an organism, "dynamic equilibrium" or "dynamic constancy" means that internal conditions oscillate around a set point.

A) Describe how oxygen is exchanged between the alveoli and the capillaries of the lungs. B) Explain how carbon dioxide (a waste product of cellular respiration) is removed from capillaries of the lung AND then expelled from the lungs during respiration.

A) Between the alveoli and the capillaries of the lungs, oxygen is exchanged when oxygen disperses from within the alveolus through the alveolus' moist epithelium and finally across the wall of the capillary next to the alveolus, where oxygen molecules are then picked up by hemoglobin. B) Carbon dioxide is removed from the capillaries of the lung by passing from the capillaries through the alveoli and is then expelled from the lungs during exhalation.

A) Describe the process of how blood is filtered when it enters the human kidney. B) Where along the nephron does filtration take place AND what are the major blood vessels involved? C) Give some examples of substances that are filtered. D) Which direction (filtrate to blood or blood to filtrate) are these substances moved?

A) Blood enters the human kidney from the renal artery, where it is then pressure-filtered in the renal corpuscle, which consists of the glomerulus and the glomerulus capsule, resulting in filtrate. From there, the filtrate enters the renal tubule, where the filtrate is converted into urine. B) Along the nephron, filtration takes place in the renal corpuscle and the major blood vessel involved Include the renal artery and the renal vein. C) Some examples of substances that are filtered include water, urea, and salt. D) These substances are moved blood to filtrate.

A) What are book lungs AND what animals have this type of respiratory structure? B) DESCRIBE the tracheae/tubule system found in some animals. Note: tracheae is not the same as trachea. C) How do some animals keep air flowing in their tracheae/air tubes? D) How do gills/ctenidia differ from book gills AND what TWO animals have gills/ctendia?

A) Book lungs are extensions of respiratory tissue inside of an animal and animals that have this type of respiratory structure include spiders. B) The tracheae/tubule system found in some animals are air tubes that expand throughout the some body's of animals and open by spiracles that allow for access to the external environment. C) Some animals keep air flowing in their tracheae/air tubes by rhythmic body movements. D) Gills/ctenidia differ from book gills because gills/ctenidia are extensions of respiratory tissue that are outside the body surface, whereas book gills are respiratory extensions that are found inside the body and two animals that have gills/ctendia include crustaceans and bivalves.

A) You are walking across a field and step on a rusty nail (ouch!) and a bacterial cell from the nail infects one of your body cells. What specific immune response will hopefully kick in to destroy the infected body cell AND what lymphocytes control this immune response? B) What are MHCs AND what binds to these proteins to signal an immune response? C) What are T cell receptors AND where are they found? D) What is the role of T cell receptors in an immune response AND what actives the T cell to start multiplying/become activated?

A) Cell-Mediated Immune Response would kick in and destroy the infected body cell and it is controlled by T cells. B) MHCs are proteins that are on normal body cells and to signal an immune response, T cell receptors will bind to MHCs. C) T cell receptors are proteins and they are always found bound to the surface of T cells. D) In an immune response, T cell receptors recognize specific antigens and binds to them, activating T cells to start multiplying.

A) Where is epithelial tissue commonly found in the human body? B) Name the 3 kinds of epithelial cells AND describe their unique shapes. C) How does stratified epithelial tissue differ from simple epithelial tissue? D) What are ciliated epithelial cells AND what does the cilia do? E) Where in the human body do you find ciliated epithelial tissue?

A) Epithelial tissue is commonly found on the outside of the body, lined along organs, and in body cavities. B) The three kinds of epithelial cells include: squamous, cuboidal, and columnar. Squamous cells are flat and wide. Cuboidal cells are shaped like a cube. Columnar cells take on a rectangular shape. C) Stratified epithelial tissue differs from simple epithelial tissue because stratified epithelial tissue consists of multiple cell layers, whereas simple epithelial tissue consists of a single layer of cells. D) Ciliated epithelial cells are epithelial cells that contain cilia and cilia is a form of locomotion in cells and fluid transport. E) In the human body, you find ciliated epithelial tissue in the respiratory tract as well as fallopian tubes.

A) What are 4 key/distinguishing characteristics of ALL mammals? B) What is the placenta AND what is an example of a placental mammal? C) Give 2 examples of non-placental mammals.

A) Four key/distinguishing characteristics of all mammals include: 1. Having hair. 2. Young being fed by mammary glands in females. 3. The presence of a placenta. 4. Having permanent teeth of different shapes and sizes. B) The placenta is a structure that is formed from the uterus lining and membranes from the embryo, which enables gas, nutrients, and waste exchange to occur between the mother and the embryo. An example of a placental mammal is an elephant. C) Two examples of non-placental mammals include the platypus and the spiny anteater.

A) Describe the overall structure AND the main function of heart valves. B) Name the 2 atrioventricular valves found in the human heart AND where inside the heart are they located. C) Name the 2 semilunar heart valves AND where inside the heart are they located.

A) Heart valves are described as folds/flaps of connective tissue which permit unidirectional blood flow. Heart valves function to allow for blood flow when open and prevent blood flow out of the chamber when closed. B) The 2 antrioventricular valves found in the human heart include the tricuspid valve, which is located in between the right atrium and the right ventricle and the bicuspid/mitral valve, which is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle. C) The 2 semilunar heart valves include the pulmonary valve, which is located in the right ventricle where the pulmonary artery exits the heart and the aortic valve, which is located in the left ventricle where the aorta exits the heart.

A) Explain the difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation pattern in the adult human body. B) Under normal conditions, does deoxygenatedand oxygenated blood ever mixed in the adult human heart? Explain why or why not AND what is the benefit of this type of circulation pattern?

A) In the human body, the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circulation pattern is that during pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood flows from the heart's right side and to the lungs, and during systemic circulation, oxygenated blood flows from the heart's left side and to the body. B) Under normal conditions, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix in the adult human heart. The benefit of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood not normally mixing is that it allows for more efficient delivery of oxygen to tissue and organs. If oxygenated and deoxygenated blood were to mix, delivery of oxygen to organs and tissues would decrease, making it inefficient.

A) What is lymph AND where does this fluid exist in the body? B) Explain where lymph comes from. C) How does lymph differ from blood in terms of where it is found AND what it contains?

A) Lymph is an extracellular fluid that contains lymphocytes and little oxygen, and exists in tissues in the body. B) Lymph comes from the fluid that seeps out of blood capillaries and body tissues. C) In terms of where it is found and what it contains, lymph and blood differ, because lymph does not contain red blood cells and little oxygen and is found in lymphatic capillaries and veins, whereas blood does contain red blood cells and oxygen, and is found in blood vessels of the circulatory system.

A) What are lymph nodes AND what role/function do they play in the human body? B) What are TWO specific lymph nodes in the human body AND why do they sometimes swell?

A) Lymph nodes are sac-like structures that contain lymphocytes and macrophages and they function to filter the lymph. B) Two specific lymph nodes in the body include cervical lymph nodes and inguinal lymph nodes. Lymph nodes sometimes swell, because there is an accumulation of bacteria, viruses, or cancerous cells that lymphocytes and macrophages located in the lymph nodes are working to destroy.

A) Why is maintaining homeostasis crucial to living organisms? Do not just say they will die if they can't- what specifically happens to biochemical processes if homeostasis is not maintained? B) What happens to enzymes if the cellular conditions are not within optimal range AND how does this impact chemical reactions?

A) Maintaining homeostasis is crucial to living organisms, because if homeostasis is not maintained metabolic pathways and chemical reactions will not be able to function correctly. For example, internal temperature could be disrupted, resulting in a harmful affect, and/or illness/disease could occur. B) If the cellular conditions are not within optimal range, enzymes will not be able to function to their full capacity, and will ultimately lose effectiveness in creating chemical reactions.

A) What are nodes in the human heart AND what role do they play in the functioning of the heart? B) Name TWO nodes found in the human heart ANDtell were they are located. C) Which of these nodes is called the pacemaker and WHY?

A) Nodes in the human heart are clusters of specialized cells that maintain the rate of the heart beat. B) The nodes in the human heart include the sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular node. The sinoatrial node is a collection of specialized muscle cells that regularly produce electrical signals, which control the rate in which the heart beats. This is located in the upper right atrium. The atrioventricular node is a collection of specialized muscle cells, which cause simultaneous contraction of the ventricles. This is located close to the base of the wall that separates the atria and ventricles. C) The sinoatrial node is called the pacemaker, because the specialized muscle cells send out electrical signals, which controls the rate of the heart beat.

A) Name 2 phyla that contain segmented animals. B) What is meant by segmentation AND what are 2 advantages of this adaptation?

A) Two phyla that contain segmented animals include Phylum Annelida and Phylum Arthropoda. B) Segmentation is the separation of the body into a series of repeated fragments. Two advantages of this adaptation are 1. Regeneration of the body, and 2. More efficient movement.

A) Describe what happens during the process of TUBULAR SECRETION in the human kidney. B) Where along the nephron does secretion takes place? C) Give some examples of substances that are secreted. D) Which direction (blood to filtrate or filtrate to blood) are these substances moved?

A) Occurring in distal tubules and proximal tubules by active transport, substances such as K and H ions are selectively removed from the blood and into the filtrate. B) Tubular secretion occurs in the proximal tubules and distal tubules. C) Some substances that are secreted include wastes like K and H ions, poisons, and drugs. D) The substances are moved from the blood into the filtrate.

A) Describe what happens during the process of TUBULAR REABSORPTION in the human kidney. B) Where along the nephron does this process take place? C) What are some examples of substances that are reabsorbed? D) Which direction (filtrate to blood or blood to filtrate) are these substances moved?

A) Occurring mainly in the proximal tubule, substances are transported out of the filtrate and into the blood, where essential molecules like salt and nutrients are reabsorbed. B) Tubular reabsorption takes place mainly in the proximal tubule- can take place in the collecting duct, the loop of Henle, and also the distal tubule. C) Some of the substances that are reabsorbed include amino acids, vitamins, glucose, and salt. D) These substances are moved out of the filtrate and into blood.

A) What does osmolarity refer to AND how does it effect water flow across the plasma membrane? B) Explain the difference between an osmoconformerand osmoregulator. C) Which of the following groups of animals are osmoregulators and which are osmoconformers: freshwater animals, most terrestrial animals, most marine invertebrates, most marine vertebrates?

A) Osmolarity refers to the concentration of solutes and balance of internal and external osmolarity. This will direct the movement of water flow across the plasma membrane by means of osmosis, depending on the balance or imbalance between internal and external osmolarity (a high or low water concentration/a high or low solute concentration). B) The difference between an osmoconformer and an osmoregulator is that osmoconformers are animals whose body fluid osmolarity is similar to the osmolarity of their external environment, eliminating the need to regulate their internal osmolarity. Osmoregulators are animals that maintain osmolarity of their fluids at higher or lower levels compared to their external environment. C) Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers. Osmoregulators include most marine vertebrates, freshwater animals, and terrestrial animals.

A) Explain HOW each of the following excretory structures function to eliminate waste products: protonephridia, nephridia, and Malpighian tubules. B) Give an example of an animal representative of each type of excretory structure listed in part a.

A) Protonephridia contain tubules that branch throughout the body with bundles of ciliated flame cells. The flame cells generate a current that draws extra cellular fluid through the tubules and the wastes are excreted through excretory pores. Nephridia are excretory tubules that are found within the coelom that is filled with interstitial fluid, where wastes and nutrients are collected. The fluid from the coelom enters the nephrostome, where it moves through the nephridia and is excreted through the nephridiopor. Malpighian tubules are excretory tubules that blindly reach outward and absorb nutrients and wastes from the hemolymph. By both active transport and diffusion, wastes are emptied into the gut. By osmosis, collected water and wastes flow from the hemolymph, through the hind gut and into the rectum, where the wastes are excreted. B) An example of and animal with protonephridia as an excretory structure is a flatworm. And example of an animal with nephridia excretory structure is an earthworm. An example of an animal with malpighian tubules is a bee.

A) What kind of connective tissue are tendons and ligaments? B) How do tendons differ from and ligaments in terms of where they are found? C) What makes this kind of connective tissue strong?

A) Tendons and ligaments are dense connective tissue. B) In terms of where they are found, tendons and ligaments differ by tendons being found attached to the end of muscles and ligaments being found at joints to attach bone together. C) Dense connective tissue is strong, because of its numerous collagenous fibers in parallel bundles.

A) Name the 3 regions of the renal tubule of a single nephron (not the regions of the kidney, but a single nephron). B) Name the 4 main processes that take place in the kidney that result in the production of urine. C) Name the tube/duct that receives the urine from the nephrons BEFORE it leaves the kidney.

A) The 3 regions of the renal tubule of a single nephron include the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle, and the distal tubule. B) The 4 main processes that take place in the kidney that result in the production of urine include blood filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion, and concentration of the filtrate. C) The tube that receives the urine from the nephrons before it leaves the kidneys is called the collecting duct.

A) Name the 4 kingdoms of Domain Eukarya. B) What is one characteristic ALL organisms in these kingdoms have in common> C) DESCRIBE two key characteristics of the organisms in each kingdom that sets them apart from the other eukaryote kingdoms.

A) The 4 kingdoms of Domain Eukarya include: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. B) One characteristic that all these kingdoms have in common, is that their cells have a nucleus. C) Protista: 1. Doesn't form a clade. 2. Unicellular. Fungi: 1. Absorbs nutrients/food. 2. Body exists as hyphae. Plantae: 1. Undergo photosynthesis. 2. Have a two generation life cycle. Animalia: 1. Ingest nutrients/food. 2. Have complex nervous and muscular tissues.

A) What are the 4 major events of the Cardiac Cycle which represents one heart beat? B) Explain the systole and diastole phases of the cardiac cycle. C) When your blood pressure is taken, what does the top and bottom number represent? D) What causes the "lub"-"dub" sound of a normal heart beat? Be specific.

A) The 4 major events of the Cardiac Cycle that represent one heart beat include 1. blood flow into both relaxed atria, 2. both atria contract simultaneously, 3. both ventricles contract simultaneously, and 4. a rest period where the heart chambers relax. B) The systole phase is when blood is forced out of the chambers when the heart contracts. The diastole phase is when after the hear contract, the muscle relaxes, which allows the blood to fill the chambers. C) When your blood pressure is taken, the top number represents systolic pressure, which is the force of blood on the artery walls as the heart beats. The bottom number represents diastolic pressure, which is the blood pressure between heart beats. D) The sound of a normal heart beat is caused by heart valves. Blood is able to flow when valves are open and is prevented from flowing when valves are closed.

A) What type of specific immune response (humoral or cell-mediated) occurs to eliminate a pathogen that is freely circulating in your blood stream, other body fluids, or between cells? B) What causes/stimulates antibodies to be produced? C) Explain why this is called a specifc immune response.

A) The Humoral Immune Response occurs to eliminate a pathogen that is freely circulating in your blood stream, other body fluids, or between cells. B) Antibodies are stimulated to be produced by the immune system detecting antigens. C) This is called a specific immune response, because when an antigen is detected, the immune system responds by multiplying immune cells or producing antibodies.

A) Describe the structure of cardiac muscle. B) What are TWO function/roles intercalated discs play in the functioning of the heart? C) Name the 4 heart chambers of the human heart AND for each chamber tell if the blood at that location is oxygenated or deoxygenated.

A) The cardiac muscle contains striated cells that are branched. Intercalated disks that look like dark lines join the ends of adjacent cells and have specialized junctions to hold the cells together when the muscle contracts, and gap junctions that communicate signals between cells to allow for simultaneous muscle contraction. B) Two functions/roles intercalated discs play in the functioning of the heart include holding the cells together during muscle contractions and relaying signals from cell to cell which allows for coordinated contraction. C) The 4 chambers of the human heart are 1. the right atrium and the blood at this location is deoxygenated, 2. the left atrium and the blood at this location is oxygenated, 3. the right ventricle and the blood at this location is deoxygenated, and 4. the left ventricle and the blood at this location is oxygenated.

A) What chemical messenger is released by activated T cells AND what are 2 kinds of T cells that are mass produced as a result? B) What role do Helper T cells play in the Humoral Immune Response? Be specific. C) What T cells are involved in the destruction of infected body cells AND how do these cells recognize the bad cells and kill them? D) What T cells are responsible for ending the immune attack AND how do they do this?

A) The chemical messenger that is released by activated T cells is called cytokines and 2 kinds of T cells that are mass produced as a result include Helper T cells and Cytotoxic T cells. B) In Humoral Immune Response, Helper T cells carry T-cell receptors, which bind to antigens and Helper T cells quickly multiply. The daughter cells release cytokines which stimulate division of cells and differentiation in cytotoxic T cells and B cells. B cells are stimulated to mass produce more antibodies and mark infected cells and cytotoxic T cells destroy the infected cells. C) Cytotoxic T cells are involved in the destruction of body cells and these cells recognize the bad cells and kill them by recognizing them as foreign due to unusual proteins on their surfaces. D) Regulatory T cells are responsible for ending the immune attack and they do this by releasing an enzyme that inhibits cytokines, letting the immune cells know to stop antibody and cytotoxic T cell production.

A) Name the 4 major groups/classes of arthropods. B) For each arthropod group, describe TWO characteristics/features that are UNIQUE to EACH group.

A) The four major groups/classes of arthropods are insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and myriapods. B) Two key characteristics to: Insects: 1. Only flying vertebrates. 2. Have 3 tagmata- head, thorax, and abdomen. Arachnids: 1. Have 4 pairs of jointed legs. 2. Have 2 tagmata- head and abdomen. Crustaceans: 1. Respiration using gills. 2. Multiple pairs of jointed legs. Myriapods: 1. Have lots of legs (between 100-300, sometimes up to 750). 2. Exclusively live on land.

Answer these questions based on the "Facts" you read while at the heart animation link under mod 5. A) What is the largest artery in the human body and how does this compare to the size of a capillary? B) How many liters of blood are in an adult human? C) How many times does the blood circulate through your body every minute? D) In one day, blood travels how far in comparison to the distance across the US from coast to coast? E) On average, how many times does your heart beat per day?

A) The largest artery in the human body is the aorta and according to the heart animation, it is almost equal to the diameter of a garden hose, and compared to the size of a capillary is huge (the heart animation described that it would take ten capillaries just to equal the thickness of a single human hair). B) In an adult human, there are about 5.6 liters of blood. C) Every minute, the blood circulated through the body three times. D) In one day, blood travels 12,000 miles, 4 times across the US from coast to coast. E) On average, your heart beats 100,000 times per day.

A) What is the main difference between an invertebrate and a vertebrate? B) Since invertebrates lack an endoskeleton, what are three other features/structures some invertebrates have to support their bodies?

A) The main difference between invertebrates and vertebrates, is that the invertebrates do not have a backbone and vertebrates do have a backbone. B) Since invertebrates lack an endoskeleton, three other features/structures to help support their bodies include: spicules, a hydro skeleton, and an exoskeleton.

A) What is the main functional unit of the human kidney AND approximately how many of these units are present in a single kidney? B) What is the glomerulus AND what happens in this structure? C) What is the function/role of the Bowman's capsule? D) Explain the difference between filtrate and urine.

A) The main functional unit of the human kidney is the nephron and there are millions in a single kidney. B) The glomerulus is a ball of inter-connected loops of porous capillaries that permits water and small dissolved molecules in the blood to seep out, forming the filtrate that will be captured in the glomerulus capsule. C) The function/role of the Bowman's capsule is to further aid in blood filtration and structurally provides a space that allows filtrate to enter the nephron and progress to the proximal convoluted tubule. D) Filtrate and urine differ, because filtrate is a pressure filtered fluid (from blood) produced in the glomerulus, that consists of waste products, salts, urea, and nutrients like glucose and water. Urine is the result of filtrate (concentrated filtrate) and is a nitrogenous liquid produced by the nephron, consisting of waste products from proteins, excess nutrients, different ions, and some foreign substances.

A) What specific chemical compound makes bone hard? B) Explain why cartilage is flexible. C) What two structures in the human body are made of cartilage and not bone?

A) The mineral hydroxyapatite makes bone hard, which is formed from a matrix of collagen and calcium phosphate. B) Cartilage is flexible because of the elastic fibers containing the protein, elastin. C) The two structures in the human body that are made of cartilage and not bone are the nose and ear.

A) Name the organ in the human body where most absorption occur AND how does absorption take place. B) What are villi AND what is their role in this organ AND importance in the digestive process?

A) The organ in the human body where most absorption occurs is called the small intestine. Absorption takes place when the nutrients from digestion cross the lining of the digestive tract and are absorbed by villi. B) Villi are small finger-like projections found in the foldings of the small intestine and their role is to increase the surface area of the small intestine. This is important, because greater surface area will allow for more nutrient absorption.

A) Name the phylum (don't just give the common name) of animals that lack tissues. B) What is the central cavity of these animals called AND what are choanocytes/collar cells and their function?

A) The phylum of animals that lack tissues is Phylum Porifera. B) The central cavity of these animals is called a spongocoe and choanocytes/collar cells are flagellated feeding cells that line the spongocoel and provides movement and transfers water that is carrying food particles through the sponge.

A) Name the phylum that contains gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods. B) What is the mantle AND what function does it have in these animals? C) What is the radula AND what is the function of this structure in gastropods? D) What is the role of the adductor muscle in bivalves? E) What what are 2 examples of cephalopods AND what is the foot of this animal modified into that aids in locomotion and capturing prey?

A) The phylum that contains gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods is Phylum Mollusca. B) The mantle is a heavy fold of tissue that creates a chamber for the gills, and the mantle functions to produce the calcareous external shell. C) The radula is a flexible tissue in gastropods that aids in grasping plants or prey and scraping algae from rocks. D) In Bivalves, the role of the adductor muscle is to open and close two shells that are hinged together. E) Two examples of cephalopods include the octopus and the squid and the foot of these animals that aid in locomotion and capturing prey is called a tentacle.

A) Name the 3 invertebrate phyla that are the "worm-like" animals. B) Which phylum is the segmented worms AND what is an example of a common segmented worm with 5 heart-like structures? C) Which phylum is the round worms AND how do some free-living round worms move that is characteristic to this phylum? D) Which phylum is the flat worms AND what is an example of a free-living worm in this phylum?

A) The three invertebrate phyla that are "worm-like" animals are Phylum Platyhelmithes, Phylum Nematoda, and Phylum Annelida. B) The segmented worms is Phylum Annelida and an example of a common segmented worm with 5 heart-like structures is the earth worm. C) Phylum Nematoda is the round worms and some free-living round worms move by longitudinal muscles, which allow their uniques whip-like movements. D) Phylum Platyhelmithes is the flatworm and an example of a free-living flatworm in this phylum is a freshwater flatworm.

A) What are the 3 principle components of a negative feedback system? B) Explain how negative feedback works. C ) DESCRIBE a biological example of negative feedback to illustrate how it can regulate an internal condition in the human body.

A) The three principle components of a negative feedback system include: a sensor, a control center, and an effector. B) Negative feedback works by something in nature first having a set point or desired state. If there is a change, the sensor will detect said change and forward that change to the control center. The control center then determines the best course to take. This is when the effector comes in and responds by restoring the desired state or set point. C) A humans body has a set point of blood sugar levels. When levels exceed the set point, the sensor will send this information to the control center. The control center will then compare current blood sugar levels to set point levels and detect that the blood sugar levels have exceeded the desired set point. The control center then decides what to do and directs the effector to take action. The effector responds by releasing insulin to bring down the blood sugar levels, eventually restoring the desired set point.

A) Name the 3 major types of muscle tissue found in vertebrates AND tell where each can be found in the body. B) Describe the muscle cells that make up each of muscle tissues you named in part a. C) Which of the type(s) of muscle tissue(s) show striation? D) Which of the type(s) of muscle tissue are under voluntary control AND what does this mean? E) Which of the type(s) of muscle tissues are involuntary?

A) The three types of muscle tissue found in vertebrates include: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle tissue can be found attached to bone. Cardiac muscle tissue can be found on the wall of the heart. Smooth muscle tissue can be found in the walls of internal organs. B) Skeletal muscle cells are long microfilaments that contain myosin and actin. Where myosin and actic filament overlap, there are dark lines called 'z lines'. Cardiac muscle cells show a branched appearance and are joined together by intercalated disks at the ends of adjacent cells. Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped. C) Both skeletal muscle tissue and cardiac muscle tissue show striation. D) Skeletal muscle tissue is under voluntary control, meaning the muscles contract and relax by choice. E) Both cardiac muscle tissue and smooth muscle tissue are involuntary.

A) Name the white and red cells found in blood AND give the specific function of each of cell type. B) What are platelets AND what is their function? C) What is the matrix component of blood called AND what does this fluid contain besides blood cells and platelets?

A) The white cells found in blood are called leukocytes and the red cells found in blood are called erythocytes. B) Platelets are colorless cells and their function is to clot blood. C) The matrix component of blood is called plasma and besides blood cells and platelets, plasma contains water, gases, salts, and proteins.

A) What are 3 features of the Adaptive/specific Immune Response that differ from the Innate/nonspecific Immune Response? B) What are 3 things antibodies do which activate the adaptive immune response? C) What kind of molecules are antibodies AND what specific cells produce antibodies?

A) Three features of the Adaptive/specific Immune Response that differ from the Innate/nonspecific Immune response include 1. before an attack can occur, a threat must be recognized- a specific antigen must be detected. 2. Response takes place throughout the entire body- responses are systemic. 3. Adaptive immune responses allow for future protection against specific microbes- has a memory. B) Three things antibodies do that activate the adaptive immune response include recognizing, marking, and binding specific antigens. C) Antibodies are proteins and B cells produce antibodies.

DESCRIBE each type of body symmetry (asymmetry, radial symmetry, and bilateral symmetry) found in animals AND give an example of an animal representative of each type of symmetry. Make sure you give a description that clearly describes the difference between radial and bilateral symmetry.

Asymmetry- An animal, such as a sponge, has a body that is absent of any pattern and cannot be symmetrically split from any axis to provide equal or mirror image halves. Radial symmetry- When the body of an animal, such as a sea jelly can be divided (by any line through it's central axis) into mirror image halves with unequal left and right sides. Bilateral symmetry- When the body of an animal, such as a ladybug can be divided into mirror image halves (with equal left and right sides) only along a specific plane that passes down the middle (through the central axis).

DESCRIBE the flow of blood through the human adult heart and at each location tell whether the blood is oxygenated or deoxygenated. Begin your journey in the superior and inferior vena cava and end with the aorta. Make sure you include all major blood vessels, all heart chambers, and the lungs.

Beginning in the superior and inferior vena cava, deoxygenated blood flows to the right atrium and is pumped through the tricuspid valve. The deoxygenated blood is then pumped to the right ventricle and is passed through the pulmonary artery and into the lungs. The still deoxygenated blood then becomes oxygenated and is pumped from the lungs to the pulmonary veins. The oxygenated blood being pumped through the pulmonary veins gets pumped to the left atrium, through the mitral valve and into the left ventricle, where the still oxygenated blood is them pumped to the aorta.

Besides collecting and eliminating waste products from the blood, what are 4 other functions of the mammalian Urinary/Excretory System?

Besides collecting and eliminating waste products from the blood, 4 other functions of the mammalian Urinary/Excretory System include maintenance of proper pH of the blood from secreting sodium bicarbonate and H ions, blood level regulation of ions by transfering them between the blood and the filtrate, water content regulation from water reabsorption, and absorption of glucose and additional nutrients.

What is cutaneous respiration AND what is an example of an animal that respires this way?

Cutaneous respiration is the diffusion of gases across a moist body surface and an example of an animal that respires this way is a flatworm.

DESCRIBE 4 physiological or behavioral strategies used by endotherms to help them thermoregulate.

Four physiological or behavioral strategies used by endotherms to help them thermoregulate include: vasodilation, vasoconstriction, hibernation, and migration. Vasodilation is a physiological strategy that helps endotherms thermoregulate, because this expands blood vessels near the body surface, which regulates the blood flow to the skin. Vasoconstriction is a physiological strategy that helps endotherms thermoregulate, because this condenses the blood vessels at the body's surface. Hibernation is a behavioral strategy that helps endotherms thermoregulate, because during a major environmental change, an animal can hibernate, which lessens its energy cost. Migration is a behavioral strategy that helps endotherms thermoregulate, because again when major environmental changes occur, some endotherms can migrate to a more favorable climate where thermoregulation is better supported based off the environment.

What method is used to transport both carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood?

Hemoglobin

Why do red blood cells contain hemoglobin?

Hemoglobin can bind and carry four molecules of oxygen simultaneously.

Pretend you are an air molecule just inhaled by a human being. DESCRIBE the pathway you would take to reach the surface of either the right or left lung. Make sure to include ALL structures along the respiratory tract you would encounter.

I will first enter through the mouth or nostrils and travel through the pharynx and over the epiglottis. Because I'm an air molecule, the epiglottis will be tilted upward, allowing for me to travels across the larynx, where I will then move into the trachea and finally encounter a bronchus, which will branch into either the left or right lung

Respiration

In terrestrial vertebrates, the act of moving air into the lungs (inhalation) and out of the lungs (exhalation). During respiration, oxygen diffuses from the air in the lungs into the circulatory system, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the circulatory system into the air in the lungs

Describe what happens in the Large Intestine of the human digestive system AND name the two regions of this organ.

In the large intestine, water and nutrients are absorbed and the formation of feces takes place. The two regions of the large intestine are the colon and the rectum.

Explain what happens during an Innate Immune Response using ALL the following words: macrophages, neutrophils, antigen, pathogen, phagocytosis, natural killer cells, and inflammatory response. Do not give definitions- describe their role in how an innate immune response works.

Innate Immune Response occurs when external barriers like the skin or mucous membranes are breached by harmful microbes. Macrophages search for these harmful microbes and similar to them, natural killer cells search for infected or cancerous cells and destroys them. When the external barrier is breach (for example: a cut on the leg), an inflammatory response occurs by histamines being released, which attract white blood cells. The first to arrive are neutrophils. Phagocytosis occurs and both the macrophages and neutrophils engulf the harmful microbes- pathogens, which have antigens on their surface.

Hemoglobin

Iron containing protein that gives red blood cells their color. Binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it in the tissues.

How is lymph moved/circulated throughout the mammalian body AND what keeps this fluid circulating?

Lymph is moved/circulated throughout the mammalian body by being carried by lymphatic capillaries and vessels, and lymphatic vessels and movements of muscles keeps this fluid circulating.

What is thermoregulation AND WHY do animals thermoregulate? Be specific. They will die if they don't is not an acceptable answer.

Thermoregulation is the regulation of a body temperature that has a range or limit, which allows for efficient function of the body cells. Animals thermoregulate, because their cells function more efficiently with a specific body temperature. The environment can rapidly change and with animals having the ability to thermoregulate, this allows for survival during those environmental changes.

DESCRIBE the specific cells and arrangement of the cells that comprise/make up EACH of the 4 major tissue types.

Nervous tissue cells, also known as neurons, are composed of a cell body that has a nucleus, extensions that act to conduct impulses to the cell body called dendrites, and a single extension that sends impulses away from the cell body called an axon. Muscular tissue cells, also known as myocytes consist of parallel bundles of microfilaments made from contractile proteins called myosin and actin. Epithelial tissue cells are cells that are firmly attached to each other. Epithelial cells vary in shape such as cuboidal, columnar, and squamous. Have gap junctions. Connective tissue cells are widespread cells called fibroblasts, which are long, flat, spindle-shaped cells that contain a flat, oval shaped nucleus and have cytoplasmic projections.

Name the 4 major tissue types found in animals AND give the function of each major tissue type.

The 4 major tissue types found in animals include: nervous tissue, muscular tissue, epithelial tissue, and connective tissue. Nervous tissue functions to sense stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another as well as controls body functions. Muscular tissue functions to respond to stimuli and contracts and relaxes for both voluntary and involuntary movements. Epithelial tissue lines organs and cavities of the body and also covers the outside of the body. Epithelial tissue functions include secretion, excretion, absorption, diffusion, filtration, providing protection, and sensory reception. Connective tissue functions to provide the body with support, insulation, storage, and protection.

Name the 6 different kinds/types of connective tissue AND give the function of each type of connective tissues.

The 6 types of connective tissue include: loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous or dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood. The function of loose connective tissue is to provide support and form membranes and linings of organs. This connective tissue holds organs in place. Adipose tissue serves as storage (used as energy storage), insulation, and padding. Fibrous or dense connective tissue functions to attach bones together at the joints. Cartilage functions to give flexibility and support to the body. Bone functions to give support to the body. Blood functions to transport gases, waste material, and nutrients through the body.

Explain the major differences between arteries and veins in terms of: A) vessel wall thickness, B) direction of blood flow inside the vessel (toward or away from the heart), C) whether the vessel normally carries deoxygenated or oxygenated blood, and D) Name the specific artery AND vein associated with the human lungs that are the exception to most arteries and veins and explain why.

The differences between arteries and veins are that (A) veins have a thinner wall and arteries have thick walls. (B) Veins carry blood toward the heart and arteries carry blood away from the heart. (C) Veins normally carry deoxygenated blood and arteries carry oxygenated blood. (D) The specific artery and vein associated with the humans lungs that are the exception to most arteries and veins is called the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary vein. These are the exception to most arteries and veins, because normally oxygenated blood is carried by arteries, but the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood is normally carried by veins, but the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood.

DESCRIBE (do not just name) the 4 structures/features ALL chordates posses sometime during their life span AND give the function/role of each structure.

The four structures/features all chordates possess sometime during their life span are: 1: The notochord, only present in early stages of many chordates, is a firm yet pliable rod that extends down the length of the body, located between the nerve cord and the digestive tract. The notochord has large fluid filled cells that are enclosed with fibrous tissue, which act as an attachment site for muscles and provides the body with support. 2: Nerve cord- In some chordates, the nerve cord is a hollow tube that is fluid filled in its center and is situated above the digestive tract. Other animals nerve cord consists of solid nerve tissue as opposed to a chordates fluid filled nerve cord. Located at its anterior end, a thickening is developed during embryonic development, which becomes the brain in chordates. 3: Pharyngeal gill slits- Slits located in th pharynx that functions as a respiratory tool to allow for gas exchange in water for some chordates (these only appear in early development in some chordates). In other animals that grow into adulthood and develop with their gill slits, their gill slits function as a means of filter feeding. 4:Post anal tail- Consisting of muscle and tissue and a part of the nerve cord, the post anal tail is an extension of the chordate, which reaches past the anus. Many chordates retain their tails into adulthood, however, some will lose the through development. The post anal tail aids in movement and agility.

Explain the major difference between an ectotherm and endotherm AND give an example of each.

The major difference between an ectotherm and an endotherm, is how their body heat is derived. Ectotherms mainly acquire their body heat from there surroundings and endotherms mainly acquire their body heat from metabolism. An example of an ectotherm is a lizard. An example of an endotherm is a bear.

The matrix and proteinaceous fibers distinguishes connective tissue from other types of tissues. What is the matrix AND what are the 3 types of proteinaceous fibers found in connective tissues?

The matrix is comprised of ground substance- which consists of water that is balanced by glycosaminoglycans, proteglycans, and glycoproteins- and fibers. The three types of proteinaceous fibers found in connective tissue are collagen, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.

DESCRIBE 2 important chemical and physical external barriers that prevent the entry of many pathogens into the human body.

The skin is an important physical eternal barrier. The skin hosts beneficial bacteria and has specialized cells that contain chemicals which aid in the fight against harmful microbes. Mucous membranes serve as an important chemical barrier. Antibacterial enzymes are secreted along the respiratory tract by mucous membranes. This helps to capture harmful microbes, which can then be removed from sneezing, coughing, or swallowing. If a harmful microbe ends up in the stomach, it is killed by the acid in the stomach.

Capillary

The smallest type of blood vessel, connecting arterioles with venules; capillary walls through which the exchange of nutrients and wastes occurs. Only one cell thick