BioPsychology - All Chapters - Final Exam
Early-maturing children performed significantly better than late-maturing children of the same sex on spatial measures, suggesting that spatial abilities in male and female adults may be related to different maturation rates.
False
GABA has been shown to have the same effect on neurons located in the substantia nigra of male and female rat pups
False
What does the Glossopharyngeal control?
Muscles of the throat (larynx and taste)
This nervous system is active during digestion.
Parasympathetic nervous system
The VTA sends dopamine to:
The mesolimbic and mesocortical systems
Collection of axons INSIDE CNS
Tract
Sex differences in the brain are similar in effect size to other areas of neuroscience
True
The memory loss experienced by the famous case of H.M. was the result of surgery for his ______.
epilepsy
What kinds of memories are affected by non-REM sleep?
episodic and semantic
Which of the following problems is NOT typically associated with Down Syndrome?
especially strong muscles, but with little ability to control them
What color cone is responsible for medium waves (530nm)?
green cones
Circadian rhythms of sleep and wakefulness are controlled by activity of the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the _________.
hypothalamus
What do vergence movements do?
keep an image of an object on identical portions of both retinas
The intrafusal muscle fibers detect ________ while the Golgi tendon organ detects ________.
muscle length, how far a muscle stretches
Some neurons are covered with an insulating material called the __________ with interruptions in the sheath known as ________.
myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier
What are the two segments of the primary visual cortex?
neurons in the blobs and neurons outside the blobs
superior colliculus
orienting help for what we see -we use our eyes and neck to orient ourselves to what we're looking at
These increase cardiac muscle contractions
Beta-adrenergic
How long does the long-term memory storage process take?
Between ten and fifteen years
A direct antagonist for the GABA-binding site on the GABA(A) receptor.
Bicuculline
Which of the following is a coordinated limb movement?
Bicycle pedaling
A man can identify the make and model of a car, but he cannot distinguish between a moving car and a stationary car. What kind of brain damage is the man likely to have?
Bilateral lesions in his medial temporal or medial superior temporal lobes
Most analgesics are effective because they do this.
Bind to opiate receptors
Juraska and colleagues found that female rats raised in an enriched environment displayed greater dendritic structure of dentate gyrus cells compared to males. This is an example of a ___________ difference.
Functional
Which portion of the brain is not involved in analysis of written words?
Wernicke's area
_______ is the area of the left temporal cortex hypothesized to be the center of language comprehension.
Wernicke's area
What are the three W's for hydrocephalus
Wet Wacky Wobbly
A research scientist has administer a drug to a subject that produces low frequency stimulation of the vestibular sacs. Which of the following identifies the subject's most likely response?
Nausea: Vestibular sacs give the brain information about head orientation
What are the first symptoms of schizophrenia to appear?
Negative
What the body does to drugs (they are absorbed, distributed within the body, metabolized, and excreted)
Pharmacokinetics
Enzymes
What controls the effects of the synthesis of NTs?
The appearance of Parkinson's disease in a person who has no family history of that disorder would be classified as a ______ case.
Sporadic
Bundles of axons in the CNS
Tracts
The typical antipsychotic medications work by _______
antagonizing D2 receptors
with respect to the CNS, located near/toward the head
anterior
the anterior part of the pituitiary gland; an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones
anterior pituitary gland
A diminished craving sensation is paired with a tone, so the addict learns to associate one with the other. When he later enters a real life crack-related situation, he can play the tone on his cell phone and it will serve as a(n) ___________ to evoke the reduced sensation of craving.
conditioned stimulus
For obsessive-compulsive disorder, most of the compulsions fall into one of the following four categories:
counting, checking, cleaning, avoidance
a peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain
cranial nerve
The ________ is a structure of the medial temporal lobe where certain brain waves, such as theta waves, are generated.
hippocampus
a forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system; includes the hippocampus proper (Ammon's horn), dentate gyrus, and subiculum
hippocampus
The ____________ and _______________ make up the hippocampal formation.
hippocampus and dentate gyrus
Stereotaxic apparatus function
holds head in place, guides lesioning instruments, dials move the arms.
What are two kinds of retinal cells?
horizontal and amacrine
cells that affect the synapses b/w bipolar cells and receptors
horizontal cells
What is the calcarine fissure?
horizontal fissure on the inner surface of the posterior cerebral cortex (medial and posterior lobe)
The experience of stress has been found to _____________________.
increase the amount of cocaine self-administered by rats
An ______________ in temperature lower the sensitivity of _______________.
increase, warmth receptors and raise the sensitivity of cold receptors
Dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens is ________ in schizophrenia.
increased
When individuals with social anxiety disorder are shown pictures of angry faces, there is _________________.
increased activation of the amygdala
The firing rate decreases when ____.
light hits the surround
A photoreceptor receiving information from the part of the visual field on which the eye is focused will be ________.
located in the fovea
the phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex
neocortex
The grammar of American Sign Language has a visual, ___________ nature.
spatial
Josh has phonological dysgraphia. He is unable to _________.
sound out words
The Morris water maze requires ___________ learning, forcing animals to get their bearings from the relative locations of stimuli located outside the maze to navigate it.
relational
What is a lesion?
A wound or injury; a researcher who destroys part of the brain usually refers to the damage as a brain lesion
Nucleosides
Adenosine (-) o Only inhibitory o Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors (if inhibition is blocked—get excitation)
What causes the physiological effects of caffeine?
Adenosine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Caffeine inhibits this inhibitor by blocking adenosine receptors, thus producing a stimulating effect
How are adjacent cilia connected?
Adjacent cilia are connected with tip links.
Withdrawal from what drug can be fatal?
Alcohol
An alcoholic decides to stop drinking and suffers a seizure on his way to a treatment facility. What is believed to have caused the seizure?
Alcohol serves as an antagonist of NMDA receptors
An alcoholic decides to stop drinking and suffers a seizure on his way to a treatment facility. What is believed to have caused the seizure?
Alcohol serves as an antagonist of NMDA receptors.
protrusions of top of the mibrain; part of the visual system
superior colliculi
Where do on/off cells project to?
superior colliculus
a venous sinus located in the midline just dorsal to the corpus callosum, between the two cerebral hemispheres
superior sagittal sinus
The ________ generates a 24-hour rhythm that synchronizes the sleep and wake cycle.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
The cerebellum seems to play a key role in the ________ that are too rapid to adjust based on feedback.
timing of movements
Electrolytic Technique
tip of microelectrode is placed in target strucutre and electrical current is passed through the tip so that it burns surrounding tissue and destroys the brain strucutre
simple cells
- Have bar-shaped or edge-shaped receptive fields that respond to horizontal or vertical orientations than to diagonals - The cell responds to a stimulus in only one location
koniocellular neurons
- Have several functions - Their axons terminate in several locations
magnocellular neurons
- Larger receptive fields and are not color sensitive - Respond strongly to moving stimuli and large overall patterns but not details - Found throughout the retina, including the periphery, where we are sensitive to movement but not color or details
Schizophrenia - Major Depression - Anxiety -
- decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex. - decreased activity in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex - activation of the autonomic nervous system & amygdala
Adrenergic Receptors
-A class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the catecholamines, especially norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) 1. Alpha (a) -adrenergic more sensitive to NE 2. Beta () -adrenergic less sensitive to NE
Drugs that block histamine receptors provide excellent treatment for allergic congestion in the nose and eyes. What side effect do these drugs often cause?
Drowsiness
What function does the sodium-potassium pump perform?
pumps sodium ions out of the cell and moves potassium ions into the cell
A patient with a lesion in the visual cortex of the left occipital lobe and the posterior end of the corpus callosum could write but had lost the ability to read. This patient has what is called ________.
pure alexia
The _________ controls contralateral fine motor control of skeletal muscles.
pyramidal system
retina
rear surface of the eye lined with visual receptors
Whole-word reading involves
recognizing an entire word and pronouncing it.
a large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord
red nucleus
Because neurons in the brain generally do not ____________ it is vitally important for the blood brain barrier to block incoming viruses, bacteria or other harmful material from entering.
regenerate
What is the extrastriate cortex?
region of visual association cortex; receives fibers from striate cortex and from superior colliculi; contains cells that assist with detection of corners
Conduction aphasia reflects poor ____________ but meaningful, fluent speech and relatively good _______________.
repetition, comprehension
tissue that covers the back of the eye; detects light; transduce the energy of light into a neural code
retina
__________ is degeneration of the axon portion that is connected to the cell body after the axon is cut.
retrograde degeneration
A scientist wants to find both the afferent and the efferent connections for what she terms area G of the brain. To identify afferent connections, she should use _________, and to identify efferent connections, she should use _______.
retrograde tracing methods; anterograde tracing methods
Chemical Lesions
reversible chemicals deactivate but do NOT destroy neurons. canula is used to place chemicals
Thermal
reversible deactivates neurons by cooling it. this prevents neuron from functioning but does NOT kill them. when tissue is warmed, neurons resume their activities and lesion is gone
a protein in rods that are sensitive to light
rhodopsin
when a photon of light hits it, it changes its shape, thus activating a channel that allows ions to move in/outside of the cell, therefore, a depolarization or hyperpolarization occurs
rhodopsin in rods
Evidence from normal people, as well as people with brain lesions, suggests that prosody is a special function of the _______.
right hemisphere
Characteristics of neurons outside the blobs?
sensitive to orientation, movement, high-frequency (form) and binocular (retinal disparity), NO COLORS
acuity
sensitivity to detail
those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of primary sensory cortex
sensory association cortex
Nervous systems process information in three stages: _________, __________, and ___________.
sensory input, integration, motor output
When infants are learning grasping behaviors, they are in Piaget's ________ stage.
sensory motor (sensorimotor)
People with anterograde amnesia
show impairment of complex relational learning.
What is square-wave grating?
simple side-by-side rectangles that vary in brightness; varies step-by-step (alternating, or in degrees)
Which of the following are located in the primary visual cortex?
simple, complex and hypercomplex cells
Microelectrode
single unit recording - it is inserted into individual neurons so that their firing rates can be measured
Genes that produce _____________ affect the addictive potential of cocaine.
sirtuins
The lateral geniculate nucleus is a __________ structure that receives input from the retinas and transmits its output to the primary visual cortex.
six-layered thalamic
The amount of light that enters the eye is regulated by the
size of the pupil
If people train intensively to learn something new, like memorizing lists of words or acquiring practical skills, there may be changes in their _____.
sleep architecture
What are tremors?
slight shakes in the eye at a particular frequency
What is the quickest way to change your mood, according to Dr. Hirsch?
smelling something
Deep brain stimulation was demonstrated by Mantione and associates (2010) to be effective as a method to stop _______.
smoking cigarettes
the cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla
spinal cord
ALS is a degenerative disease, attacking the ________ and ________motor neurons.
spinal cord; cranial nerve
a peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord
spinal nerve
a bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve
spinal root
Schizophrenia is probably the most misused term in psychology, and literally means _______.
split mind
Most cases of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) are __________________.
sporadic
Directing lesion equiptment to the right place using
stereotaxic surgery
Stereotaxic surgury requires (2)
sterotaxic apparatus and stereotaxic atlas
What does the professor say is "just toxic for memory"?
stress
located in the tectum; function is to move your eyes and neck to a particular place in order to localize things in space
superior colliculus
Research with Japanese people who have localized brain damage has shown that difficulty reading kanji symbols is a form of _______, whereas difficulty reading kana symbols is a form of __________.
surface dyslexia; phonological dyslexia
The "fight or flight" response originates in the _______ nervous system.
sympathetic
nodules that contain synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system
sympathetic ganglia
one of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral column
sympathetic ganglion chain
Neurofibrillary tangles are made up of dying neurons that contain intracellular accumulations of twisted filaments of hyperphosphorylated ________.
tau protein
the dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi
tectum
the ventral part of the midbrain; includes the periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra
tegmentum
stimulated by the right visual field that travels to the left side of the brain
temporal hemi-retina
the region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes
temporal lobe
Taste receptor cells have a lifespan of about _____________.
ten days
Each sensory system has a specialized primary sensory cortex, which receives inputs from _________.
thalamic nuclei
lateral geniculate nucleus
thalamic nucleus that receives incoming visual information
The ________ is a large two-lobed structure that constitutes the anterior end of the brainstem.
thalamus
retinal disparity
the discrepancy between what the left and right eyes see
visual field
the part of the world that you see
What paths does color perception depend on?
the parvocellular and koniocellular paths
What are the optic radiations?
the pathway through which the neurons of the lateral geniculate nucleus send their axons to the primary visual cortex
What region surrounds the calcarine fissure?
the primary visual cortex
What is sensory transduction?
the process by which sensory stimuli are transduced into slow, graded receptor potentials.
Functional imaging studies, such as the one conducted by Nichelli in 1995, suggest that judging the moral aspect of a story activates areas in __________.
the right hemisphere
Infants will grasp when ____.
their palm is touched
Benzodiazepines are often used for emergency medical treatment of anxiety disorders, but are less frequently used for long term treatment. All of the following are reasons that Benzodiazepines are not the preferred long term treatment, except:
they prevent withdrawal symptoms
How might slow-wave sleep be helpful to people?
During the down state of each oscillation of slow-wave sleep, enormous numbers of neurons are presumably inhibited, allowing them to rest and be replenished in a meaningful way.
Microdialysis is used to measure neurotransmitters such as dopamine in a synaptic cleft by analyzing which of the following?
Extracellular fluid
What are extrafusal muscle fibers?
Extrafusal muscle fibers are skeletal muscle fibers that provide the force of contraction.
An agonist is any drug that
Facilitates the effect of a neurotransmitter
An agonist is any drug that _____
Facilitates the effect of a neurotransmitter
Sex differences in the brain are thought to be relatively small
False
What two written languages were invented by specific individuals?
Hangul and Cherokee
Why was Dave given naltrexone in the emergency room?
He had overdosed on heroin.
Hypothermia and sedation are effects of what drug?
Heroin
By inhibiting the released of the NT
How do presynaptic heteroreceptors produce presynaptic inhibition?
2 NTs, one with excitatory effects (glutamate) and one with inhibitory effects (GABA, glycine)
How is most synaptic communication accomplished in the brain?
Antipsychotic medications can inhibit dopamine activity in the basal ganglia, leading to what type of side effects?
tremors
Sound is funneled via the pinna through the ear canal to the eardrum or ______________
tympanic membrane
rods
type of retinal receptor that detects brightness of light
Which signals cause the sleep/waking flip-flop to tip toward wakefulness?
Hunger, biological clock signals, low adenosine levels
Damage to this nerve might result in difficulty swallowing.
Hypoglossal nerve
Historically, which region of the brain was most notably associated with sex differences inthe brain?
Hypothalamus
Injection of a substance into a muscle.
IM Injection
What is the hierarchy of drug absorption into the body (starting with the quickest)?
IV IP IM SC Rectal PO Topical
Injection of a substance directly into a vein.
IV Injection
hypercomplex/end-stopped cell
type of visual cortex cell that resembles complex cells; responds best to stimuli of a precisely limited type, anywhere in a large receptive field, with a strong inhibitory field at one end
Sam has pure word deafness. Which of the following is he not able to do?
understand speech
With direct dyslexia, patients can read words aloud, but cannot ___________.
understand what they are reading
Withdrawal symptoms produced by a drug are __________________________.
usually opposite to the effects of the drug itself
How do adoption studies provide evidence for the heritability of behavioral traits?
If offspring and parents show a much stronger correlation for the trait than offspring and adopted parents, the trait is likely to be under genetic control. If offspring and adopted parents show the stronger correlation, the trait is likely to be under control of the offspring's environment.
the largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic division of the ANS to organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities
vagus nerve
"toward the belly"; with respect the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body
ventral
In the visual cortex, the ________ stream is involved with object recognition, whereas the ________ stream is involved with perception of the location of objects.
ventral, dorsal
What wavelength do rods transmit information at?
~460nm
What two types of abnormal proteins are found in Alzheimer's patients?
αβ and tau
Why is night vision largely a black and white rather than a color experience
In low light conditions, the rods are the only receptors that function and they do not have color vision
Explain how kainic acid can be used in the laboratory.
In small doses, kainic acid merely stimulates neurons to fire rapidly. In large doses, kainic acid causes repeated firing that eventually exhausts the neuron and kills it.
For most people, when does melatonin secretion begin?
In the evening, about 6 hours before the midpoint of sleep.
The vestibular system is located here.
In the labyrinths of the inner ear
Skilled movements such as those involved in playing the trombone would be handled primarily in this part of the brain.
In the lateral zone of the cerebellum
When does sleep paralysis usually occur?
In the periods upon waking and falling asleep
Recognition of pitch appears to be located here.
In the superior temporal gyrus associated with the anterior "what" stream
Where is the biological clock located?
In the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus
Which of the following statements about Korsakoff's syndrome is accurate?
It is usually, but not always, the result of chronic alcohol abuse.
Whether a drug is an agonist or an antagonist depends on ________
Its effect on the postsynaptic cell
Why is freebase cocaine (crack) probably the most positive reinforcer of all drugs?
Its effects are potent and rapid.
What does the Trigeminal control?
Jaw muscles (touch, pain, temperature, and pressure)
An ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium challen; stimulated by kainic acid.
Kainate Receptor
Why are Parkinson's patients given L-DOPA?
L-DOPA is a precursor of the dopamine that Parkinson's patients need and quickly gets converted to dopamine that is used to alleviate Parkinson's symptoms.
Why are people with Parkinson's disease give L-DIOA as a drug rather than dopamine?
L-DOPA is the precursor to dopamine that can get through the blood-brain barrier while dopamine cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier
A drug that stimulates 5-HT2A receptors.
LSD
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is effective, but has some risks. What can be caused by excessive use of ECT?
Lasting memory impairment
______________ refers to the process by which experiences change our nervous system and hence our behavior.
Learning
What is the formal definition of learning?
Learning comes from a change in behavior or thought based on experience.
What is the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder?
Lithium
Suppose brain researchers suspect that a specific enzyme increases aggressiveness in rats. How can they test to see the behavioral effects of the enzyme?
Make a knockout gene for the enzyme then insert the gene into the rat's genome. If the rat becomes less aggressive, the hypothesis gains support.
Which of the following is structural difference between male and female schizophrenics?
Males demonstrating enlarged ventricles while females do not
From an evolutionary point of view, which of the following best explains why humans developed taste receptors for bitter foods?
Many poisons, such as alkaloids, have a bitter taste, so the receptors developed to avoid foods that might be toxic.
_______________ is/are activated either when we perform an action or see an action performed by someone else.
Mirror neurons
How do the authors of the mirror neuron studies explain the function of mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons help us to understand the actions and intentions of others.
To combat narcolepsy, doctors widely prescribe ________.
Modafinil
What are antisense oligonucleotides?
Modified strand of RNA or DNA that binds with a specific molecule of mRNA and prevents it from producing its protein
A class of amines that includes indolamines such as seratonin and catecholamines such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
Monamine
A class of enzymes that destroy the monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
What takes out the extra monoamine?
Monoamine oxidase
Which of the following occurs during stage 4 sleep but not during stage 3 sleep?
More than 50% delta activity
When a baby throws its arms outward and arches its back it is called the ___ reflex.
Moro
What is the relationship between the sleep-promoting region of the hypothalamus (vlPOA) and the five arousal systems of the forebrain and brainstem?
Mutual inhibition
_______________ receptors are glutamate receptors found in the hippocampal formation that control calcium ion channels.
NMDA
A system of neurons originating in the substantia nigra and terminating in the neostriatum (caudate nucleus and putamen).
Nigrostriatal System
A gas produced by cells in the nervous system; used as a means of communication between cells.
Nitric Oxide (NO)
How does non-coding DNA typically function?
Non-coding DNA is involved in the production of non-coding RNA, which has functions of its own.
Collection of cell bodies INSIDE CNS
Nucleus
Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest evidence that the monkey visual system engages in learning
Nuerons in the inferior temporal cortex respond selectively to highly complex stimuli that have been viewed in the past
Which of the following provides the strongest evidence that sleep is necessary for good health and survival?
Organisms with total insomnia due to damage in the preoptic area or individuals with fatal familial insomnia cannot survive for very long without sleep.
Who is considered to be the Father of Neuroscience?
Otto Loewi
Schizophrenia has been associated with which of the following?
Overactivity of dopaminergic neurons
Which of the following appears to be a cause of schizophrenia?
Overactivity of dopaminergic neurons
This is to take drugs by mouth
PO
_____ identifies the process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted from the body.
Pharmacokinetics
________ refers to the process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted from the body.
Pharmacokinetics
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is covered by which of the following?
Pia mater and dura mater
The locus coeruleus is a group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the ______
Pons
__________ refer to the end points of an axon where the release of chemicals to communicate with other neurons occurs.
Presynaptic terminal
How does cocaine affect the brain?
Prevents the reuptake of dopamine
What causes transmissible spongiform encephalopathy?
Prions
An ice skater suddenly experiences trouble when she does her spins and jumps. During these dramatic moves, the skater's vision becomes blurred. Which of the following is most likely to be her problem?
Problems with her vestibulo-ocular reflex
What comprises the "ticking" in a biological clock?
Production and breakdown of a protein.
What is prosopagnosia, and what does its existence tell us about separate shape recognition systems in the visual cortex?
Prosopagnosia is the inability to recognize faces. Its existence implies that the cortical mechanisms for identifying faces is different from the mechanism for identifying other complex stimuli.
Which retrograde tracing method will move across synapses from one neuron to another?
Pseudorabies
What comprises the REM Sleep flip-flop?
REM-Off and REM-On
A flip-flop is characterized by which kind of circuitry?
Reciprocal inhibition
medial superior temporal cortex
Respond to more complex stimulus (i.e. the expansion, contraction, or rotation of a large visual scene); occurs when you move forward or back or tilt your head
When you read a book you use this kind of eye movement?
Saccadic eye movements that jump from one place to another
Which of the basic gustatory receptors correlating to tastes are naturally reinforcing?
Salty, sweet, fat, and umami
How can saporin be used to selectively kill off neurons?
Saporin can be attached to an antibody that targets a protein that is unique to a specific group of brain neurons. The antibodies find neurons with the protein and the saporin kills those cells.
What is the most common cause of seizures?
Scarring
Myelin-providing glia in the PNS
Schwann cells
What did researchers begin years ago with hopes of furthering understanding of narcolepsy?
Scientists bred dogs for the trait of narcolepsy. Narcoleptic dogs were found to have abnormal receptors for a specific neurotransmitter due to a faulty protein. The neurotransmitter for these receptors was identified as the peptide orexin.
What disorder is often safely and effectively treated with phototherapy?
Seasonal affective disorder
Which of the following is an example of a modulating effect of a neurotransmitter?
Secretion of serotonin suppresses certain categories of species-typical behaviors and reduces the likelihood that the animal acts impulsively
An increase in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly.
Sensitization
For a drug to be effective, a person needs to take a smaller and smaller dose of the drug if she is experiencing which of the following?
Sensitization
What is the relationship between tolerance and sensitization?
Sensitization is the exact opposite of tolerance. Repeated doses of a drug produce larger and larger effects. Sensitization is less common than tolerance.
Which of the following is NOT a form of acquired dyslexia?
Sensory
Which of the following best describes the classic explanation of the phenomenon known as phantom limb?
Sensory axons that originated in the missing limb continue to fire, sending information to the brain.
A neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends information about these changes to the central nervous system. Is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation (touch, light, sound, etc.)
Sensory neuron
This is the process in which sensory information is turned into electrical impulses.
Sensory transduction
Which neurotransmitter increase sharply as REM sleep ends?
Serotonin
An indolamine neurotransmitter; also called 5-hdroxytryptamine.
Serotonin (5-HT)
• 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) • Tryptophan =precursor • 5-HT receptors = serotonergic receptors • 5-HT1A...Depression • 5-HT2A...LSD; hallucinatory effects • 5-HT3...ionotropic (only one of MA's)
Serotonin Receptors
Which neurotransmitters increase sharply as REM sleep ends?
Serotonin and norepinephrine
In the article, "Why sex matters for neuroscience," the author compiled a list ofcommon misconceptions relevant to sex influences on the brain. Which of thefollowing was NOT considered a misconception? (In other words, which of thefollowing statements is TRUE?)
Sex differences cannot be completely explained by the action of sex hormones.
Which of the following is NOT a structural sexual dimorphism?
Sex hormones altering the excitability of hippocampal cells
Which of the following statements best describes hormonal influences on the brain and behavior?
Sex hormones influence learning processes and interact with stress hormones to do so.
What happens to visual input when low frequency information is removed
Shapes of images are difficult to percieve
What is adoption studies?
Similarity of offspring and adoptive and biological parents estimates heritability of trait
What is the difference between simple and complex cells?
Simple cells respond to a single orientation in a stationary place and have inhibitory borders. Complex cells respond to a wide area, have no inhibitory borders, and are sensitive to movement.
A location at which molecules of drugs interact with molecules located on or in cells of the body, thus affecting some biochemical processes of these cells.
Site of Action
This gives physical protection to the brain
Skull, Meninges, Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Our ability to learn and form memories is greatly inhibited by
Sleep deprivation
How do the vestibular sacs function?
The cilia in the vestibular sacs are embedded in a gelatinous mass weighted down by otoconia crystals. When the head orientation shifts, the heavy crystals shift, sending a message to the cilia that the orientation of the head has shifted.
inferotemporal cortex
The cortex of the inferior temporal lobe, in which is located an area of secondary visual cortex that is involved in object recognition
Certain street drugs produce the same positive effects as schizophrenia. These symptoms can be alleviated by the administration of antipsychotic drugs. What hypothesis does this support?
The dopamine hypothesis
What causes the deficits in Parkinson's disease?
The dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra degenerate and remove an inhibitory link from the pathway to the VA/VL thalamus. This results in causing the overall pathway to be more inhibitory than it would normally be, upsetting the input balance between direct and indirect basal ganglia pathways.
This identifies the perceived pitch of a sound.
The fundamental frequency
Which general statement can be made about EEG patterns from a visual perspective?
The higher the frequency of the activity, the closer the activity is to wakefulness.
Which of the following was NOT a conclusion drawn by Milner with regard to pure amnesia?
The hippocampus is not involved in converting immediate memories into long-term memories.
Which of the following is an example of stem cell research?
The insertion of undifferentiated progenitor cells into brain-damaged areas.
In a laboratory study, three groups of monkeys were given constant access to a lever that administered one of the following drugs: cocaine, heroin, or alcohol. Which group was most likely to self-administer a drug until it caused death?
The monkeys with access to cocaine
Which of the following statements is NOT true of the opiates?
The most commonly abused opiate is morphine.
The article mentions an assortment of opposite sex differences associated with Alzheimer's disease. Which of the following conclusions is false?
The rate of Alzheimer's disease is disproportionately higher in males.
What causes a muscle to contract?
The release of neurotransmitter from a motor neuron.
What is the definition of epidemiology?
The study of the distribution and causes of diseases in populations
Where is the biological clock in a human being located?
The suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus.
You encounter an angry bear while walking in the woods. How will your nervous system respond?
The sympathetic nervous system activates the adrenal medulla, which secretes epinephrine to increase blood flow to the muscles
Autoreceptors in a presynaptic button regulate _____
The synthesis and release of neurotransmitters
A student argues that fainting and cataplexy are two aspects of the same thing. Both are brought on by emotional events. Both involve dropping to the floor. How credible is this theory?
The theory is not credible because cataplexy involves paralysis, not unconsciousness. Fainting, on the other hand, involves being unconscious so it is different than cataplexy.
opponent-process theory
The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, white-blue) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
In a microsope, a student examines tissue from the retina and finds that it contains cones, but no rods. How can this absence of rods be explained
The tissue comes from a peripheral region of the retina, which contains only cones
A researcher wants to know whether neurons in brain area X lead to area A of the brain or area B. Which choice will give her the most precise view of the situation?
Use a cannula to inject glutamate into the area to avoid stimulating nearby axons that originate in a different part of the brain.
Staining
Using cell-body stains to identify nuclear masses in the brain
Like reading, writing (spelling) involves more than one method. Which of the following is NOT a method of writing?
Using semantic and phonological information
When is intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of a drug used?
When a drug is suspected of being effective but is unable to penetrate the blood-brain barrier, scientists and doctors sometimes choose to inject the drug into brain ventricles to obtain a widespread distribution of the drug.
Fos proteins appear under which circumstances?
When a neuron has been synaptically stimulated
On receptors, both presynaptic and postsynaptic
Where is the most important and most complex site of action of dugs in the nervous system?
An overtone is ______________ the fundamental frequency of a sound.
a multiple of
Drugs of abuse signal reinforcement via ____________.
a phasic release of dopamine
What is an opsin?
a protein
Negative color afterimage
a replacement of the red you had been staring at with green, green with red, yellow and blue with each other, and black and white with each other
A patient with conduction aphasia has difficulty repeating words, especially ______.
a sequence of random letters, called nonwords
interact at specific synaptic layers of the eye
amacrine cells
The _________ plays a role in evaluating the emotional significance of memories.
amygdala
In the days of prefrontal lobotomies under the supervision of Moniz, sometimes _______ was used to perform the operation, which was driven through the brain, and swept back and forth so that it cut through _______.
an ice pick; white matter
motion blindness
an impaired ability to perceive movement
visual agnosia
an inability to recognize objects despite otherwise satisfactory vision
A drug binds to an alternative binding site in a receptor and ends up facilitating the opening of ion channels in the receptor. What of a drug is it?
an indirect AGONIST
small projections of the arachnoid membrane through the dura mater into the superior sagittal sinus; CSF flows through them to be reabsorbed into the blood supply
arachnoid granulation
the middle layer of the meninges; located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater
arachnoid membrane
Organization of the motor aspects of writing does NOT involve the ________.
arcuate fasciculus
Although hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality, the most common one is ________ and involves __________.
auditory; hearing voices
What is the smell that brings up feelings of nostalgia in most people?
baked goods
What types of neurons are likely to be sensory neurons?
bipolar or unipolar neuron
a break in retina where the optic nerve intercedes
blind spot
What causes sleep apnea?
blocked breathing passages
Buprenorphine _________________ the effects of opiates and produces a __________ opiate effect.
blocks, weak
What color cone is responsible for short waves (440nm)?
blue cones
Short, medium, and long wavelength cones respond maximally to ____, ____, and ____ wavelengths, respectively.
blue, green and red
Adult neurogenesis has been demonstrated in:
both b and c.
A person with sleep apnea would experience which of the following symptoms?
breathing pauses during sleep, many times per hour
Hermann von Helmholtz
built on the trichromatic theory and further explained that there are specifically THREE cones that are each maximally sensitive to a different set of wavelengths; can make any color by mixing the appropriate amounts of three wavelengths---red, blue, and green
How far do you know to move instrument in each direction to reach target area?
by using stereotaxic atlas
How is insomnia best treated?
caffeine and alcohol reduction and increase in exercise
One treatment for narcolepsy is _______.
caffeine or other stimulants
specialized neurons that establish themselves during cortical development in a layer near the terminals of the radial glia, just inside the pia mater; secrete a chemical that controls the establishment of migrating neurons in the layers of the cortex
cajal-retzius (C-R) cells
Cell death during excitotoxicity is caused by the influx of massive amounts of ___________ and ____________.
calcium and zinc
The body's response to stress _____________.
can be voluntarily terminated or reduced by challenging negative thoughts
What is monochromacy?
cannot see color
a bundle of spinal roots located caudal to the end of the spinal cord
cauda equina
"toward the tail"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis away from the front of the face
caudal
the anesthesia and paralysis of the lower part of the body produced by injection of a local anesthetic into the CSF surrounding the cauda equina
caudal block
motion blindness
caused by damage to area MT, where the person is able to see objects but impaired at seeing whether they are moving or, if so, which direction and how fast
lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
cells have receptive fields that resemble those of the ganglion cells—an excitatory or inhibitory central portion and a surrounding ring with the opposite effect
area V4 [color constancy area]
cells in this location respond to how the light in a particular area compares to the surrounding context—these cells identify that an object is still yellow even under different lighting
inferior temporal cortex
cells located here respond to a particular stimulus respond almost equally to its negative or mirror image, but not to a physically similar stimulus in which the "figure" now appeared to be part of the background
The brain and spinal cord
central nervous system (CNS)
where integration takes place; this includes the brain and a nerve cord
central nervous system (CNS)
What is the fovea?
central region of the retina; responsible for sharpness/acute vision; only contains cones
the sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal
central sulcus
Many animals have a complex nervous system that consists of a _______ nervous system and a ______ nervous system.
central, peripheral
the cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum
cerebellar cortex
a narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon
cerebral aqueduct
the outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres
cerebral cortex
a clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
What is accomodation?
changes in the thickness of the lens; focuses near and far objects onto the retina for processing
photopigments
chemicals contained by both rods and cones that release energy when struck by light
Tardive dyskinesia can be the result of taking _______________ for an extended period of time.
chlorpromazine
the highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces CSF
choroid plexus
HM's medial temporal lobes were removed in attempt to treat his ______.
chronic epilepsy
a strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum
cingulate gyrus
Receptive fields in the retina are often ____.
circular
What type of learning involves associations?
classical conditioning
The susceptibility of hippocampal cells to chronic stress has been associated with ________ and post-traumatic stress disorder.
clinical depression
Dyslexia is particularly apparent when _______ are read.
clip says "single words" but quiz shows answer to be "both single and novel words"
During the ________ phase of a grand mal seizure, the patient is likely to show rhythmic, jerking movements.
clonic
Hallucinations, delusions of persecution, mood disturbances, and repetitive behaviors are all possible effects of abuse of ________.
cocaine
The rise in heroin use came after the _____ epidemic.
cocaine
Cocaine and amphetamine are different in that __________________.
cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake, while amphetamine releases dopamine
The frequency of light waves is perceived as _______ by the visual system.
color
Charactertics of neurons in the blobs?
color, low-frequency spatial, large receptive field
This kind of cell responds equally well to white lines against black backgrounds and black lines against white backgrounds
complex cells
A person who has extreme difficulty reading the blueprints for a home remodeling job may suffer from
constructional apraxia.
Cones
contain photopigment and allow us to see color
located on the opposite side of the body
contralateral
The _______ is a band of myelinated fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
corpus callosum
a large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain
corpus callosum
Following brain damage, cortical areas that no longer receive input from a damaged region begin to respond to input from other body areas. This process is called ________.
cortical reorganization
James Olds and Peter Milner reported that electrical stimulation of rat brain
could have reinforcing effects.
An individual whose symptoms resemble those of bipolar disorder but are less severe is said to suffer from ______ disorder.
cyclothymic
If you soak a squid axon in a dish of detergent, what is likely to remain the dish?
cytoskeleton
Slow-wave sleep seems to improve ________ while REM sleep helps people ________.
declarative memory, with non-declarative memory
Neural circuits that contain memories are established by strengthening some synapses and weakening others; the low-frequency stimulation of synaptic inputs to a cell can __________ their strength in a phenomenon known as ________________.
decrease, long-term depression
nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain
deep cerebellar nuclei
The task used by experimenters to test for short term memory, in which a stimulus is shown, and then, after a delay during which the stimulus is gone, the subject must indicate which of several alternatives matches the original stimulus, is called the ________ task.
delayed matching-to-sample
Decreased neurogenesis in the hippocampus has been reported in both _____ and _______.
depression; anxiety
Like ______, bipolar disorder is a _______ disorder.
depression; mood
When treating anxiety disorders, cognitive behavioral therapy uses procedures that ________ the patients to the objects they fear.
desensitize
Long-term exposure to glucocorticoids may affect memory by ________________________.
destroying neurons in the hippocampus
Excitotoxic technique
destroys target neurons WITHOUT damage to fibers of passage. involves using Calula instead of microelectrode. canula introduces chemical agents to the target area, which causes chems to bind to GLU sites and open Ca ion channels for long time. TOXIC LEVELS OF Ca ACCUMULATE IN THE CELL! "excited to death"
What are the responsibilities of the ventral stream in visually guided movements?
determining object form; cannot recognize size difference
Monozygotic twins may not have the same prenatal environment if they are____________________.
dichorionic
a region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus
diencephalon
What is associative agnosia?
difficulty recognizing objects; can recognize faces
Although the neural mechanism involved in reinforcement is not completely understood, it is apparent that ____ is a necessary condition for positive reinforcement to take place.
dopamine release
the spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers
dorsal root
Smell is processed in the ___________ part of the brain.
emotional
What is the intraparietal sulcus?
end of dorsal stream of visual association cortex; posterior parietal area; perception of location, visual attention; visual control of manipulation and grasping hand movements
What activates second messengers within the cell?
energy released
The mechanism of action of SSRIs follows the following sequence _______.
enhanced activation of serotonin receptors; down-regulation of post-synaptic receptors; increased BDNF in the hippocampus.
What causes Down Syndrome?
extra chromosome material or an extra chromosome on the 21st pair
The ________ muscle fibers create the force to move muscles and are controlled by ________ motor neurons.
extrafusal, alpha
Barnes et al. found that each unit increase in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology was associated with a 3-fold increase in AD risk in women, but an over 20-fold increase in AD risk in men
false
The laterality of the sexually dimorphic nature of the amygdala is not observed while men and women simply rest with the eyes closed.
false
Research has shown that memories older than approximately ____ years are relatively intact in people with __________ amnesia.
fifteen, retrograde
What is an on cell?
fires when light is presented in ON center of receptive field and when light is removed from OFF surround of receptive field
What is an off cell?
fires when light is removed from OFF center of receptive field and when light is presented to ON surround of receptive field
When we refer to an anterograde labeling method, we are interested in following an axon's activity as it moves________on the axon.
forward
The __________, the center of the retina, is the area of highest visual acuity.
fovea
What is the diurnal pathway?
from retina to hypothalamus; establish a day-night cycle - different hormones at different points of the day
Smell travels from _____________ as it is being processed.
from the frontal lobe to the limbic system
the anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe
frontal lobe
Moniz proposed that intentional damage to the _____ would relieve human _____.
frontal lobes; anxiety
a slice through the brain parallel to the forehead
frontal section
A brain damage patient has trouble recognizing particular faces. Where is the patient's brain damage likely to be located?
fusiform face area
Which of the following are the four regions of the brain known to be involved in facial recognition?
fusiform face area; occipital face area; posterior superior temporal sulcus; amygdala
midget ganglion cells
ganglion cells in the fovea of humans and other primates, small and responds to a single cone
Using optogenetic methods, scientists can stimulate or inhibit particular types of neurons in particular brain regions through the use of
genetically modified viruses.
Once brain has been hardened it...
gets sectioned!
According to Dr. Obert, heroin use has been ____.
glamorized
How is glucose transported across blood-brain barrier?
glucose transporters
a slice through the brain parallel to the ground
horizontal section
The visible spectrum represents the range of ____ we can detect
hues
The ___________ triggers a cascade of physiological changes in the body to help the body deal with whatever action the stressful situation might require.
hypothalamus
How do images emerge from the lenses of the due before they are processed by the brain
images are upside down and reversed right to left
ADHD, the most common behavior disorder in childhood, is usually first discovered _______.
in the classroom
Extreme feelings of sadness in people with clinical depression may be related to:
increased activity in the amygdala
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions, appear to be related to _____.
increased dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens
The steep part of a dose-response curve shows where
increasing the dose increases the efficacy of the drug.
Amphetamine induces arousal by _____
inducing release of norepinephrine in the brain
What are protanopia and dueteranopia?
inherited traits; world seen in yellow and blue; vision dichromatic; pro - red cones "filled green", deu - green cones "filled" red
Radio Frequency technique
instead of passing electric current through microelectrode, radio freq. waves are passed through and destroy brain tissue. NO METALLIC RESIDUE!
Providing a drink of water to a thirsty animal is an example of ___________ conditioning.
instrumental
Damage to the basal ganglia or infusion of a drug that blocks NMDA receptors there can disrupt ________.
instrumental conditioning
Damage to the basal ganglia or infusion of a drug that blocks NMDA receptors there can disrupt
instrumental conditioning.
stereoscopic-depth perception
is achieved by comparing the slightly different inputs from the left eye and right eye
When ingested, acetaminophen in Tylenol
is converted into another compound that then joins with arachidonic acid, the precursor of anandamide. This compound binds with peripheral CB1 receptors and activates them, reducing pain.
Functionally speaking, the visual word form area _______.
is involved in recognizing words we see
magnocellular neurons
large cell bodies with large receptive fields that are distributed evenly throughout the retina -hook up to rods -used to detect movement/overall patterns
Which axon would you expect to have the highest conduction velocity?
large diameter axon that is myelinated.
Alcohol has the most devastating effect on fetal development during the brain growth spurt period, which is during the _______ of pregnancy.
last trimester
involves dimension and focuses on a particular object
lenses
Experiments in which part of the brain is damaged and the animal's behavior is subsequently observed are called
lesion studies.
What is dichromacy?
less severe deficits; most common is red-green colorblindness; less common is blue-yellow colorblindness
An increase in the magnitude of excitatory postsynaptic potentials in postsynaptic neurons over the long term is known as ________.
long-term potentiation
An increase in the magnitude of excitatory postsynaptic potentials in postsynaptic neurons over the long term is known as
long-term potentiation.
What is akinetopsia?
loss of motion perception; affect areas include prestriate cortex, area V5
Characteristics of the fovea?
low convergence, few photoreceptors converging on few glanglion cells, almost equal number of cones to ganglion cells
Under typical conditions, the pore of the NMDA glutamate receptor is blocked by ________
magnesium
Amino Acids
-Secreted by some neurons as NTs -Difficult to prove as a NT, because they are used for protein synthesis by all cells in the brain
The Gate Control Theory of pain helps us to understand why _____ might be useful in reducing pain.
massage
PET (funct and type)
1. injections of radio active material into blood stream. 2. records distrbution of radio active glucose in brain 3. high conc of radioactive material will be detected in most active regions of brain. INVASIVE
Stereotaxic Process (3)
1. scalp is pulled back to expose skull 2. tip of lesioning instrument is placed directly ABOVE bregma 3. it lowers into Bregma until it reaches target structure of brain
toward the middle of the body, away from the side
medial
An astronaut in a space ship does not experience any daylight. Assume that this person wakes up at 6 AM on day 1 of the journey. Given the normal human circadian cycle, when will the astronaut wake up on day 5 of the journey?
10 am
When does development of the nervous system begin in humans?
18 days after conception
This percentage of the cerebral cortex is devoted to vision.
20 percent
the mesencephalon; the central of three major divisions of the brain
midbrain
The prevalence for panic disorder is about ______ percent, and occurs more often in _____ than _____.
3 to 5; women; men
1. Endorphins 2. Enkephalins 3. Dynorphins
3 types of Endogenous Opioids
1. Mu 2. Delta 3. Kappa
3 types of endogenous opioid receptors
Which wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum is the human visual system sensitive to?
380 nm to 760 nm
A typical 8-hour sleep consists of ________, each containing a ________ session of REM sleep.
4 to 5 cycles of 90 minutes, 20-30 minute
Which NT's are classified as indolamines?
5-HT (serotonin) Histamine
Which afterimage are you likely to see after staring at a yellow hexagon for several seconds?
A blue hexagon
11-cis-retinal
A change in this causes light to stimulate receptors. This releases energy and activates 2nd messengers in the cell
Which of the following would be most likely to be a compensatory mechanism that occurred in response to habitual use of a drug that speeds up the heart rate?
A decrease in heart rate
Caroline believes the government has agents following her twenty-four hours a day. What symptom of schizophrenia is Caroline exhibiting?
A delusion of persecution
Adding ___________________ to buprenorphine ensures the combination drug has no potential for abuse.
naloxone
Which of the following has been proven to have a very pronounced benefit to cognitive functioning and memory, based on the psychological literature?
napping
Bundles of neurons in the PNS
nerves
a hollow tube, closed at the rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; serves as the origin of the CNS
neural tube
What is "kiss and run" neurotransmitter release?
A docked vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, empties its contents into the synaptic cleft, exits the docking site, gets refilled and sealed, and returns to join other vesicles in the terminal button.
feature detectors
neurons whose responses indicate the presence of a particular feature
a neuron that secretes a hormone or hormone-like substance
neurosecretory cell
REM sleep behavior disorder involves exhibiting ________, while cataplexy involves ________.
no REM paralysis during REM sleep and acting out dreams; complete paralysis that occurs during wakings
an identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the CNS
nucleus
Soluble Gases
o Nitric Oxide (NO) o Carbon Monoxide (CO) o Both of these in small amounts are used as a type of NT; larger amounts can destroy NTs o Can pass through the cell wall because they are soluble and can pass through to the next neuron and effects its metabolism o Produced on demand
The most common type of cerebrovascular accident is caused by ______.
obstruction of a blood vessel
the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes
occipital lobe
lateral inhibition
occurs in the retina and enables cells in your eye and brain to identify the important patterns of an object
the protrusion at the end of the olfactory nerve; receives input from the olfactory receptors
olfactory bulb
What is achromatopsia?
only 1 in 33,000 affected (hereditary), no color vision, difficulty with details; absence of cones in retina
Each glomerulus in the olfactory system receives input from ________.
only one type of receptor
Harold dials the telephone to call Edith and ask her out for a date. What kind of task is Harold demonstrating?
operant
How do the responses of the muscle spindle and tendon receptors differ in response to one's arm abruptly dropping?
A drop of the arm does not increase the strength by which the muscle is pulling so tendon receptors do not respond. The drop does change the length of the muscle, so muscle spindle receptors do respond.
Antagonists
A drug that opposes or inhibits the effects of a particular NT on the postsynaptic cell
Which kind of drug is safest to administer?
A drug with a high therapeutic index
What kind of drug can be effective at the lowest dose?
A drug with high affinity for its site of action
What is positron emission tomography (PET)?
A functional imaging method that reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer in a living brain
What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?
A functional imaging method; a modification of the MRI procedure that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain, usually by detecting changes in blood oxygen level
Which structure widens to allow neurotransmitter to exit a postsynaptic cell into a synapse?
A fusion pore.
What type of seizure involves most of the brain?
A generalized seizure
Much like a square is a type of rectangle, ____________________ is a special type of __________________.
operant conditioning; instrumental conditioning
Heroin is in the class of drugs called _____.
opiates
fibers from the eye separate so that the left and right hemisphere contra-laterally control the opposite visual field
optic chiasm
the place where things are sorted in the eye
optic chiasm
takes information from the eye and takes it to the brain
optic nerve
The ratio of the size of the amygdala to that of __________ is __________ in men with psychosis.
orbitofrontal cortex; increased
These cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) are sensitive to color information, but not movement.
parvocellular cells
What is the caudal region of the intraparietal sulcus responsible for?
perception of depth from stereopsis
What is the posterior parietal cortex involved with?
perception of movement; spatial locations
What is the inferior temporal cortex involved with?
perception of objects; bodies/faces
Located outside of the skull and spine Serves to bring information into the CNS and carry signals out of the CNS
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
In a simplified model, whole-word reading is used for most familiar words; _____________ is used for unfamiliar words and nonwords.
phonetic reading
Information about the ____________ of language comes from research using functional-imaging studies and observing the effects of ___________ on verbal behavior.
physiology, brain lesions
the layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain; thin and delicate
pia mater
receptive field
point in space from which lights strikes the cell
the region of the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum
pons
Activity in these brain regions during REM sleep account for PGO spikes.
pons, lateral geniculate nucleus, and occipital lobe
Axons conveying _____________ information like pain cross over to the contralateral side of the body and travel through the ____________ to the brain.
poorly localized, spinothalamic tract
inferior temporal cortex
portion of the cortex where neurons are highly sensitive to complex aspects of the shape of visual stimuli within very large receptive fields
with respect to the CNS, located near/toward the tail
posterior
the posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus
posterior pituitary gland
Activity in which of the following brain regions is lower in murderers than control subjects?
prefrontal cortex
Patients with damage to the _________ show deficits in the memory for the temporal order of events.
prefrontal cortex
The ________ located anterior to the frontal motor areas is involved in motor planning.
prefrontal cortex
The _______________ , located anterior to the frontal motor areas, is involved in motor planning.
prefrontal cortex
There is some evidence that the negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia are caused by abnormalities of the brain, especially in the _____________________________.
prefrontal cortex
Which of the following will determine how loud a sound will seem?
Amplitude
the region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system
primary auditory cortex
A characteristic symptom of Alzheimer's disease is _____________________.
progressive memory loss
What are electroencephalograms?
An electrical brain potential recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp
What are macroelectrodes?
An electrode used to record the electrical activity of large numbers of neurons in a particular region of the brain; much larger than a microelectrode
What is formed when blood flow to a region of the brain is interrupted and glutamate receptors are activated?
An excitotoxic lesion
What is the fear of having a panic attack?
Anticipatory anxiety
How are seizure disorders normally treated?
Anticonvulsants
Infectious microorganisms have unique proteins on their surfaces called______________.
Antigens
How does botox prevent wrinkles?
Botox contains botulinum toxin that prevents the release of ACh. Without ACh muscles that cause wrinkles fail to contract and wrinkles fail to form.
A drug that blocks nictotinic acetylcholine receptors.
Curare
Scientists performing brain operations use this as a reference point.
Bregma
A drug that blocks adenosine receptors.
Caffeine
A class of amines that includes the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
Catecholamine
What are temporary or reversible lesions?
Chemical, Thermal, Sterotaxic Surgery
A drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine D2 receptors.
Chlorpromazine
What is the difference between brain function and behavior?
Circuits in the brain perform functions, not behaviors. No one brain region or circuit is solely responsible for a given behavior.
Which ion has the greatest concentration outside the axon?
Cl-
What type of tumor is encapsulated?
Benign
What is the relationship between adenosine and glycogen?
During wakefulness, glycogen in astrocytes is consumed by active brain neurons, increasing extracellular adenosine levels in the brain. During sleep, adenosine is broken down and glycogen is restored to the astrocytes. Also: Prolonged wakefulness causes a decrease in the level of glycogen in the brain. A fall in the level of glycogen causes an increase in the level of adenosine.
What are large grooves in the brain called?
Fissures
Which neurotransmitter is primarily inhibitory?
GABA
How is the supplementary motor area (SMA) involved in actions that have not yet occurred?
The transfer of a memorized piano note finger sequence from the SMA brain area that controls a subject's right hand to the SMA area that controls his or her left hand is destroyed if electrical disruption occurs before the transfer of each note, but not if the disruption occurs during the playing of the note itself. This, suggests that the SMA is controlling a movement that has not yet occurred.
Which stream specializes in color vision?
The ventral stream
What is another name for the genes in targeted mutations?
"Knockout gene"
An important early component of children's language development is:
'taking turns' with other speaker, when cooing or babbling.
dorsal stream, or "where" pathway
- Cannot accurately reach out to grasp an object, even after describing its size, shape, and color - "They remember what their furniture looks like, but they cannot remember how it is arranged in rooms of their house." - Impaired at describing the position of unseen body parts (i.e. the location of the hand that is below the table)
ventral stream
- Cannot fully describe what they see - Impaired in their visual imagination and memory - Can still reach towards objects or walk around objects in their path - They see "where", but not "what"
koniocellular neurons
- Has several functions - Their axons terminate in several locations
parvocellular neurons
- Small receptive fields, are well suited to detect visual details - Respond to color, each neuron is being excited by some wavelengths and inhibited by others - The high sensitivity to detail and color reflects the fact that they are located mostly in and near the fovea, which has many cones
Horizontal and amacrine cells:
- are local inhibitory neurons - integrate information from rods and cones (both a and c are correct)
The fovea centralis ______________________.
- is located in the retina - contains mostly cones - is the area of the retina with the highest visual acuity (all of the above are true)
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
- promotes neurogenesis - levels are decreased in patients with clinical depression - levels are decreased in patients with anxiety disorders
parvocellular neurons
- small receptive fields, are well suited to detect visual details - respond to color, each neuron is being excited by some wavelengths and inhibited by others - has high sensitivity to detail and color reflecting their location in the fovea
bipolar cells
- type of neuron in the retina that receives input directly from the receptors - hook up photoreceptors to ganglion cells - receive connections from the photoreceptors
Parkinson's disease occurs in about _____ of the population over the age of ______.
1 percent; 65
Which of the following identifies the synthesis sequence for catecholamines?
1) Tyrosine 2) L-DOPA 3) Dopamine 4) Norepinephrine
Places the Optic Fibers Travel
1) area in the hypothalamus called the supra-chiasmic nucleus that is located above the optic chiasm; 2) lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus; 3) superior colliculus (in the tectum) - mesencephalon, it moves your eyes and neck to a particular to localize things in palce
What is the total volume of CSF?
125ml
A magician wants to slice a trusting volunteer along a sagittal plane. How will he proceed?
A sagittal plane is parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground
Which is not a component to the definition of learning?
Dependent upon reinforcement
This is the ability of the eye lens to change shape in order to focus on objects that are near or in the distance.
Accommodation
All muscular movement is accomplished by the release of _____________
Acetycholine
Caffeine blocks _________ receptors
Adenosine
David often stops and seems to stare off into the distance. Even though he is blinking his eyes, he does not respond to the teacher. What do these symptoms indicate?
An absence seizure
What does the all-or-none law state?
An action potential always remains the same size.
What is the mildest form of autism spectrum disorder?
Asperger's syndrome
Doug is susceptible to the formation of blood clots. What drug might he receive to prevent clots from forming?
Aspirin
_________ is one of several belladonna ("pretty lady") alkaloids
Atropine
thin fiber of a neuron responsible for transmitting nerve impulses toward other neurons, organs, or muscles
Axon
A research scientist investigating muscle structure is having a difficult time distinguishing alpha motor neuron axons from gamma motor neuron axons. What is the difference?
Axons from gamma motor neurons form synapses with intrafusal muscle fibers. Axons from alpha motor neurons form synapses with extrafusal muscle fibers on a skeletal muscle.
An active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
Axoplasmic transport
This gives chemical protection to the brain
BBB (Blood Brain Barrier)
Which of the following most directly produces a receptor potential?
Bending of hair cells
One axon and one dendrite attached to its soma
Bipolar neuron
Which kind of neuron has one axon and one dendrite?
Bipolar neuron
Which taste receptors are designed to help people avoid poisonous foods?
Bitter and sour receptors
A poison produced by the black widow spider that triggers the release of acetylcholine.
Black Widow Spider Venom
Why is a CT scan useful for determining damage in the brain from a stroke?
Blood absorbs more X-ray radiation than white or grey matter so a wound shows up as a spot on the brain.
What is the difference between stage 3 and stage 4 sleep?
Both stage 3 and stage 4 sleep are characterized by high amplitude delta activity, or slow-wave sleep. Stage 4 sleep features more than 50 percent delta activity, while stage 3 has less than 50 percent delta activity.
How can neuron cell bodies be stimulated in the brain without stimulating nearby axons?
By inserting a cannula into the brain and applying such things as excitatory amino acids
Which substance blocks adenosine receptors?
Caffeine
What are the three types of muscles?
Cardiac Smooth Skeletal
Which of the following is a form of nondeclarative (implicit) memory?
Catching a ball
Which of the following is a form of nondeclarative memory?
Catching a ball
column organization of the visual cortex
Cells having various properties are grouped together in the visual cortex in columns perpendicular to the surface
Which of the following is a feature of the central nervous system (CNS) but not the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
Central nervous system nerves are encased in bone
This encases and protects the brain
Cerebrospinal fluid
A patient is rushed to the emergency department with a broken right arm and a broken left leg. The two limbs are _________ to each other.
Contralateral
Which of the following refers to a compulsion to take a drug?
Craving
A researcher finds that behavioral disturbances from sleep deprivation seem to be worse when a person wakes up too early from a normally timed sleep, rather than the same person simply going to bed hours later than usual. Which of the following might best explain this finding?
Cutting off sleep early causes the person to miss REM sleep, which occurs much more frequently during the latter half of a night's sleep than the first half. Getting enough REM sleep is critical to feeling alert and refreshed after waking up.
A computer artist likes the color of yellow light he is using but he thinks the color should be less saturated. What should the artist do?
Decrease the purity of the light
A computer artist likes the color of yellow light he is using, but he thinks the color should be less saturated, what should he do?
Decrease the purity of the light
How do mammals prepare for winter in cold climates?
Decreasing day length is detected by clock neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) that secrete large amounts of melatonin, which causes animals to store fat and go into their quiescent winter behavior phase.
What treatment, used to relieve the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, shows promise as a therapy for treatment resistant depression?
Deep brain stimulation
________________________ are specific language learning disorders that tend to occur in families, which suggest a genetic (biological) component, although they undoubtedly have more than one cause.
Developmental dyslexias
_____________ is a disorder affecting _______ of the population that impairs a person's ability to recognize faces.
Developmental prosopagnosia; 2%
Which of the following do people generally find most difficult to detect in faces?
Differences in spacing between features
Which of the following do people general find most difficult to detect in faces
Differences in spacing between featuress
Which of the following is a principal function of the spinal cord?
Distribute motor fibers to the effector organs of the body and to collect somatosensory information to be passed on to the brain
Which of the following is the direct precursor for norepinephrine?
Dopamine
What kind of cells is produced during asymmetrical division?
Each progenitor cell produces one brain cell and one additional progenitor cell
Which of the following best characterizes asymmetrical division?
Each progenitor cell produces two different types of daughter cells
One of the endogenous opioids.
Enkephalin
What is an effect produced by cocaine?
Euphoria
Circuits within the brain perform which of the following?
Functions
Clusters of cell bodies in the PNS
Ganglia (singular ganglion)
A scientist suspects that a drug called XY is effective because it decreases the activity of MAO enzymes that break down dopamine in the amygdala. How might the scientist demonstrate that the drug does increase the concentration of dopamine in the amygdala?
Give a subject radioactive L-DOPA, a dopamine precursor, and run a PET scan to see if radioactive L-DOPA shows up in the amygdala in increasing amounts after XY has been administered.
This is a disadvantage of PET scanners.
High operating cost
What happens when a human being lives without input from a zeitgeber?
Humans tend to have 25-hour circadian cycles that gradually shift wake-up and sleep times as days pass by.
How does hunger affect the sleep/waking flip-flop?
Hunger stimulates the LH orexingeric neurons, which stimulate the arousal system neurons, which in turn inhibit vlPOA where the sleep neurons are located. When sleep neurons are inhibited the flip-flop is switched to "waking." Behaviorally, being hungry causes an organism to avoid falling asleep so it can keep searching for food.
Which evidence best supports the idea that newborns have an inborn preference for looking at faces?
In tests, newborns spent more time looking at abstract representations of faces than other, non-facial abstract representations.
Where does transduction take place in the ear?
In the Organ of Corti
Monkeys with brain lesions were found to be unable to respond to expansion foci situated in various locations in their visual field. Where are the lesions most likely to be located?
In the dorsal part of the medial superior temporal, or MSTd
Where would you expect pain information from a sore shoulder to be processed in the brain?
In the primary somatosensory cortex
Which evidence most strongly identifies serotonin as a neurotransmitter of major psychoactive importance?
Increasing the amount of serotonin available in the synapse seems helpful in both treating psychiatric disorders (Prozac) and producing hallucinations (MDMA)
When ingested, acetaminophen in Tylenol _____
Is converted into another compound that then joins with arachidonic acid, the precursor of anandamide. This compound binds with peripheral CB1 receptors and activates them, reducing pain sensation
How is single-unit recording different from the other methods?
It allows us to record the activity of single neurons over a long period of time in unanesthetized animals
How is stereotaxic atlas used in surgery?
It allows us to see the location of a brain structure that we want to look at
How does caffeine work to make us feel alert?
It blocks adenosine receptors.
How can even a benign tumor cause neurological symptoms?
It can push against and compress the brain.
Why do drug users prefer heroin over morphine?
It has a more rapid effect.
What is unilateral neglect (hemispheral neglect)?
It is a problem in the right side of the brain in which the patient sees nothing in the left field of vision
Which of the following is true with respect to cataplexy?
It is characterized by continuing alertness to the environment.
Generally, how long is the depression that follows mania in an individual with bipolar disorder?
It is three times as long as the episode of mania.
How does kainic acid produce brain lesions?
Kainic acid kills neurons by overstimulating them.
posterior parietal cortex
Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world
What emotional reaction most commonly provokes cataplexy in Malia?
Laughter
How do reflexes help a person regain balance when he leans forward too far?
Leaning forward stretches the calf muscle, causing muscle spindle afferents to fire. Motor neurons in the spinal cord receive this information and increase their firing rate to cause calf muscle shortening, which in turn pushes down the toes. Pushing down the toes corrects the balance of the person.
How would a scientist carry out a genome-based for schizophrenia?
Linkage studies identify families whose members vary with respect to a particular trait.
Which kind of drugs is most likely to penetrate the blood-brain barrier?
Lipid Soluble Drugs
A dark colored group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the pons near the rostral end of the floor of the fourth ventricle.
Locus Coeruleus
What does an individual need to use light cues to regulate his or her biological clock?
Melanopsin located in retinal ganglion cells.
Which activity would slow-wave sleep be most helpful for people to do?
Memorize Lincoln's Gettysburgh Address.
Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding sex differences in addiction?
Men are more sensitive than men to the reinforcing effects of amphetamine and cocaine.
What is the most important similarity between epinephrine and norepinephrine?
Most norepinephrine receptors are sensitive to both epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Seizures that result in convulsions must involve the___________________.
Motor system
The magnocellular layer specializes in neurons that are sensitive to which of the following?
Movement
Why is there a limit to amount of detail that conventional light microscopy can provide?
Once magnification goes beyond 1500x, the size of the wavelength of light energy itself begins to affect the situation and no further resolution is possible.
What is optic flow?
Optic flow is the complex motion of points in the visual field caused by relative movement between the observer and environment
What are the four areas of the endocrine system?
Pituitary Thyroid Adrenal glands Gonads
An inert substance that is given to an organism in lieu of a physiologically active drug; used experimentally to control for the effects of mere administration of a drug.
Placebo
What is an alarming effect of chronic abuse of cocaine?
Psychotic behavior
If researchers are looking to create a conditioned response, what is one thing that must occur to make that happen?
Repetition
If you were in a darkened room and researchers wanted to "read your mind' just enough to know whether you were having visual fantasies, what could they do?
Researchers could use fMRI, EEG, or other recording methods to see whether activity was high in your visual cortex.
What does a zeitgeber do?
Resets a biological clock
A drug that interferes with the storage of monoamines in synaptic vesicles.
Resperine
Which neurons in the visual system are likely to have circular receptive fields with a center-surround organization?
Retinal cells
A male brain damage patient can recognize the color of objects but not the objects themselves. How would you characterize the man's brain damage?
SEE PAGE 191: The man's fusiform gyrus was selectively damaged.?
________ are short bursts of waves of 12-14 Hz that occur between two and five times during sleep ________ that are associated with intelligence.
Sleep spindles, stages 1-4
How can the location of neurons with receptors for a neurotransmitter like norepinephrine be located in the brain?
Slices of brain tissue are exposed to a solution containing a radioactive ligand for a particular receptor. The slices are rinsed so that the only radioactivity remaining in them is that of the molecules of the ligand bound to their receptors. Autoradiographic methods are used to localize the radioactive ligand—and thus the receptors.
Sectioning
Slicing the brain using a microtome (an instrument that produces very thin slices of body tissues)
Which kinds of sleep promote learning?
Slow-wave sleep and REM sleep appear to promote brain development.
Secretion of SE suppresses certain categories of ______________ and reduces the likelihood that the animal acts __________
Species-typical behaviors; impulsively
Activation of CB 1 receptors in the brain would be expected to _____
Stimulate appetite
A research scientist has used anatomical methods to determine that there are no direct connections in the brain between area A and area B. Yet, when the scientist stimulates area A he sees neurotransmitter release in area B and excitation of area B neurons. How can he explain this result, and how can he find evidence for his explanation?
Stimulating area A excites not only neurons in area A but also axons from other brain regions that are passing by. To see if this hypothesis is correct, the scientist should stimulate area A with kainic acid and should see no response in area B.
Janet's mother has major depressive disorder. How much more likely is Janet to develop an affect disorder than a person without an afflicted relative?
Ten times as likely
This structure is part of the diencephalon
Thalamus
Which of the following defines a drug's margin of safety?
The difference between the dose-response curve for the drug's therapeutic effects and its adverse side effects
Which of the following is a functional sex difference?
The difference in receptor affinity for glucocorticoids in females The preferential involvement of the left amygdala in emotional memory for women but preferential involvement of the right amygdala in emotional memory for men
A doctor in a pain clinic tells his students about the placebo effect but they are skeptical that a placebo effect can actually reduce pain. How best can the doctor demonstrate the reality of the placebo effect?
The doctor should give patients placebos both with and without Naloxone. Naloxone will block the patients' opiate receptors and cancel any relief from a sugar pill. Sugar pills without Naloxone should bring pain relief.
A scientist wants to use an immunocytochemical method to find a neurotransmitter X in the brain that is not a protein or a peptide. How can the scientist accomplish this?
The scientist should make antibodies that are linked to a dye that are specific for an enzyme that makes the neurotransmitter X and use those antibodies to locate where neurotransmitter X is made.
Which of the following marks the first sign that a person is entering stage 1 sleep?
Theta activity showing increased synchrony of neocortex neurons.
When is microdialysis used?
To measure the amount of chemicals in the brain; for example, measuring the amount of dopamine in particular regions of the brain
____________ is/are involved in the acquisition of episodic memories and complex behaviors that involve deliberation or instruction.
Transcortical connections
What antidepressants are monoaminergic agonists?
Tricyclic antidepressants
Women are more sensitive than men to the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants
True
Damage to which area will produce achromatopsia?
V8
What is number 10 of the cranial nerves?
Vagus
How is the receptor potential created?
Vibrations transferred from sound waves move liquid within the cochlea that creates a shear force between the basilar and tectorial membranes of the cochlea. The shear force moves cilia which in turn open ion channels to create a receptor potential.
What causes an afterimage after viewing a green item?
Viewing a green item for a prolonged period inhibits red-green ganglion cells. When the green inhibition stops and is replaced by a white stimulus, the formerly inhibited red-green cells overreact, causing the perception of a brief flash of red.
Secretion of histamine enhances:
Wakefulness
The BBB is only a barrier for:
Water-soluble materials
Patients with ________________ often seem unaware of the deficit; they follow social conventions of speaking and remain sensitive to the other person's facial expressions and tone of voice.
Wernicke's aphasia
What causes the paralysis of body muscles during REM sleep?
While the motor cortex is highly active, motor commands cannot be carried out because of massive inhibition of the motor neurons in the spinal cord.
When does obsessive-compulsive disorder usually begin?
Young adulthood
Light functions as ________ in an organism's biological clock.
Zeitgeber
astigmatism
a blurring vision for lines in one direction (e.g. horizontal, vertical, or one of the diagonals) caused by an asymmetric curvature of the eyes
The process of sensory traduction converts sensory information into
a change in membrane potential
The process of sensory transduction converts sensory information into ________.
a change in membrane potential
What is the optic chiasm?
a cross-shaped connection between the optic nerves; located below the base of the brain (anterior to the pituitary gland)
An example of a negative symptom of schizophrenia is __________________.
a flattened emotional response
The bundle of dendrites that make up the primary olfactory unit of integration is called
a glomerulus.
Most neurons in the striate cortex respond best to ________.
a sine wave grating of a particular spatial frequency that is oriented and placed in the proper part of the receptive field
In the U.S. today, about how many individuals are born with Down Syndrome?
about 1 in 1,000
The most common form of seizure disorder noted in children is the ____________________.
absence seizure
A cofactor that supplies acetate for the synthesis of acetylcholine.
acetyl-CoA
Research on treating addiction with virtual reality demonstrates that _______.
addiction can be controlled through learning new associations
Which chemical is thought to accumulate in the brain as a sleep-promoting substance?
adenosine
an axon directed toward the CNS, conveying sensory information
afferent axon
The overall accumulated level of stress is called the body's ____________.
allostatic load
strabismus
also known as the "lazy eye"; a condition in which the eyes do not point in the same direction—they attend to one eye and not the other
The ____________ is part of an important system involved in classically conditioned emotional responses.
amygdala
pupil
an opening in the center of the iris where light enters
Photopigments
are chemicals consisting of proteins (opsins) that release energy when struck by light that can be modified according to the different wavelengths of light; contained in both the rods and cones
ventral stream, or "what" pathway
are the collective visual paths in the temporal cortex that specializes in identifying and recognizing objects
ganglion cells
are transparent cells located in the center of the eye that forms the optic nerve
division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to another progenitor cell and a neuron, which migrates away from the ventricular zone toward its final resting place in the brain
asymmetrical division
The Stroop effect seems to be a(n) __________ phenomenon as evidenced by the greater length of time taken when the word is
attentional; read.
Stimulation of this brain region induces sleep.
basal forebrain
The _________ are important for organization of movement and inhibition of unwanted movements.
basal ganglia
There is considerable evidence that when learned behaviors become automatic and routine, they are transferred to the ______.
basal ganglia
the "stem" of the brain, from the medulla to the midbrain, excluding the cerebellum
brain stem
The negative symptoms of schizophrenia can also be produced by_______________.
chronic abuse of PCP
retinal disparity
cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object.
This part of the neuron is specialized to receive information from other neurons.
dendrite
Some dendrites also contain ______________ that further branch out and increase the surface area of the dendrite.
dendritic spines
On cells
depolarize in response to light
Off cells
depolarize to light off
an axon directed away from the CNS, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands
efferent axon
Binocular cells in the striate cortex respond to stimuli from
either eye
Binocular cells in the striate cortex respond to stimuli from
either eye.
Through ___________, _____________, and ___________, we learn to navigate the world to get what we need to survive and thrive.
experience; observation; study
Grasping allows infants to ____.
explore objects in the environment
What piece of equipment do researchers commonly use to study brain activity during facial recognition?
fMRI
a major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus
fissure
Unlike Broca's aphasia, the speech of patients with Wernicke's aphasia is
fluent and unlabored.
Functional-imaging studies have shown that whole-word reading activated the left ______________, a region of the cerebral cortex at the base of the temporal lobe that has come to be known as ____________________.
fusiform gyrus, visual word-form area
What would no high-frequency of spatial frequency lead to?
fuzzy image
Processing of information takes place in simple clusters of neurons called _________ or a more complex organization of neurons called a _________.
ganglia, brain
Receptive fields are ____.
highly specialized
The _______ is likely to be found in the spinal cord rather than in the brain
inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine
The ________ hair cells are ________.
inner, necessary for normal hearing
Evidence found in research involving 25 patients with and without apraxia of speech showed that the only region common to all lesions that produced apraxia was the precentral gyrus of the ________.
insular cortex
a sunken region of the cerebral cortex that is normally covered by the rostral superior temporal lobe and caudal inferior frontal lobe
insular cortex
The posterior parietal cortex may be involved in monitoring one's own plans and__________rather than directly forming these intentions.
intentions
Neonatal reflexes are ____.
involuntary reactions to a particular stimulation
located on the same side of the body
ipsilateral
regulates how much light enters the eye
iris
Route of Visual Information to the Brain
iris --> pupil --> lens --> cornea --> retina --> bipolar cells --> gangion cells --> optic nerve
toward the side of the body, away from the middle
lateral
What converts 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal?
light energy
What is a simple light circuit?
light hits a photoreceptor which hyperpolarizes and releases LESS neurotransmitter, which means is no longer inhibits bipolar cells, which then release MORE neurotransmitter.
Synapses of the rods and cones
make synapses with the horizontal cells, then inhibitory contact to the bipolar cells --> amacrine cells and ganglion cells
a protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system
mammillary bodies
An environmental risk for development of schizophrenia is____________.
maternal substance abuse during pregnancy
a group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex
medial geniculate nucleus
the midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes the tectum and the tegmentum
mesencephalon
The process of addiction begins in the ______, which then produces changes in other brain areas that receive input from these neurons.
mesolimbic dopaminergic system
These cells protect the brain from CNS & infections.
microglia
What are bipolar cells?
middle layer of the retina; in front of photoreceptors; pass information from photoreceptors to ganglion cells of the retina
area V5
middle-temporal cortex, or MT
The most common form of encephalitis is a virus that is transmitted by _______.
mosquitoes
a condition in which all or some of the brain's ventricles are enlarged; caused by an obstruction that impedes the normal flow of CSF
obstructive hydrocephalus
What are the parvocellular layers?
outer 4 layers; smaller cell bodies than those in the inner 2 layers; transmits info for color perception and assists with finer details
the portion of the ANS that controls function that occur during a relaxed state
parasympathetic division
the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe
parietal lobe
carries information into and out of the CNS
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
People with ____________ dysgraphia are unable to sound out words and write them and therefore cannot write unfamiliar words or pronounce nonwords.
phonological
What is rhodopsin?
photopigment of human rods; rod opsin + retinal
When a photopigment splits, the membrane of the
photoreceptor becomes hyperpolarized.
Drug effects include changes that can be observed in a subject's
physiological processes and behavior
The medial zone of the cerebellum is involved with the ventromedial system and control of _______.
posture
Jon had significant damage to his right hemisphere. If Jon is like most people, he may have difficulty with which task?
recognizing complex geometrical forms
Memories can be altered or connected to newer memories through a process known as ________.
reconsolidation
What color cone is responsible for long waves (560nm)?
red cones
The semicircular canals ______________.
respond to rapid changes in the orientation of the head, but not to steady rotation.
Characteristics of cones?
responsible for color vision; increased acuity, or sharpness
Damage to _________ would result in loss of muscle tone.
reticular activating system
Which statement is true?
see page 202: NOT "The dorsal stream helps to recognize what an object is." and NOT The dorsal stream helps to recognize how an object can be moved one place to another.
What is another pattern recognition system?
see wholes, analyze parts; used in faces.. why we might miss someone's new haircut
Characteristics of rods?
sensitive to light of low intensity; see in the dark
What is sine-wave grating?
series of parallel bands varying continuously in brightness; varies according to a sine-wave function; looks fuzzy or unfocused
Most anti-anxiety medication are _____.
serotonin agonists and GABA agonists
According to Dr. Obert, it is harder to kick the heroin habit because of _____.
the subculture that goes along with it
retrograde labeling
tracer substance is taken in by axon terminals and moves to the soma and dendrites
a darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia
substantia nigra
Which of the following reflexes increases the likelihood of survival?
sucking
The ___________ is the major band of myelinated fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
the corpus callosum
Consider the experimental preparation described in the physiology video, LTD & LTP. In experiments studying LTP, where is the recording electrode usually placed?
the dentate gyrus
receptive field
the point in space where light strikes the cell
retina
the rear surface of the eye which is lined with visual receptors -3 layers of cells
anterograde labeling
tracer substance is taken in by the soma and dendrites and moves to the axon terminal
Stretch receptors in the Golgi tenden organ detect
the total amount of stretch exerted by the muscle, through its tendons, on the bones to which the muscle is attached
What are the koniocellular sublayers?
ventral of the magno and parvo layers; receive info from a different type of ganglion cell; transmit info from specific cones to the visual cortex
What are lamellae?
thin plates of membrane
the spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers
ventral root
What is achromacy?
true colorblindness; all vision through rods only
The __________ includes parvocellular and magnocellularpathways sensitive to shape, movement, and color-brightness that lead to the temporal cortex.
ventral stream
Which of the following carries information from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobes?
ventral stream
What are the two streams/pathways of visual analysis?
ventral stream and dorsal stream
one of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with CSF
ventricle
horizontal cells
type of cell that receives input from receptors and delivers inhibitory input to bipolar cells
What is the Optic Disk?
where axons leave the eye; exit through optic nerve back toward the occipital lobe for visual information processing; blind spot.. no photoreceptors here
Which kind of drug is safest to administer?
A drug with a high therapeutic index.
This appears to be the sleep-producing substance in the body.
Adenosine
What would you expect to find in the embryos of humans and chimpanzees but not in mice and lizards?
Large subventricular zones
As we progress from bipolar cells to ganglion cells to later cells in the visual system, are receptive fields ordinarily larger, smaller, or the same size?
Larger b/c each cells' receptive field is made by inputs converging at an earlier level.
A direct agonist for the GABA-binding site on the GABA(A) receptor.
Muscimol
What causes the rigidity seen in a cat that has had its brainstem severed?
Muscle excitation is no longer opposed by inhibition.
Recordings are made from muscle spindle afferent neurons in the arm of a research subject. The arm is dropped quickly. What is the result?
Muscle spindle afferent neurons fire a rapid burst of inpulses, signaling rapid changes in muscle length.
What the drug does to the body (affected by: potency, dosage, and effectiveness)
Pharmacodynamics
What behavior can an observer do to filter the extraneous high-frequency noise of a photo, such as the photo on the left of Abraham Linclon in your text, figure 6.27?
Put the book down and look at the pictures from across the room
Which family of drugs does the article specifically mention as demonstrating a highersensitivity in women than in men?
Pyschostimulants
What is the difference in charge between a squid axon and its environment?
The axon is negatively charged with respect to its environment.
In a microscope a student examines tissue from the retina and finds that it contains cones, but no rods. How can this absence of rods be explained?
The tissue comes from the central region of the retina, which contains only cones.
The cochlea is part of the inner ear, it is filled with __________; therefore, sounds transmitted through the air must be transferred into a(n) _____________ medium.
fluid, a liquid
When we are tired, our ability to __________ is seriously impaired.
focus
Even though he had to have his jaw removed due to cancer from his addiction, Sigmund Freud continued to ______ after the procedure, which was the very thing that caused the cancer.
smoke
the part of the PNS that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the CNS
somatic nervous system
Ischemic strokes are caused by_________________________.
thrombi or emboli.
How long do we continue to learn?
throughout our lives
Which kind of drug can be effective at the lowest dose?
A drug with high affinity for its site of action
This percentage of the cerebral cortex is devoted to vision
20 percent
Visual agnosia
(meaning visual lack of knowledge) is the result from damage to the temporal cortex where there's an inability to recognize objects despite otherwise satisfactory vision
complex cells
- Responds to a stimulus moving perpendicular to its axis (i.e. a vertical bar moving horizontally) - A cell that responds to a stimulus equally throughout a large area
Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor
-A category of metabotropic receptors that are sensitive to glutamate
Monoamines
-A class of amines that includes indolamines, such as serotonin; and catecholamines, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine -The molecular structure of these substances are similar, so some drugs affect the activity of all of them to some degree -Produced by several systems of neurons within the brain • Released at terminal button →NT • Released at axonal varicosites → neuromodulator (modify what a NT is doing)
Indirect Agonist
-A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and facilitates the action of the receptor (opening the ion channel) -Does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand
Indirect Antagonist
-A drug that attaches to a binding site on receptor and interferes with the action of the receptor -Does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand -When a drug attaches to an alternative site on a receptor and prevents the ion channels from opening -Similar effects to that of a direct antagonist, but its site of action is different
Receptor Blockers or Direct Antagonists
-A drug that binds with a receptor but does not activate it -Prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor -Molecules of the drug bind with the receptors but do not open the ion channel, like a direct agonist would, but they do not open the ion channel. Because they occupy the receptor's binding site, they prevent the NT from opening the ion channel.
Direct Agonist
-A drug that binds with an active receptor -Mimics the effects of a NT -Molecules of the drug attach to the binding site to which the NT normally attaches, which causes ion channels controlled by the receptors to open, just as they do when the NT is present. Ions then pass through these channels and produce postsynaptic potentials
Agonist
-A drug that facilitates or mimics the effects of a particular NT on the postsynaptic cell
Presynaptic Heteroreceptors
-A receptor located in the membrane of a terminal button that receives input from another terminal button by means of an axoaxonic synapse -Binds with the NT released by the presynaptic terminal button
GABA
-Amino acid -The most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain -Produced from glutamic acid by the action of an enzyme that removes a carboxyl group -Only opens Cl- or K+ ion channels -Can change the threshold of excitation in the next neuron -Gamma-aminobutyric acid -Synthesis: Glutamine → glutamate → GABA (precursor) -Reuptake by presynaptic neuron (little) and glial cells (astrocytes) (maily)
Glutamate
-An amino acid -The most important excitatory NT in the brain -Produced in abundance by by the cells' metabolic processes -No effective way to prevent its synthesis without disrupting other activities of the cell -Produce postsynaptic potentials by activating postsynaptic receptors -Raise the threshold of excitation, thus affecting the rate at which action potentials occur -Glutamine → Glutamate (precursor) -Reuptake → Glial cells (astrocytes) (mainly) + presynaptic neuron
Glycine
-An amino acid (transmitter) -An important inhibitory NT in the lower brain stem and spinal chord -Only ion channel it's associated with is chloride -Motor control -Receptors are ionotropic: open fast, close fast -When active, produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Noncompetitive Binding
-Binding of a drug to a site on a receptor -Dose not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand -Molecules do not compete with the NT from the same binding site -Some receptors have multiple binding sites, to which different ligands can attach. Molecules of the NT bind with one site, and other substances (neuromodulators, various drugs, etc.) bind with others
CB1
-Cannabinoid receptors Found mainly in the brain—some presynaptic heteroreceptors When the receptors are blocked, the animal stops taking substances like alcohol and cocaine, which scientists had made them become addicted to Linked to the reward system/pathway
Endogenous Opioids
-Class of opioids -Secreted by the brain as opiates (Ex. opium, morphine, heroin), which reduce pain because they have a direct effect on the brain
Enkephalins
-Endogenous opioid -Opiate-like brain chemicals that regulate reactions to pain and stress.
GABAc
-GABA receptor -Controls a Chloride channel -Ex. Eye, contrast and edges
GABAa
-GABA receptor -Ionotropic -Controls a chloride channel -Noncompetitive binding sites --Barbiturate site --Steroid site --Benzodiazepine site --Picrotoxin site ---Reduces GABA's effect; reduce inhibition in brain and get excitation
GABAb
-GABA receptor -Metabotropic -Controls a K+ channel
NMDA Receptor
-Glutamate receptor -Ionotropic -Controls a Calcium channel that is normally blocked by MG2+ ions -Has several other binding sites (noncompetitive) -Contains at least 6 different binding sites: 4 on the exterior of the receptor and 2 deep within the ion channel
Kainate Receptor
-Glutamate receptor -Ionotropic -Controls a sodium channel -Stimulated by kainic acid
AMPA Receptor
-Glutamate receptor -Ionotropic -Controls a sodium channel, so when glutamate is attached to the binding site, it produces EPSPs -Stimulated by AMPA -Most common glutamate receptor
Endocannabinoids
-Lipid -An endogenous opioid for cannabinoid receptors, which also bind with THC, the active ingredient in pot -Produced naturally -Has the same effect pot does -Anandamide -2-AG (2-aracnidonyl glycerol) -Produced on demand -Can move through the cell walls and attach to Cannabinoid receptors
Serotonin (5-HT)
-Monoamine (indolamine) NT -Causes complex behavioral effects -Plays roles in the regulation of mood, the control of eating, sleeping, and arousal, and the regulation of pain -Released from varicosities instead of terminal buttons
Dopamine
-NT -One of the catecholamines -Produces both excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, depending on the postsynaptic receptor -Implicated in several important functions, including movement, learning, and the reinforcing effects of drugs that people tend to abuse
What is the difference between a neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator?
...
About how many neurons are contained in the cerebellum?
50 billion
Acetylcholinergic
-Pertaining to the action of acetylcholine or to neural or metabolic pathways in which it functions as a transmitter.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
-Primary NT secreted by efferent (moving away) axons of the PNS - Achieves all muscular movement -Axons and terminal buttons of these neurons are distributed widely throughout the brain -Release effects are generally facilitatory
Peptides
-Released in large amounts by the CNS -Consist of two or more amino acids linked together by peptide bonds -Produced from precursor molecules -Synthesis takes place in the soma, so vesicles containing these chemicals must be delivered to the terminal button through axoplasmic transport -Released from all parts of the terminal buttons, most just the active zone, so only a portion of the molecules are released into the synaptic cleft -Destroyed by enzymes once released -No mechanism for reuptake or recycling -Most appear to serve as neuromodulators, but some act as NTs -Can regulate the sensitivity of the presynaptic and postsynaptic receptors to the NTs they have been core leased with -Substance P—pain perception
Monoaminergic Neurons
-Serve to modulate the function of widespread regions of the brain, increasing or decreasing the activities of particular brain functions -Needed because many of the systems that produce monamines consist of a relatively small number of cell bodies located in the brain stem, whose axons branch repeatedly and give rise to an enormous number of terminal buttons distributed throughout many regions of the brain
Catecholamines
-Subclass of monoamines • Tyrosine → L-DOPA → DA → NE o NE=adrenergic neuron • Synptic vesicles of adrenergic neurons → contain the enzyme that converts DA to NE o DA=dopaminergic neuron -Ex. NTs dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
L-DOPA
-The levorotatory form of DOPA -The precursor of the catecholamine -Often used to treat Parkinson's because of its effects as Dopamine antagonists
photoreceptors
-respond to light -innermost layer of the retina -types: cones and rods
The incidence of schizophrenia in the world population is approximately _______%.
1
Which steps are involved in release of neurotransmitter into a synapse?
1. Depolarization 2. Entry of calcium 3. Opening of fusion pore 4. Release of neurotransmitter
What is a more selective method of creating a lesion?
1. An excitatory amino acid (kainic acid) is injected through a cannula into a region of the brain 2. The chemical destroys neural cell bodies in the vicinity but spares axons that belong to different neurons that happen to pass nearby
What are the steps involved in an immunocytochemical method of determining where a protein is located in the brain?
1. Antibodies are made for the antigen protein. 2. Dye is attached to the antibodies. 3. Brian tissue is placed in an antibody solution. 4. Antibodies attach to the antigen protein in the brain tissue. 5. Brain tissue is examined to see where dyed antibodies attached to antigen proteins.
What methods are used to localize receptors?
1. Autoradiography 2. Immunocytochemistry
Techniques to create reversible brain lesions (2)
1. Chemical 2. Thermal
What is the method of using a toxic protein to create a lesion?
1. Conjugate saporin, a toxic protein, and antibodies that will bind with particular proteins found only on certain types of neurons in the brain 2. The antibodies target these proteins 3. The saporin kills the cells to which the proteins are attached
How are lesions in the subcortical regions produced?
1. Electrical current is passed through a stainless steel wire that is coated with an insulating varnish except for the tip 2. A wire is guided stereotaxically so that its end reaches the appropriate location 3. A lesion making device is turned on so that it produces a radio frequency current 4. The cells in the region surrounding the tip of the electrode is destroyed through heat
What procedures are included in the histological procedures?
1. Fixing 2. Slicing 3. Staining 4. Examining the brain
What is included in the stereotaxic apparatus?
1. Head holder maintains the animal's skull in the proper orientation 2. Holder for the electrode 3. A calibrated mechanism that moves the electrode holder in measured distances along the three axes
What are the two basic ways of localizing neurochemicals in the brain?
1. Localizing the chemicals themselves 2. Localizing the enzymes that produce them
Describe the method of autoradiography.
1. Sections of the brain are mounted on microscope slides 2. The slides are taken into a darkroom where they are coated with photographic emulsion 3. Several weeks later the slides are developed 4. The molecules of radioactive 2-DG show themselves as spots of silver grains in the developed emulsion because the radioactivity exposes the emulsion just as x-rays or light will do
Describe the techniques available for stimulating the brain.
1. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation-TMS 2. Electrical with microelectrodes: 3. Chemical with cannula:
What microscopes are used in electron microscopy?
1. Transmission electron microscope 2. Scanning electron microscope
What are the various genetic methods?
1. Twin studies 2. Adoption studies 3. Genomic studies 4. Targeted mutations 5. Antisense oligonucleotides
Which of the following identifies the synthesis sequence for catecholamines?
1. Tyrosine 2. L-DOPA 3. Dopamine 4. Norepinephrine
In which ways we detect neural activity on particular regions of the brain?
1. Using 2-DG autoradiography 2. By detecting Fos proteins in cells 3. Using a 2-DG PET scan 4. Using fMRI
Sectioning the brain process (5)
1. brain is embedded in block of parafin 2. parafin block is mounted on a MICROTONE 3. the Microtone slices brain until all is sectioned 4. this makes a ribbon of brain slices to be examined. 5. exact location of lesion is determined by visual inspection of brain tissue
3 ways to stimulate brain activity
1. electrical stimulation 2. chemical with canula 3. magnetic TMS
Magnetic TMS process(3) type
1. hold wand over scalp in order to generate rapidly alternating mag fields 2. neurons become active due to magnetic fields and normal processing is disrupted REVERSIBLE, NON-INVASIVE
MRI process (3)
1. strong magnetic fields are used to align nuclei of hydrogen atoms of the head. 2. radio freq wave flips nuclei causing release of energy detected by sensors outside head. 3.patterns of energy released provide info about tissues that can be used to generate images of the brain
how is brain tissue hardened?
1.flush blood using saliene 2. saline is replaced with a fixative called formalin that hardens/fixes tissue 3. liquid is forced through capillaries = PERFUSION 4. skull is placed in jar of formalin so tissues can harden
visual pathway
1.optic nerve 2.optic chiasm 3.optic tract 4.lateral geniculate nucleus (of the thalamus) 5.optic radiations 6.primary visual cortex
According to the clip, approximately 1 in ____ Americans is dyslexic.
10
An astronaut in a space ship does not experience any daylight.. Assume that this person wakes up at 6 AM on day 1 of the journey. Given the normal human circadian cycle, when will the astronaut wake up on day 5 of the journey?
10 AM
The pincer grasp starts around ____months.
10 to 11
Humans can recognize about ___________ using _____________.
10,000 odorants, 399 olfactory receptors
How many neurons are in the brain?
100 billion
A drug has a therapeutic index of 2.5 and a normal effective dose of 5 mg. What is the highest dose of this drug that could be administered without reaching a toxic level?
12 mg
The human brain weighs about ______
1400 grams
About _____ percent of people who try cocaine, become addicted to it.
15
Functional MRI studies show that the decision to make a spontaneous movement often occurs in the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) ______ the subject becomes aware of the decision.
2 to 3 seconds before
1. Endocannabinoids 2. Soluble gases
2 types of Lipids
Which items are used to bind to receptors in autoradiography?
2-deoxyglucose
What chemical is used to measure metabolic activity?
2-deoxyglucose (a sugar that enters cells along with glucose buts is not metabolized)
When taken in as an energy source, why isn't 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) oxidized by cells that need energy?
2-deoxyglucose is taken into the cell like glucose, but it can't be broken down for energy so it stays in the cell
The brain receives this portion of the blood that is pumped out of the heart.
20 percent
Thalidomide taken by mothers during pregnancy was found to cause autism in children. At what stage of pregnancy were most of the mothers exposed to thalidomide?
20 to 36 days postfertilization
Mary enrolled in a smoking cessation program. What are her chances of abstaining from smoking for one year?
20%
During what age range do the symptoms of schizophrenia usually begin to appear?
20-24 years old
When would you expect to be able to identify the telencephalon in a developing embryo?
28 days after conception
When would you first expect to see a structure in a human embryo that could be called a brain?
28 days after conception
A stroke patient loses use of his left eye and the entire right side of his brain. Suppose he is looking straight ahead at a clock with a 8 inch diameter that is 6 inches from his face. Which clock time would he be able to read best
2:10
A stroke patient loses use of his left eye and the entire right side of his brain. Suppose he is looking straight ahead at a clock with an 8-inch diameter that is 6 inches from his face. Which clock-time would he be able to read best?
2:10
About how long does it take for half the CSF to be replaced by fresh fluid?
3 hours
Reaching in front typically begins at ____ months.
3 to 4
The fact that slightly different information is received from the two eyes allows our visual system to construct ___________ visual perception.
3-dimensional
The compulsion to smoke is so strong that ________________ percent of people continue to smoke after having undergone a laryngectomy.
40
Reaching across typically begins at ___ months.
5 to 6
What percent of children with ADHD continue to display symptoms of the disorder into adulthood?
60%
What is the approximate rate of concordance for autism in monozygotic twins?
70%
How many minutes is the rest/activity cycle that is controlled partially by an internal clock in the anterior hypothalamus?
90
How long does it take for a typical person to experience REM sleep for the first time in an evening?
90 minutes
What percent of the human genome does not code for proteins?
98.5%
What are microelectrodes?
A very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons
What is electron microscopy?
A beam of electrons passes through a slice of tissue, casts a shadow on a fluorescent screen, and then is photographed or scanned into a computer
Explain how a biological clock operates.
A biological clock controls activity levels and other characteristics of an organism on a 24-hour basis. Biological clocks of humans tend to run in 25-hour cycles on their own, but these clocks are re-set daily by environmental cues such as daylight.
Which kind of neuron has only one dendritic tree?
A bipolar neuron.
Fixative
A chemical such as formalin; used to prepare and preserve body tissue
What is a stereotaxic atlas?
A collection of drawings of sections of the brain of a particular animal with measurements that provide coordinates for stereotaxic surgery
Which of the following would be most likely to be a compensatory mechanism that occurred in response to habitual use of a drug that speeds up the heart rate?
A decrease in heartrate
What is stereotaxic apparatus?
A device that permits a surgeon to position an electrode or cannula into a specific part of the brain
How is an indirect antagonist different from a direct antagonist?
A direct antagonist binds with the postsynaptic receptor, preventing the ion channel from opening. An indirect antagonist binds with an alternative site, but still prevents the ion channel from opening
How is an indirect antagonist different from a direct antagonist?
A direct antagonist binds with the postsynaptic receptor, preventing the ion channel from opening. An indirect antagonist binds with an alternative site, but still prevents the ion channel from opening.
What scenario would result in the strongest mirror neuron activity?
A female soccer player watching a female soccer player make a goal
If the virus hypothesis is true, we should see an increase in schizophrenia in babies born how long after an influenza outbreak?
A few months
What does Mali think may have triggered her initial symptoms of narcolepsy?
A flu-like illness
Which object would be rich in high spatial frequency information?
A full-color photograph of ballet dancers on stage
Which items are needed for single unit recording?
A glass microelectrode and an amplifier
Jane experienced an aura and a feeling of dread a few seconds before she had a seizure accompanied by convulsions. The seizure was followed by a period of unresponsive sleep. What type of seizure did Jane have?
A grand mal seizure
Chao recently moved from China to the United States to attend college. When he turned 21, he started going out to clubs with his friends. He enjoyed going to the clubs, but found that he had an unpleasant physical reaction to alcohol that was different from his western friends and he did not enjoy drinking. What most likely caused his adverse reaction?
A hereditary genetic variation
How does a presynaptic heteroreceptor function?
A heteroreceptor typically involves the presynaptic button being sensitive to a second neurotransmitter that is delivered by an axon from a different neuron.
Why does a doctor look to give her patients a drug with a high therapeutic index?
A high therapeutic index means that the toxic dose is many times higher than the effective dose, meaning that there is little danger of accidental overdose
Why does a doctor look to give her patients a drug with a high therapeutic index?
A high therapeutic index means that the toxic dose is many times higher than the effective dose, meaning that there is little danger of accidental overdose.
What is the retrograde labeling method?
A histological method that labels cell bodies that give rise to the terminal buttons that form synapses with cells in a particular region
What is the anterograde labeling method?
A histological method that labels the axons and terminal buttons of neurons whose cell bodies are located in a particular region
What are the immunocytochemical methods?
A histological method that uses radioactive antibodies or antibodies bound with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of particular proteins of peptides
What is needed in order to develop good stereoscopic depth perception?
A kitten (from experiment) or human must have experience seeing the same object with corresponding portions of the two eyes early in life. Otherwise, each neuron in the visual cortex becomes responsive to input from just one eye.
What does a knockout gene do?
A knockout gene codes for a defective protein.
Scientists can see the effects of a specific protein by inserting which kind of gene into an experimental animal's genome?
A knockout gene that produces a defective protein
Describe how apomorphine can act as both an agonist and as an antagonist
A low dose of apomorphine acts as an antagonist. Higher doses begin to stimulate postsynaptic D2 receptors, and the drug begins to act as a direct agonist.
How does microdialysis reveal secretion concentrations of a neurotransmitter like dopamine in a brain region?
A microdialysis probe consists of a small metal tube that introduces a solution into a section of dialysis tubing—a piece of artificial membrane shaped in the form of a cylinder, sealed at the bottom. Another small metal tube leads thesolution away after it has circulated through the pouch. The fluid is then collected and analyzed.
What is a transmission electron microscope?
A microscope that passes a focused beam of electrons through thin slices of tissue to reveal extremely small details
What is scanning electron microscope?
A microscope that proves 3D information about the shape of the surface of a small object by scanning the object with a thin beam of electrons, provides less magnification than standard transmission electron microscope
What is confocal laser scanning microscope?
A microscope that provides high-resolution images of various depths of thick tissue that contains fluorescent molecules by scanning the tissue with light from a laser beam
What characterizes REM sleep behavior disorder?
A neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams.
Which of the following accurately describes how an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is created?
A neurotransmitter activates potassium ion channels that cause potassium to leave the cell and hyperpolarize the membrane.
Which of the following would not be covered with an arachnoid membrane?
A peripheral nerve
What are sham lesions?
A placebo procedure that duplicates all the steps of producing a brain lesion except the one that actually causes the brain damage
Which of the following predicts the risk of developing PTSD?
A preexisting generalized anxiety disorder
The article discusses a sex-dimorphic difference regarding the hemisphericlateralization of amygdala function in relation to memory for emotional material.What do such studies consistently indicate?
A preferential involvement of the LEFT amygdala for women, but a preferential involvement of the RIGHT amygdala for men
What is microdialysis?
A procedure for analyzing chemicals present in the interstitial fluid through a small piece of tubing made of a semipermeable membrane that is implanted in the brain
What is magnetoencephalography?
A procedure that detects groups of synchronously activated neurons by means of the magnetic field induced by their electrical activity; uses an array of superconducting quantum interference devices, or SQUIDs
What is autoradiography?
A procedure that locates radioactive substances in a slice of tissue; the radiation exposes a photographic emulsion or a piece of film that covers the tissue
lateral inhibition
A process in which lateral connections allow one photoreceptor to inhibit the responsiveness of its neighbor, thus enhancing the sensation of visual contrast
What is PHA-L?
A protein derived from kidney beans and used as an anterograde tracer; taken up by dendrites and cell bodies and carried to the ends of the axons
A medical researcher is doing muscle studies on various individuals. Which of the following would the researcher be most likely to find in the finger muscles of a professional violin player?
A ratio of about 1 alpha motor neuron axons to 8 muscle fibers in a single motor unit.
Which stimulus is likely to make a complex cell fire most strongly?
A sine-wave grating moving through the cell's receptive field at a particular orientation and speed
Which of the following would be most likely to provoke the strongest response of mirror neurons?
A skilled twelve-year old baseball player viewing the batting technique of a professional baseball player
Narcolepsy may be defined as follows:
A sleep disorder characterized by periods of irresistible sleep, attacks of cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations.
How can movement occur without input from the brain?
A stretch reflex has a circuit that goes from a stretch receptor in the muscle to a motor neuron in the spinal cord and back to the muscle without any input from the brain
How can movement occur using striated muscle without the participation of the brain?
A stretch reflex has a circuit that goes from a stretch receptor in the muscle to a motor neuron in the spinal cord and back to the muscle without any input from the brain.
Which of the following can bring on a bout of cataplexy?
A strong emotional experience.
How does an MRI scan manage to create an image of brain tissue?
A strong magnetic field orients all hydrogen nuclei in brain cells one direction. A pulse of radio energy causes the nuclei to flip and release energy that is detected. The image reflects the amount of water in tissue since water is hydrogen-rich. Water content differs from tissue to tissue so a measure of water content in different tissues is sufficient to create an image of a brain area.
Over 30 percent of Americans claim to suffer from insomnia and insist that their affliction is very real and very debilitating. Yet laboratory research studies show that people who report having insomnia grossly underestimate the amount of sleep they get., Which of the following, if true, would best reconcile the contradiction between research and statements of insomnia sufferers?
A study that shows that though insomniacs report having been awake and remember having looked at the clock at 2 AM, 3 AM and so on, their EEG patterns for those time periods show that they were actually experiencing a sleep state, not a waking state.
A technician is monitoring the EEG records for several sleep subjects in a laboratory. Which subject is likely to be in the transition stage between sleeping and waking?
A subject that has an EEG frequency of 5 Hz and no indication of sleep spindles or K complexes
What is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?
A technique whereby the interior of the body can be accurately imaged; involves the interaction between radio waves and a strong magnetic field
What causes Korsakoff's syndrome?
A thiamine deficiency
A scientist examines the cortex of a human. She thinks that the cells come from a two-month embryo. How can she be sure?
A two-month embryo should be in the period of asymmetrical division (fewer than 6 cortical layers)
Which of the following is true of autistic disorder (AD)?
AD includes affective, cognitive, and behavioral abnormalities.
An increased number of ______ receptors in the postsynaptic membrane strengthens the synapse.
AMPA
An ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel; stimulated by AMPA.
AMPA Receptor
A drug that blocks the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of the catecholamines.
AMPT
A drug that blocks the glutamate-binding site on NMDA receptors.
AP5 (2amino-5-phosphonopentanoate)
What is a visual symptom or sign of fetal alcohol syndrome?
Abnormal facial development
Adding healthy cells to the basal ganglia of Parkinson's patients does not work. Why is this?
Abnormal α-synuclein causes misfolded proteins in the new cells.
Which neurotransmitters control arousal and wakefulness?
Acetylcholine, noradrenaline, serotonin, histamine, and orexin
This initiates release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
Action potential opens calcium channels.
How does the use of 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) reveal brain activity?
Active brain cells take up radioactive 2-deoxyglucose preferentially for energy. 2-deoxyglucose cannot be metabolized, so it leaves a permanent record of the most active brain cells.
A nucleoside; a combination of ribose and adenine; serves as a neurmodulator in the brain.
Adenosine
What age is most vulnerable to drug addiction?
Adolescence
What noun refers to feelings and emotions?
Affect
refers to bringing information into a structure
Afferent axon
The readiness with which two molecules join together.
Affinity
What were the results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo control study of bupropion and varenicline for treatment of smoking?
After 52 weeks, the smokers treated with varenicline were most likely to still be abstinent.
During an action potential, when is the membrane potential restored to normal?
After potassium channels close
A drug that blocks reuptake of serotonin would be termed a(n) _____
Agonist
A drug that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.
Agonist
These facilitate the post synaptic effects
Agonists
Ruth has become so afraid that she will have a panic attack that she hasn't left her house in a month. What disorder does Ruth have?
Agoraphobia
_______ refer(s) to an intense fear of open space.
Agoraphobia
Which of the following is the most accurate statement about skeletal muscle?
All skeletal muscles actively contract.
A drug that inhibits the activity of GAD and thus blocks the synthesis of GABA.
Allylglycine
These mediate smooth muscle contractions
Alpha-adrenergic
Which of the following disorders demonstrate sex differences in incidence and/or nature?
Alzehiemer's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, autism
Traumatic brain injury is a risk factor for developing what disease?
Alzheimer's
Which disease is more likely to develop in a person who received head injuries earlier in life?
Alzheimer's
These food chemicals can activate sweet taste receptors
Amino Acids
Why is it difficult to identify amino acids as neurotransmitters?
Amino acids are found in every cell in the brain so it is hard to show that a specific one serves as a neurotransmitter
Why is it difficult to identify amino acids as neurotransmitters?
Amino acids are found in every cell in the brain so it is hard to show that a specific one serves as a neurotransmitter.
What drug can produce symptoms that closely resemble schizophrenia?
Amphetamines
Which of the following determines how loud a sound will seem?
Amplitude
Which of the following is not part of the limbic cortex of the medial temporal lobe?
Amygdala
Cognitive abilities are rarely affected by which disease?
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
What does an anterograde labeling method reveal?
An anterograde labeling method such as PHA-L labels entire neurons moving forward from dendrites through the axons to terminal buttons.
How can a peptide like vasopressin be located in the brain?
An antibody for vasopressin is made and tagged with a fluorescent dye. Brain slices are then exposed to the antibody-dye and mounted on slides. The antibodies attach to the antigen. The slides are then examined for fluorescence.
How is saporin used to selectively kill off specific neurons?
An antibody is created for a protein that is unique to a certain neuron population. Saporin is attached to the antibody. The antibody migrates to cells containing the protein antigen and saporin kills those cells.
_____________ is an example of a pleasant, arousing stimuli often used to mitigate pain in children.
An engaging video game
What is diffusion tenser imaging?
An imaging method that uses a modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in the living human brain
An increase in fat-solubility leads to:
An increase in absorption
Which statement is true?
An increase in temperature will lower the sensitivity of warmth receptors and raise the sensitivity of cold receptors.
What is the immediate result of symmetrical division?
An increase in the size of the ventricular and subventricular zones.
Braun et al. exposed rodent pups to the stress of temporary separation from their mother as well as the mother's call. Which of the following was found?
An increase of serotonin receptors in the basomedial amygdala of male pups and a decrease of serotonin receptors in the same area of female pups
A drug binds to an alternative binding site in a receptor and ends up facilitating the opening of ion channels in the receptor. What kind of a drug is it?
An indirect agonist
Amine
An organic compound with one or more amino groups.
Which activity would a person who is severely sleep-deprived find most difficult to do?
Analyze a complex legal document.
The first cannabinoid to be discovered and probably the most important one.
Anandamide
Which statement is the most true?
Children who learn two languages have comparable vocabularies to native speakers.
Which of the following is an atypical antipsychotic drug?
Clozapine
Which kind of drugs are most likely to penetrate the blood-brain barrier?
Drugs composed of very large molecules
Why does the effect of apomorphine change with dosage on dopamine neurons?
Apomorphine is a D2 agonist, but it seems to have a greater affinity for presynaptic D2 receptors than for postsynaptic D2 receptors. A low dose of apomorphine acts as an antagonist, because it stimulates the presynaptic receptors and inhibits the production and release of dopamine. Higher doses begin to stimulate postsynaptic D2 receptors, and the drug begins to act as a direct agonist.
The end of cortical development occurs with _________ of the progenitor cells
Apoptosis
A drug that opposes or inhibits the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.
Antagonist
These block or inhibit the post synaptic effects
Antagonists
What method is used to trace efferent axons?
Anterograde labeling method
Fastest form of axoplasmic transport in a neuron
Anterograde transport from the soma to the terminal buttons
What chemical is located by immunocytochemical techniques?
Antigens
A researcher finds that she needs a drug to facilitate sleepiness in her subjects. Which of the following drugs would be most effective?
Antihistamine
An anxiety-reducing effect.
Anxiolytic
How much of the world's adult population smokes?
Approximately 33%
A neuroscientist uses the standard immunocytochemical method (PHA-L) for tracing anterograde pathways to find that brain region A has fibers that lead exclusively to brain region B. The scientist now injects fluorogold into brain region B and finds that almost all of the axons terminating in B lead back to brain area C, not area B. What can you conclude from this result?
Area A's efferents lead exclusively to area B. Area B has a few afferents from area A, but most of its afferents come from area C.
The reticular activating system is involved in.
Arousal (waking up)
How do scientists define sleep?
As a behavior
How are sham lesions used in lesion studies?
As a control group
A research scientist shines a sharp spotlight in the receptive field of retinal ganglion cell A. She records a decrease in firing frequency of the cell. She repeats the procedure for cell B and gets a similar pattern. Earlier she had determined that one of her cells was an ON cell and the other was an OFF cell. Assuming that her characterization of the cells was accurate, how can she explain the fact that two different cell types — ON and OFF — give the same response?
Assuming cell A was an ON cell and cell B was an OFF cell, she shined the spot on the peripheral ring of cell A and in the center of cell B.
largest glia, star-shaped, many functions (provide support, nutrients, and regulation)
Astrocytes
The four types of glial cells.
Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia, Schwann cells
Where is an action potential retriggered as it travels down a myelinated axon?
At each node of Ranvier.
What disorder has symptoms that include uninhibited responses and lack of sustained attention?
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Which of the following is NOT true regarding behavior frequently observed in autistics?
Autistics show interest in understanding other people.
Uses only efferent neurons. Regulates body's internal environment with the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Autonomic Nervous System
The sympathetic nervous system is part of the _____
Autonomic nervous system
Which of the following diseases is an autoimmune demyelinating disease?
Multiple sclerosis
mechanism that surrounds the brain and blocks most chemicals from entering
BBB (Blood Brain Barrier)
tightly-packed cells of blood vessel walls prevent entry of many molecules
BBB (Blood Brain Barrier)
The reflex in response to a touch to the bottom of the foot is called the ____ reflex.
Babinski
An injury on the dorsal surface of a man's body could be located on the man's
Back
What drugs are often used for emergency treatment of anxiety disorders?
Benzodiazepines
Why is there poor detail vision in the peripheral vision?
Because so many receptors send their input to the same postsynaptic cell, whereas in foveal vision, only a few receptors funnel their input to a postsynaptic cell
Jake puts both of his feet in the luke warm water of a bath tub. The water in Jake's left foot activates cold receptors while warm receptors are being stimulated on Jake's right foot. How is this possible?
Before stepping in the tub the right foot was immersed in cold water and the left foot was immersed in warm water.
A category of anxiolytic drugs; and indirect agonist for the GABA(A) receptor.
Benzodiazepine
In what way do acetaminophen and marijuana behave similarly?
Both acetaminophen and the active chemical in marijuana (THC) bind to cannabinoid receptors.
How does botox prevent wrinkles?
Botox contains botulinum toxin that prevents the release of ACh. Without Ach, muscles that cause wrinkles fail to contract and wrinkles fail to form
Many people get botox injections to help them appear to be younger. How do these injections work?
Botox is a dilute form of the botulinum toxin. The toxin inhibits the release of acetylcholine. Without this neurotransmitter, the muscles in the face and neck cannot contract. This removes the appearance of wrinkles
An acetylcholine antagonist; prevents release of ACh by terminal buttons.
Botulinum Toxin
Why is 2-deoxyglucose taken in by brain cells?
Brain cells that are active need glucose as an energy source. 2-deoxyglucose is a form of glucose so it is readily taken in by active cells, even though it cannot be metabolized.
Researchers find that brain function F is eliminated when brain structures A and B are lesioned but function F is not eliminated when brain structure C is lesioned. Which of the following conclusions can be drawn?
Brain structure B is involved in brain function F.
What is included in a stereotaxic surgery?
Brain surgery using stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain, a stereotaxic atlas is also needed
Damage to a region of the inferior left frontal lobe disrupts the ability to speak, causing ________.
Broca's aphasia
How can you stimulate neural activity?
By electrical or chemical stimulations
How are temporary lesions produced?
By injecting a local anesthetic, muscimol, into the appropriate part of the brain, which blocks action potentials in axons entering or leaving that region
agonists, because they will prevent the inhibitory hyperpolarizations
Drugs that bind with and block dendritic autoreceptors will serve as......
The site of action of the endogenous cannabinoids in the brain is the ______ receptor.
CB1
Which methods can be used on living human beings without harming them?
CT scans, MRI scans, and DTI
Which statement is true of the cresyl violet dye?
Cell-body stains like cresyl violet are taken up by cell bodies but not by fiber bundles.
What principal structures makes up the hindbrain?
Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata
What principal structures makes up the forebrain?
Cerebral cortex Basal ganglia Limbic system Thalamus Hypothalamus
A researcher has tested a promising drug and found it to be ineffective. She feels that the drug may be getting broken down and excreted from the body before it can reach its site of action. Which of the following is likely to reveal what is happening to the drug?
Check urine for traces of broken-down components of the drug.
A researcher has texted a promising drug and found it to be ineffective. She feels that the drug may be broken down and excreted from the body before it can reach its site of action. Which of the following is likely to reveal what is happening to the drug?
Check urine for traces of the broken down components of the drug
A scientist is looking for chemicals that may be psychoactive and affect brain function. What should she look for in the chemicals she tests?
Chemicals that are able to bind with synaptic receptors
Why is there no net force on the chloride ion in a typical neuron?
Chloride has a concentration gradient leading into the cell but an electrostatic force leading out of the cell.
What mid-twentieth century drug was found to have dramatic antipsychotic effects and changed the treatment of schizophrenics?
Chlorpromazine
What was the first antipsychotic drug?
Chlorpromazine
The enzyme that transfers the acetate ion from acetyl coenzyme A to choline, producing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
Choline Acetyltransferace (ChAT)
Which of the following is a structural sex difference?
Chronic stress causing more damage to the hippocampus in male than female rats and monkeys
What drugs produce the positive effects of schizophrenia?
Cocaine
How is a sound located by phase differences?
Coincidence detector neurons link to axons from both the left and right ear. If the sound reaches both ears at the same time, the coincidence detector neuron in the center will respond. If the signal from the left ear is able to travel past the center before being met by a signal from the right, the sound must have originated in the left ear.
Each module in the striate cortex is surrounded by a pair of cytochrome oxidase (CO) blobs. The neurons within the blobs in these modules are sensitive to which of the following?
Color
Explain where color is processed in the visual system.
Color begins in the cones, gets passed on to the parvocellular and koniocellular layers of the LGN, goes to the blob regions of the striate cortex, then emerges in the ventral stream of the visual association cortex and ultimately on to V4.
How can you test to see if two colors are complementary?
Combine the two colors. If they produce white, or a shade of grey, they are complementary.
What is twin studies?
Comparison of concordance rates of monozygotic and dizygotic twins estimates heritability of trait
This kind of cell responds equally well to white lines against black backgrounds, and black lines against white backgrounds.
Complex cell
Joan suffered a stroke that impaired her ability to use her left arm. Which therapy would be best for her recovery?
Constraint-induced movement therapy
What type of nerves located in the brainstem, are involved in eye movements, pupil constriction, and eyelid movements?
Cranial
A scientist wants to assess the role of neurons that use neurotransmitter N in a region of the brain. She suspects that neurotransmitter N controls aggressive behavior in rats. How can she determine the role of neurotransmitter N in aggressive behavior?
Create antibodies with saporin attached that are targeted for the proteins that create neurotransmitter N. Then send the antibodies into the affected brain area. The saporin will kill off only those neurons that contain the protein that makes neurotransmitter N. Once those neurons are killed off, observe the behavior of the rats.
How do benzodiazepines produce their effect?
Drugs such as Valium attach to GABA sites as agonists, producing increased inhibition in the brain, which apparently has a calming effect
antagonists
Drugs that bind with and activate dendritic auto receptors will serve as ......
What symptoms after damage limited to area MT? What may occur if MT is intact but area V1 is damaged?
Damage in area MT can produce motion blindness. If area MT is intact but area V1 is damaged, the person may be able to report motion direction despite no conscious identification of the moving object.
A person is having trouble reading due to possible brain damage. Which of the following might be responsible for his trouble?
Damage to the posterior parietal lobe that interfere with saccadic eye movements in the VIP and LIP areas
Unilateral neglect arises from which of the following?
Damage to the right half of the brain that results in a failure to notice left side of objects
A patient has brain damage that causes narcolepsy. Which of the following best explains the nature of the patient's brain damage?
Degeneration of orexinergic neurons.
What causes Huntington's disease?
Degeneration of the caudate nucleus and putamen
These are branching fibers with a surface lined with synaptic receptors responsible for bringing information into the neruon .
Dendrites
All neurons have the following major components:
Dendrites, Soma/ cell body, axon, presynaptic terminals
Serotonergic
Denoting a nerve ending that releases and is stimulated by serotonin
How is muscle contraction produced?
Depolarization of the endplate brings in calcium ions that use ATP to provide energy for myosin to attach to actin, bend, and move in one direction, causing a shortening of the muscle.
What produces muscle contractions?
Depolarization of the endplate brings in calcium ions.
How is an action potential initiated?
Depolarization of the membrane opens voltage dependent ion channels that allow sodium ions to rush in along concentration and electrostatic gradients and drastically change the electrical potential of the cell.
A drug that blocks the activity of MAO-B; acts as a dopamine agonist.
Deprenyl
What MAO inhibitor has been used to help slow the neurological symptoms of Parkinson's Disease?
Deprenyl
What disorder that commonly co-occurs (i.e., is comorbid with) GAD does Philip also likely have?
Depression
What is pathological depression?
Depression and despair that is unrelenting
Which of the following is true of REM sleep?
Depriving subjects of REM sleep has little effect on behavior.
________ is a sign that a high level of activity, such as problem solving, is occurring in the brain.
Desynchrony
What is the significance of the synchronized EEG patterns that appear during stage 1 sleep?
Desynchrony is a sign of a brain that is active and alert. Synchrony, on the other hand, indicates that the person is relaxed and in a state of repose. Therefore, synchronized EEG patterns show a brain that is asleep or ready to go to sleep.
What is the significance of desynchrony in EEG recordings of sleep?
Desynchrony typically shows that a variety of neural circuits are highly active and a person is actively thinking.
People with this condition would have difficulty driving id the colors of the traffic lights were not consistently arranged in the same order
Deuteranopia
People with this condition would have difficulty driving if the colors of the traffic lights were not consistently arranged in the same order.
Deuteranopia
A scientist is looking for a new strategy for developing an antidepressant that works on a different principle than Prozac and other similar drugs. Which idea should he try?
Develop a drug that works on 5-HT autoreceptors to increase the amount of serotonin that gets released from each vesicle
A scientist is looking for a new strategy for developing an antidepressant that works on a different principle than prozac and other similar drugs. Which idea should he try?
Develop a drug that works on 5-HTP auto receptors to increase the amount of serotonin that gets released from each vesicle.
Which of the following would NOT be a diagnosis of aphasia?
Difficulty recognizing when others are attempting to communicate
Which force does microdialysis use to detect chemicals in the brain?
Diffusion
A scientist wants to view myelinated fibers that form large bundles in the brain without viewing cell bodies. Which imaging method should she use?
Diffusion tensor imaging
A drug that binds with and activates a receptor.
Direct Agonist
Which NT's are classified as catecholamines?
Dopamine Norepinephrine Epinephrine
A neurotransmitter; one of the catecholamines.
Dopamine (DA)
The changes a drug produces in an person's physiological processes and behavior.
Drug Effect
A graph of the magnitude of an effect of a drug as a function of the amount of drug administered.
Drug-response Curve
How do doctors distinguish between psychological and physiological erectile problems in males?
During REM sleep all non-impotent males experience erections. Doctors monitor penis enlargement during sleep. If erections occur during REM periods, the problem is deemed to be psychological. If erections fail to occur, the problem is deemed to be physiological.
During a period when a person is dreaming, what state does the brain resemble?
During dreaming, most people show the same vivid visual sense coupled with confusion with respect to time and place that individuals with damage to the prefrontal cortex show.
When you wiggle your eyes back and forth, why don't you see a blur?
During your eye movements, responsiveness decrease sharply in much of your visual cortex.
This research method uses a macroelectrode attached to various places on a person's scalp to record brain activity.
EEG
Long-term potentiation is a relatively permanent increase in a(n) ________ in response to a stimulus of a constant intensity.
EPSP
Why are the receptive fields in V2 much larger than those that are inputting into them from V1?
Each V2 cell is getting input from several V1 cells, showing that neural integration is taking place in a hierarchical manner.
Why do stereotaxic atlases give only approximate locations of brain structures?
Each animal is different. The locations of brain structures in two animals may be similar, but they will not be the same.
How are brain regions and behaviors related?
Each brain region performs a function that contributes to a behavior.
A variant of the gene for alcohol dehydrogenase can cause an aversive reaction to alcohol. Where is this gene most prevalent?
Eastern Asia
Tay-Sachs disease is found mainly in children of ____________________ descent.
Eastern European Jewish
refers to carrying information away from a structure.
Efferent axon
What is the purpose of efferent input?
Efferent input tightens or loosens the muscle spindles.
How is sensitivity of muscle spindles increased in the gamma motor system?
Efferent input tightens or loosens the muscle spindles. Tight spindles are more sensitive to a change in muscle length. Slack spindles are less sensitive to a change in muscle length.
Which of the following would be considered a polysynaptic reflex?
Ejaculation of semen
David is severely depressed and suicidal. His doctors feel he needs immediate relief from his depression to prevent a suicide attempt. Which treatment should they use?
Electroconvulsive therapy
In the early twentieth century, a physician named von Meduna observed epileptic patients who were also psychotic. He noted that these patients showed improved mental condition immediately after a seizure. What treatment for depression did these observations lead to?
Electroconvulsive therapy
Ways to create permanent brain damage (3)
Electrolytic lesions, radio frequency, excitotoxic
What are permanent lesions
Electrolytic, Radio Frequency, Excitotoxic
What is created by an imbalance of charged particles on either side of a membrane?
Electrostatic pressure
What is a piece of a blood clot that breaks off from its site of origin and lodges in an artery too small to pass through?
Embolus
Which of the following is NOT one of the four basic forms of learning?
Emotional learning
Patients with narcolepsy often try to avoid thoughts or situations with high ________ content, because they realize it may bring on ____________
Emotional, cataplexy
What infection invades the entire brain?
Encephalitis
Which of the following is true of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
Obsessions are thoughts that cannot be ignored.
A lipid; an endogenous ligand for the receptors that bind with THC, the active ingredient of marijuana.
Endocannabinoid
What enhances the craving for nicotine?
Endocannabinoids
A class of peptides secreted by the brain that act as opiates.
Endogenous Opiod
Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest argument in support of the idea that the placebo effect is not imaginary and should be considered as an important factor in the treatment of pain?
Endogenous opiates can be detected after administration of a placebo, and naloxone, which blocks opiates, extinguishes any analgesic effect reported by placebo users.
Which of the following can block pain signals?
Endorphins
These cells usually have spaces inbetween them so that substances can move in and out of blood vessels called capillaries. But in the brain, the cells are packed so tightly substances cannot come through.
Endothelial cells
These are the natural ligands for opiate receptors.
Enkephalins
An antibody for vasopressin is made and tagged with a fluorescent dye. Brain slices are then exposed to the antibody-dye and mounted on slides. The antibodies attach to the antigen. The slides are then examined for fluorescence.
Enzymes that control chemical reactions
Some investigators believe that one of the causes of this condition is an abnormality in the biochemistry of GABA-secreting neurons or in GABA receptors
Epilepsy
One of the catecholamines; a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; serves also as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
Epinephrine
Which of the following, if true, would provide the strongest evidence that intellectual learning actually changes the structure of the brain?
Evidence of neurogenesis is seen in the hippocampus, the area of the brain involved in learning
________ can be used to destroy neural cell bodies.
Excitatory amino acids
Lesion studies are a form of which kind of method of studying the brain?
Experimental ablation
How are lesion studies different from experimental ablation studies?
Experimental ablation studies involve removing a part of the brain, while lesion studies simply cause deliberate permanent damage to a part of the brain.
According to Shors and colleagues, a brief exposure to a stressful learning situation (e.g., a series of tail shocks) decreases the density of hippocampal dendritic spines in male rats, but increases spine density in female rats.
False
If no sex difference exists in a behavior, then it can be assumed that the neural substrates of that behavior are identical for the two sexes.
False
In rats and monkeys, chronic stress causes damage to the amygdala differently for males and females
False
In rats and monkeys, chronic stress causes damage to the hippocampus relatively similarly for males and females
False
Male patients with schizophrenia display marked facial hemispheric asymmetries that are absent in male healthy controls.
False
Men are more sensitive than women to the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants
False
Men are more sensitive than women to the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants.
False
Sex differences are confined to sexual behaviors, hormones, and the hypothalamus
False
The patterns of myelination in the hemispheres of male and female brains are relatively similar, suggesting that the cerebral asymmetry does not need to be analyzed separately for each sex.
False
Women with Turner syndrome (who lack an X chromosome) show heightened responsiveness of the left hemisphere amygdala to emotional material.
False
What symptoms might be caused by a seizure that originates in the parietal lobe?
Feelings of pins and needles
A drug that stimulates the release of 5-HT. Was part of Phen-fen
Fenfluramine
How can you distinguish bundles of nerve fibers in a brain that has been stained by methylene blue?
Fibers don't take up stain so they appear to be lighter in color than cell bodies.
How can a researcher determine whether a given neuron in the visual cortex is simple or complex?
First identify a stimulus, such as a horizontal line, that stimulates the cell. Then move the stimulus. If the cell responds only in one location, it is a simple cell. If it responds in several locations, it is a complex cell.
Why does a cataract on one eye produce greater visual impairments in infants than in adults?
First, infants' brains are more plastic; adults' brains are already fairly set and resist change in the event of distorted or deficient input. Furthermore, in the infant brain, each hemisphere gets nearly all its visual input from its contralateral eye. The crossed paths from the eyes to the hemispheres are more mature than the uncrossed paths, and the corpus callosum is immature.
Which of the following are standard methods for any histological method of examining the brain?
Fixing, slicing, staining, and observing the brain
________ involves ________ of joints as in ________. ________ is ________ of joints as in ________.
Flexion, bending, drawing in a limb Extension, straightening, using antigravity muscles to stand
A drug that inhibits the reuptake of 5-HT. Also called Prozac.
Fluoxetine
Why are muscle fibers likely to have nicotinic receptors rather than muscarinic receptors?
For acetylcholine that is used by most muscles, nicotinic receptors are ionotropic, while muscarinic receptors are metabotropic. Since ionotropic receptors can act more quickly and directly, they are required for the fast actions needed for muscle activity.
What effect does formalin have on brain tissue to be analyzed?
Formalin does three things. First it halts breakdown of brain tissue by autolytic enzymes. Second, it halts decomposition from bacteria. And third, formalin hardens the brain so it can be sliced.
What would you expect to find in neurons that have recently been stimulated?
Fos protein
CB2
Found more outside the brain Involved in the immune system
Which of the following might be the evolutionary advantage of the nausea and vomiting that accompany prolonged disturbance of the vestibular system in motion sickness?
From an evolutionary standpoint, many poisons, such as alcohol, produce the same symptoms as motion sickness -- visual distortion and disorientation. When alcohol causes these symptoms, the vestibular systems interprets the disorientation as the presence of toxin, so it induces vomiting. The vestibular system cannot distinguish poisoning symptoms from motion sickness symptoms, so it initiates vomiting in both cases.
From which parts of the retina does the left hemisphere of visual system receive input?
From the inner half of the right eye and the outer half of the left eye
Which statement is true of functional MRI scans as they are compared to PET scans?
Functional MRI scans have greater temporal and spatial resolution than PET scans, but PET scans can measure concentrations of brain chemicals, something that fMRI cannot do.
Which of the following, if true, would provide the strongest evidence to support the idea that the fusiform face area (FFA) is not simply a face recognition site but actually a flexible fusiform area?
Functional evidence shows that experts in such areas as recognizing non-facial objects such as flowers or cars are exclusively using the FFA area to make their identifications.
A drug that inhibits the activity of the enzyme dopamine-B-hydroxylase and thus blocks the production of norepinephrine.
Fusaric Acid
An amino acid; the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
GABA
Which of the following is a neurochemical sex difference?
GABA stimulation of substantia nigra cells in rat pups depolarizing the cells in males but hyperpolarizing them in females
Collection of cell bodies OUTSIDE CNS
Ganglion
Why do humans have more acute vision in one part of the eye than in the other parts
Ganglion cells in the forvea receive input from a smaller number of photoreceptors that this in the periphery and hence provide more acute visual information
Why do humans have more acute vision in one part of the eye than other parts?
Ganglion cells in the fovea receive input from a smaller number of photoreceptors than those in the periphery and hence provide more acute visual information.
___________ language may have been the precursor to vocal speech.
Gestural
With regard to the treatment of addiction, why is it important for neuroscienceto consider the sex of the individual?
Given that men and women do not undergo identical processes, identicaltherapeutics would subsequently not apply.
Cells in the nervous system with multiple functions
Glia
Support neurons, Outnumber neurons 10:1
Glial cells
________ form a layer around brain blood vessels and may be important in the development of the BBB.
Glial cells (astrocytes)
What is number 9 of the cranial nerves?
Glossopharyngeal
In the brain most synaptic communication is accomplished by two neurotransmitters
Gluatamate and GABA
Stress increases the secretion of __________________, which impairs the immune system.
Glucocorticoids
An amino acid; the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Glutamate
Scientists believe that the first excitatory neurotransmitter to evolve was ______.
Glutamate
Scientists believe that the first excitatory neurotransmitter to evolve was ________
Glutamate
Umami is activated by which of the following?
Glutamate
With the exception of neurons that detect painful stimuli, all sensory organs transmit information to the brain through axons whose terminals release _________
Glutamate
In the brain, most synaptic communication is accomplished by two neurotransmitters:
Glutamate and GABA
An amino acid; an important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the lower brain stem and spinal cord.
Glycine
A neuron from which type of receptor organ is specialized for measuring muscle tension?
Golgi tendon organ
Which type of receptor organ is specialized for measuring muscle tension?
Golgi tendon organ
Which of the following is NOT a function of one of the formations of the ventromedial group?
Grasping objects
In the brain, clusters of neuron cell bodies are referred to as ________
Gray matter
A patient shows tolerance for the effects of a drug over time. The drug is a barbiturate sedative that induces sleep and can be toxic in very high doses. The patient assumes that as his tolerance for the therapeutic effect of the drug increases, his tolerance for the toxic effects of the drug are also increasing, so he continually increases his dose. As the patient's doctor, how should you respond?
Have the patient stop increasing dosage immediately! Tolerance for the toxic response does not necessarily mirror tolerance for the therapeutic response, so a high dose could put the patient in great danger
This might explain how neurons are changed by experience in a way that would cause changes in behavior.
Hebb rule
A patient with high blood pressure was found to have bleeding in the brain that caused tissue damage. What type of disorder was the patient suffering from?
Hemorrhagic stroke
What equation measures fat solubility
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Who discovered ACh?
Henry Dale
What type of disease is Huntington's?
Hereditary
Why do drug addicts typically prefer heroin to morphine?
Heroin is more LIPID SOLUBLE than morphine and therefore enters the brain more quickly to provide a greater "rush."
How is pitch coded in the audition system?
High and middle frequency sounds are place coded by their location on the basilar membrane. Low frequency sounds are rate coded by firing frequency of neurons in the basilar membrane.
How does adenosine affect the sleep/waking cycle?
High brain activity depletes glycogen and causes adenosine to accumulate. Adenosine stimulates the sleep neurons of the vlPOA which in turn inhibit the arousal system and switch the sleep/waking flip-flop to "sleep."
A research scientist is able to measure activity levels for acetylcholine for a volunteer subject who had normal sleep patterns in the brain's arousal areas. The scientist finds high levels of ACh activity not only during the day, but also in the middle of the night. The scientist asked the volunteer about how well had had slept during the night and the volunteer claimed that he had slept normally with no interruptions. What should the scientist conclude?
High levels of acetylcholine should be expected during active moments of wakefulness and also during REM sleep, so the subject was asleep during the time that ACh levels were high.
A research scientist is able to measure activity levels for acetylcholine for a volunteer subject who had normal sleep patterns in the brain's arousal areas. The scientist finds high levels of ACh activity not only during the day, but also in the middle of the night. The scientist asked the volunteer how well he had slept during the night, and the volunteer claimed that he had slept normally with no interruptions. What should the scientist conclude?
High levels of acetylcholine should be expected during active moments of wakefulness and also during REM sleep, so the subject was asleep during the time that ACh levels were high.
Damage to which part of the neural tube might result in damage to the cerebellum?
Hindbrain
What structure of the medial temporal lobes plays a role in memory for spatial location?
Hippocampus
The __________ is larger in women than in men, this is an example of a ___________ difference
Hippocampus; structural
____________ produces a sensation of itch by producing an area on the skin of ______________.
Histamine, vasodilation
Which factors control sleep?
Homeostatic factors regulate the body's need for sleep each day. Allostatic factors take over in times of life-threatening stress. Circadian factors of light-dark and time of day underlie the other two factors.
-Molecules of the drug bind with the enzyme that normally destroys the NT and prevents the enzyme from working. -Ex. Acetylcholinesterase destroying acetylcholine
How do drugs interfere with the process of enzymes destroying NTs?
Molecules of the drug attach to the transporter molecules responsible for the reuptake and inactivate them, thus blocking reuptake
How do drugs interfere with the process of reuptake?
By affecting synaptic transmission
How do most drugs affect behavior?
Because particular drugs can selectively affect neurons that secrete particular NTs
How is it that particular drugs have effects on behavior?
In addition to the amygdala, the ________ may be influenced by both the variables of sex and hemisphere (i.e., sex-related hemispheric differences).
Hypothalamus
Injection of a substance into the peritoneal cavity--the space that surrounds the stomach, intestines, liver, and other abdominal organs.
IP Injection
A drug that blocks presynpatic noradrenergic a2 receptors and hence acts as an agonist, stimulating the synthesis and release of NE.
Idazoxan
How can you determine if a given axon produces EPSPs or IPSPs?
Identify the type of ion channels that the postsynaptic cell has.
What is the effect of closing one eye early in life? What is the effect of closing both eyes?
If one eye is closed during early development, the cortex becomes unresponsive to it. If both eyes are closed, cortical cells remain somewhat responsive to both eyes for several weeks and then gradually become sluggish and unselective in their responses.
How can classical conditioning play a role in panic disorder?
If the sufferer typically fears they are dying during panic attacks, they may learn to fear they are dying every time their heart rate rises, whether the increased heart rate is due to a panic attack or normal activities.
The effects of angular acceleration on the semicircular canals is explained by which example below?
If you place a glass of water on the exact center of a turntable and then start the turntable spinning, the water in the glass will, at first, remain stationary (the glass will move with respect to the water it contains.) Eventually, however, the water will begin rotating.
How do images emerge from the lenses of the eye before they are processed by the brain?
Images are upside down and reversed right to left
When is the PKU test performed?
Immediately after birth
Which symptom of autistic disorder is the first to appear?
Impaired social interactions
Why can people with transcortical sensory aphasia repeat what they hear but cannot comprehend the meaning of what they hear?
In Wernicke's aphasia, the posterior language area is damaged, and repetition does not involve this part of the brain.
A research scientist is looking at microelectrode recording data from one of the areas of the visual system. Record keeping was confused for this session, so the scientist is not sure where in the brain the recording is from. Nevertheless she sees that the neurons responded poorly to simple bar or sine wave gratings, but responded robustly to complex, three-dimensional, color stimuli and had enormous receptive fields. Where were the recordings most likely to have been made?
In a higher level site such as V4, because the higher you go in the hierarchy, the more likely you are to find complex stimuli and very large receptive fields.
Why are self-reports of insomnia thought to be unreliable?
In a lab setting, people who complain of insomnia sleep about the same amount as people who do not complain of insomnia.
What is an example of an "unconscious" visually guided behavior?
In blindsight, someone can point toward an object or move the eyes toward the object, despite insisting that he or she sees nothing.
Philip's anxiety had its onset:
In childhood
Why is night vision largely a black and white rather than a color experience?
In low light conditions, the rods are the only receptor cells that function and they do not have color vision.
Which is not a symptom of Parkinson's disease?
Inability to recognize familiar objects
What are targeted mutations?
Inactivation, insertion, or increased expression of gene
Which of the following sex differences was found by Kilts et al. in their study of brain activation in response to drug cues?
Increased right amygdala activity in men, decreased right amygdala activity in women
A sports scientist has a theory that top professional athletes get injured because they lack inhibitory input from Golgi tendon organs (GTOs) to reduce muscle contraction when contraction endangers the health of the muscle and joint itself. The scientist is looking for a drug that will beef up inhibitory input from GTOs to prevent athletes from exceeding their limit. Which of the following, if true, identifies the most serious flaw in the scientist's scheme?
Increasing GTO inhibition should cause a decrease in injuries by preventing over-exertion of muscles. However, it is probably this ability to contract muscles more intensely than other humans that gives these athletes an edge over rivals. So the performance of the athletes is likely to decline just as their injuries decline. In general, they will simply move more slowly overall.
The steep part of a dose-response curve shows where
Increasing the dose increases the efficacy of the drug
A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and interferes with the action of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
Indirect Antagonist
Administration of a vaporous substance into the lungs.
Inhalation
Which of the following correctly identifies the source of disruption in Parkinson's disease?
Inhibitory dopaminergic substantia nigra cells degenerate, reducing the inhibitory effect of the link to the caudate and putamen. This results in the indirect pathway becoming more inhibitory, thus upsetting its balance with the excitatory direct pathway.
The ________ is likely to be found in the spinal cord rather than in the brain.
Inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine
A researcher is interested in developing drugs that counteract seizures. Which kinds of neurotransmitters and receptors is she likely to find most promising?
Inhibitory neurotransmitters such as GABA and glycine
Which is the most common sleep disorder?
Insomnia
1. What is a significant problem in identifying insomnia?
Insomnia is one of the few medical problems that physicians treat without having direct clinical evidence for its existence.
What is a significant problem in identifying insomnia?
Insomnia is one of the few medical problems that physicians treat without having direct clinical evidence for its existence.
Which of the following is most likely to produce cataplexy?
Intense laughter
A neuron located entirely within the central nervous system.
Interneuron
_________ are those whose dendrites and axons are completely contained within a single structure.
Interneurons (Intrinsic neurons)
Which of the following is NOT a speech deficit associated with Broca's aphasia?
Intonation
Administration of a substance directly into the brain.
Intracerebral Administration
Administration of a substance into one of the cerebral ventricles.
Intracerebroventricular (ICV) Administration
Which definition describes intrafusal muscle fibers?
Intrafusal muscle fibers function as stretch receptors for muscles, providing information about muscle length.
Administration of a substance into the rectum.
Intrarectal Administration
How does tPA work to minimize brain damage after a stroke?
It dissolves the fibrin in the clot.
Which of the following is a drawback of methadone treatment?
It has a potential for abuse.
How is magnetoencephalograms different from other methods?
It has the ability to capture temporal resolution, the image can accurately measure differences in activity of closely spaced regions of the brain, image is much cruder than an fMRI but can be acquired much more rapidly and can reveal fast-moving events
What effect on dopamine and norepinephrine levels does methylphenidate have that is responsible for the therapeutic effects of the drug in treating ADHD?
It increases the levels of both neurotransmitters.
Why might oxytocin improve the sociability of people with autism spectrum disorder?
It increases trust and closeness to others.
______________is an effective, short-term treatment for severe depression.
Ketamine
The levorotatory form of DOPA; the precursor of the catecholamines; often used to treat Parkinson's disease because of its effect as a dopamine agonist.
L-DOPA
Why are people with Parkinson's disease given L-DOPA as a drug rather than dopamine?
L-DOPA is the precursor to dopamine that can get through the blood-brain barrier while dopamine cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier
People born during what time of year are more likely to develop schizophrenia?
Late winter, early spring
Students were debating how the supplementary motor area (SMA) studies of Lau relate to the philosophical idea of "free will" — whether or not humans have a free choice when they make decisions or whether their choices are predetermined in some way. Which of the following provides the strongest argument that Lau's experiment does not contradict the idea of free will?
Lau's study allows the individual to be "free" to choose any alternative he or she likes, but the choice originates in the unconscious, not the conscious part of the mind. Lau's results don't negate freedom to choose. They simply require that the there is a 2-3 second time lag between making the unconscious decision and conscious awareness of that decision.
The _____ hemisphere of approximately _____% of the total population is dominant for speech.
Left, 90
Which of the following statements about neurochemical sexual dimorphisms is incorrect?
Levels of monoamine oxidase are significantly lower in several brain regions in women than in men.
Which of the following is widely assumed to play a role in emotion?
Limbic cortex
What were the first effective drugs used for the treatment of depression?
MAO inhibitors
A drug that serves as a nor-adrenergicand serotonergic agonist, also known as "ecstasy"; has excitatory and hallucinogernic effects.
MDMA
Which area of the brain appears to be specialized for analyzing optic flow
MSTd
Which area of the brain appears to be specialized for analyzing optic flow?
MSTd
What dow SQUIDS measure?
Magnetic fields that are approximately one-billionth of the size of the earth's magnetic field
A scientist working for a drug company is looking to have maximum safety in the drug she is developing. What should she look for in her dose-response curves for therapeutic effects and adverse side effects?
Maximum horizontal distance between the two curves
A scientist working for a drug company is looking to have maximum safety in the drug she is developing. What should she look for in her dose-response curves for therapeutic effects?
Maximum horizontal distance between the two curves
Which of the following is a persistent sex difference associated with schizophrenia?
Men with schizophrenia show significantly larger ventricles than do healthy men,whereas no such enlargement is seen in women with schizophrenia.
The tough connective tissue that covers the brain and spinal cord is termed the _____
Meninges
Why does peppermint taste cool in the mouth?
Menthol in peppermint binds to the TPRM8 cold receptor so even though it has nothing to do with temperature, it makes the skin feel cooler.
A system of dopminergic neurons originating in the ventral temental area and terminating in the prefrontal cortex.
Mesocortical System
A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the nucleus accumbens, amydala, and hippocampus.
Mesolimbic System
A category of metabotropic receptors that are sensitive to glutamate.
Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor
What type of tumor will shed cells that travel through the bloodstream and cause the growth of new tumors?
Metastasizing
What is the most common treatment for opiate addiction?
Methadone
A drug that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine.
Methylphenidate
What is the most common treatment for ADHD?
Methylphenidate
What is used to record the brain's electrical (neural) activity?
Microelectrode, single-unit recording, macroelectrode
involved in response to injury or disease. Smallest and act as phagocytes to protect brain from invading organisms.
Microglia
A long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell.
Microtubule
This kind of section divides the brain into two symmetrical halves.
Midsagittal
A metabotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by muscarine and blocked by atropine.
Muscarinic Receptor
Which of the following best explains how genetic duplication might be responsible for the development of complex brains?
Multiple genes are duplicated. This means that the offspring will have one gene to perform the important functions and another one to "experiment" with
Damage to dopamine neurons within the substantia nigra would be expected to result in _____ impairments.
Motor
A neuron located within the central nervous system that controls the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of a gland. Has its soma in the spinal cord and receives excitation from other neurons and conducts impulses along it axon to a muscle.
Motor neuron
The frontal association cortex deals primarily with which functions?
Movement and planning of movement
Which movement will cause a burst of action potentials in a cochlear nerve axon?
Movement of liquid pushing bundle toward the tallest cilium
What are the four major glutamate receptors?
NMDA AMPA Kainate Metabotropic
A specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a calcium channel that is normally blocked by Mg2+ ions; has several other binding sites.
NMDA Receptor
Nest-building behavior appears to be associated in neurons in brain areas that have been designated as Green, Yellow, or Red. The following anatomical studies show that: 1. Lesions at Red, Green, and Yellow disrupt nest-building behavior.2. PHA-L injected into Red show pathways to Yellow but not to Green. 3. PHA-L injected into Green show no pathways to Red or Yellow.4. Fluorogold injected into Red show pathways between Yellow and Red.Given all of this information, which conclusions can you draw?
NOT Yellow has efferents that skip over Red and lead directly to Green. A lesion at Yellow disrupts the behavior because Yellow's axons pass by the Green region. Kainic acid applied to any of the areas would disrupt nesting behavior. TRY THIS ONE: Red has efferents that skip over Green and lead directly to Yellow. A lesion at Green disrupts the behavior because Red's axons pass by the Green region. Kainic acid applied to Red or Yellow would disrupt nesting behavior, but kainic acid on Green would not disrupt nesting behavior.
If people are deprived of REM sleep due to illness, medication, alcohol use, or just lack of sleep, they will _____.
NOT "have concentration problems" and NOT "lose basic functioning - try nap and doze
Researchers used a cochlear implant to electrically stimulate the cochlea of a person with hearing problems. The researchers implanted a single electrode at a single location at the basal end of the basilar membrane to tap out different frequencies to create a melody. Which of the following is likely to be the problem?
NOT The basal end of the basilar membrane uses a rate code rather than a place code. Tapping out different frequencies would produce audible sound but the sound would very low in frequency so the melody would not be very pleasing to the subject. see p216-218
A brain damage patient had trouble recognizing particular faces. Where is the patients brain damage likely to be located
NOT dorsal stream - see p191. Magnetocellular?
Recent MRI studies indicate that _______ structures are significantly smaller in patients with schizophrenia than in control patients.
NOT hippocampus or prefrontal cortex - either midbrain, limbic cortex or telecephalon
Damage to which area of the brain will disrupt an animal's ability to perceive movement?
NOT mstd - either V2, V5 or MSTv see p199
A male brain damage patient can recognize the color of objects but not the objects themselves. How would you characterize the man's brain damage?
NOT see p191 - The man has magnocellular damage.
Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest evidence that a tendency toward racism is somewhat hardwired in the human brain?
NOT see p196 - Functional imaging shows that the fusiform face area of individuals was activated much more strongly when they viewed faces of people of their own race than when they viewed faces of people of different races.
Which of the following best supports the idea that face recognition is a learned skill that gets better with age?
NOT see p197 - The FFA area which is believed to be responsible for facial recognition keeps growing in size through childhood.
How does bilateral damage to the extrastriate cortex affect function?
NOT see p201 - People with extrastriate damage are have trouble with depth perception and locating objects in space.
A drug that blocks opiate receptors. Treats heroin OD.
Naloxone
How does naloxone save lives?
Naloxone occupies opiate receptors as an antagonist to avoid overdoses of heroin and other opiate drugs for addicts and other drug abusers
How does naloxone save lives?
Naloxone occupies opiate receptors as an antagonist to avoid overdoses of heroin and other opiate drugs for addicts and other drug abusers.
What is the difference between narcolepsy and cataplexy?
Narcolepsy involves a person falling asleep at an inappropriate time. With cataplexy, a person becomes momentarily paralyzed.
Amanda, a top tennis player, claims she can make a decision about how and where to return a serve after the ball has made contact with her racquet. Film studies show that this decision is made within a window of time of 20 milliseconds. Amanda claims that her decisions are conscious, requiring that thought be involved, meaning that the brain is also involved. Amanda's rival, Natasha, says that Amanda's claim is impossible. Who is right?
Natasha is right. Neural information needs more than 50 milliseconds to travel from the arm to the brain and back again, so Amanda is deceiving herself about how quickly she makes her decisions.
A drug that inhibits the activity of acetylcholinesterase.
Neostigmine
Collection of axons OUTSIDE CNS
Nerve
Sex differences in the analgesic effectiveness of opioid peptides would be considered what kind of difference?
Neurochemical
The process of forming new brain cells is called ________
Neurogenesis
Receive and Transmit Information to other cells
Neurons
Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest evidence that the monkey visual system engages in learning?
Neurons in the inferior temporal cortex respond selectively to familiar objects that have been viewed in the past.
What does the activation of a Fos protein reveal?
Neurons that are active
The human nervous system is comprised of two kinds of cells: __________ and ________.
Neurons, glia
Mary has to repeatedly return to her house to make sure the stove burners are turned off and the doors are locked. What disorder does this behavior indicate?
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
A chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron.
Neurotransmitter
Which of the following best illustrates the rules that defines the relationship between neurotransmitters and the post synaptic membranes?
Neurotransmitters have two general effects on postsynaptic membranes-- depolarization or hyper polarization
Which of the following best illustrates the rule that defines the relationship between neurotransmitters and the postsynaptic membranes?
Neurotransmitters have two general effects on postsynaptic membranes—depolarization or hyperpolarization
Which of the following best illustrates the rule that defines the relationship between neurotransmitters and the postsynaptic membranes?
Neurotransmitters have two general effects on postynaptic membranes-- depolarization or hyperpolarization
Which evidence best supports the idea that facial recognition is a learned skill?
Newborns who are prevented from viewing faces have difficulty with facial recognition later in life.
Which drug accounts for the most deaths?
Nicotine
An ionotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by nicotine and blocked by curare.
Nicotinic Receptor
What kind of acetylcholine receptors would you expect to find in your biceps muscle?
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
What kind of acetylcholine receptors would you expect to find your biceps muscle?
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
What are the four DA pathways?
Nigrostriatal Mesolimbic Mesocortical Tuberoinfundibular
The enzyme responsible for the production of nitric oxide.
Nitric Oxide Synthase
Which disorder can be caused by type A β-hemolytic streptococcus?
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
After a visit to the eye doctor, Walter learns that his photoreptor cells, the rods and the cones, are at the very back of his eye. Light must pass through the bipolar and ganglion cell layers to reach the rods and cones. The rods and cones then send information backwards to the bipolar and ganglion cells. Should Walter be alarmed by this "backward" organization?
No, he should not be alarmed — his situation is normal. The photoreceptors are at the very back of the retina and send information in an anterior direction when they transduce light.
Suppose a Huntington-like disease caused input from the caudate nucleus and putamen to be excitatory both into the external globus pallidus and into the subthalamic nucleus in the indirect pathway. Would this disease be likely to produce the same symptoms as Huntington's disease?
No, this affliction might cause problems, but it would not knock out the inhibitory effect of the indirect pathway. So the wild movements of Huntington's due to loss of inhibition would not be seen in this case.
Binding of a drug to a site on a receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand.
Noncompetitive Binding
Which arousal neurotransmitter appears to be specialized for increasing an organism's vigilance?
Norepinephrine
Which neurotransmitter would MAO break down?
Norepinephrine
One of the catecholamines; a neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
Norepinephrine (NE)
The veterinarian observes an abnormality on the rostral region of your pet alligator. You know the abnormality is located near the alligator's
Nose
A doctor prescribes opiates to a patient to treat pain. The patient reports reduced pain, but now has a severe problem with itch. The doctor now prescribes Naloxone to relieve the itch. How well will this strategy be likely to work to relieve both pain and itch?
Not well. Naloxone is likely to be effective in relieving the itch, but it will also eliminate the analgesic effect of the opiates, so the patient is likely to be in pain once again.
Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Nuclei (singular nucleus)
How are the 339 different olfactory receptors in the human olfactory system able to identify over 10,000 different odorants in the environment?
Odorants bind weakly or strongly with a variety of different receptor molecules. The pattern of binding to multiple receptors identifies each different odorant in a unique way.
_________ is (are) the first cranial nerves whose output goes primarily to the amygdala and the platform cortex.
Offactory bulbs
Children of older men have an increased chance of developing schizophrenia. What do most investigators believe causes this increase?
Older men are more likely to have an increased incidence of mutations in the spermatophytes.
Myelin-providing glia in the CNS
Oligodendrocytes
extensions rich in myelin create myelin sheaths in CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Describe how stereotaxic surgery is performed.
Once we obtain the coordinates from a stereotaxic atlas, we anesthetize the animal, place it in the apparatus, and cut the scalp open. We locate the bregma (the junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull), dial in the appropriate numbers on the stereotaxic apparatus, drill a hole through the skull, and lower the device into the brain by the correct amount. Now the tip of the cannula or electrode is where we want it to be, and we are ready to produce the lesion.
How do the bottlenose dolphin and porpoise sleep?
One brain hemisphere at a time.
A human-sized brain that was completely smooth and had no grooves would be expected to have
One-third the amount of surface area of a normally grooved brain
Where are sodium ions allowed to flow into a large myelinated axon after it has been depolarized?
Only at the nodes of Ranvier.
Administration of a substance into the mouth, so that it is swallowed.
Oral Administration
With only a handful of orexin-releasing neurons, how can orexin have an impact on arousal and wakefulness in the entire brain?
Orexin may be released by only 7000 neurons, but those neurons project to almost every part of the brain, showing that orexin's influence is global.
Two hypothetical organisms have visual systems that are organized differently. Organism A seems to have a superior ability to see contours, borders, and outlines of objects in space. Organism B seems have acute vision, but it lacks the ability to see contours, outlines, and borders. What might account for the difference between the organisms?
Organism A has retinal ganglion cells that have a center-surround organization. Organism B has simple ON or OFF receptive fields without contrasting surround areas.
Phencyclidine; a drug that binds with the PCP-binding site of the NMDA receptor and serves as an indirect antagonist.
PCP
A drug that inhibits the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of 5-HT.
PCPA
An EEG taken during REM sleep reveals bursts of activity known as ____ spikes.
PGO
What chemical is used to identify efferent axons?
PHA-L: Phaseolus vulgaris leukoagglutinin
This receptor would be likely to be used to detect information about vibrations
Pacinian corpuscles
What disorder includes physical symptoms such as irregular heartbeat and shortness of breath?
Panic disorder
Cranial and sacral, "Rest and restore", Second stage neurons are near the target organ
Parasympathetic nervous system
Neurons of the ______________________ control the secretion of glucocorticoids.
Paraventricular nucleus
Which disease has the primary symptoms of a resting tremor, muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability?
Parkinson's
A neurologocial disease characterized by tremors, rigidity of the limbs, poor balance, and difficulty in initiating movements; caused by degeneration of the nigrostriatal system.
Parkinson's Disease
A patient is found to have muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, a resting tremor, and postural instability. Once he is seated, he finds it difficult to stand. Which of the following is a likely diagnosis?
Parkinson's Disease
Which scientist is associated with discovering the classically conditioned response?
Pavlov
How does sleep relate to consciousness?
People are not unconscious during sleep. The fact that people can recall thoughts and dreams during sleep proves that sleep is a form of consciousness, not unconsciousness.
How might a human being improve his or her sense of smell?
People can improve their sense of smell by getting closer to the ground where most scents are deposited.
What is the relationship between the hippocampus and the development of PTSD?
People with a smaller hippocampus are more likely to develop PTSD.
The caudal region of the cerebral cortex deals with which activities?
Perceiving and learning
Which of the following best explains why there is a great deal of receptive field overlap within a module of the striate cortex?
Perception involves analysis of the visual world from a variety of different perspectives. Thus, a single module takes a small area of visual space and analyzes it many different ways, with respect to: orientation, movement, color, spatial frequency, and so on. Neighboring modules perform a similar analysis, and the overlap provides a comprehensive integrated picture of visual space.
Recognizing people by the shape of their faces and recognizing objects by how they feel or smell are examples of
Perceptual learning
Patients who are given morphine have a decreased sensitivity to pain because neurons in this region are stimulated.
Periaqueductal gray matter
The spinal nerves that begin at the junction of the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord are part of the
Peripheral nervous system
What do macroelectrodes record?
Postsynaptic potentials of many thousands-or millions-of cells in the area of the electrode
What schizophrenic symptoms are decreased by drugs that block the D2 and D3 dopamine receptors?
Positive
What are the three categories of symptoms that characterize schizophrenia?
Positive, negative, and cognitive
John had suffered a number of traumatic events in his early life that led him to drop out of high school. He then enlisted in the army and was sent to Iraq. What disorder is he most at risk for developing?
Posttraumatic stress disorder
Which are ALL functions of one of the formations of the ventromedial group?
Posture, walking and coordination
How is disease caused by PrPSc (infectious prion protein)?
PrPSc causes normal PrPc to be converted to PrPSc.
A defect in development causes a mistake in the timing of apoptosis in cerebral cortex development. Which of the following would be most likely to be true?
Premature apoptosis would result in a smaller, less complex brain with fewer cortical layers
The study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system and on behavior.
Psychopharmacology
___________ occurs when people can hear, speak, read, and write but cannot comprehend the meaning of speech.
Pure word deafness
_____ sleep is traditionally thought of as dream sleep, occurring later in the night, and often containing the most prolific dreaming with most bizarre content.
REM
Sleep is considered a state of consciousness. What stage of sleep is believed to have the highest level of consciousness?
REM sleep
Why are the results of experiments exploring the connection between sleep and learning surprising?
REM sleep features a high level of consciousness, which one would think would match "high-conscious" declarative memory. Instead REM facilitates largely unconscious non-declarative learning. Low- consciousness, low-wave sleep, on the other hand, facilitates high- conscious declarative learning.
If someone wakes you up during a night of sleep, during which stage are you most likely to remember your dreams?
REM stage
The ________ are located in the ________ while the ________ are located in the ________.
REM-ON, sublaterodorsal nucleus (SLD), REM-OFF, ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter (vlPAG)
Which cell type extends fibers outward from the ventricular zone like spokes in a wheel?
Radial glia cells
Which kind of radiation will be detected by the human visual system as white in color?
Radiation of all visible wavelengths
A scientist finds that mating behavior in birds is disrputed in a well-lit laboratory when a lesion is created on structure X. Mating behavior does not seem to be disrupted in a second group of birds in the same laboratory when a lesion is made on structure Y. The scientist concludes that visual input is critical for mating behavior. How can the scientist test her hypothesis?
Raise birds in total darkness to see if mating behavior can occur in the absence of visual input.
Where does most Serotonin originate?
Raphe nuclei
How do neurons in V4 affect vision?
Receptive fields in V4 respond to color. When a second "background" stimulus of the same color is introduced, V4 neurons lower their firing rate to subtract the effect of the background and thus provide color constancy.
A drug that binds with a receptor but does not activate it; prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor.
Receptor Blocker or Direct Antagonists
What is single-unit recording?
Recording of the electrical activity of a single neuron
Which of the following causes protanopia ?
Red cones are filled with green-cone opsin.
On a mouse, the eyes are more ________ than the front legs.
Rostral
Which of the following provides the best evidence that the spinal cord can act independently from control of the brain?
Reflex actions occur without any brain input
Which of the following will distort a photograph the most and make it difficult to perceive?
Removal of low spatial frequency information
How did researchers identify receptors for zeitgebers?
Researchers created mutations that prevented development of rods and cones, but light continued to function as a zeitgeber. Only when they removed the eyes of mice did they discover that the zeitgeber receptors were located on retinal ganglion cells.
How does reserpine produce physiological effects?
Reserpine prevents the storage of neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles, so no neurotransmitter is released. This serves as a monoamine antagonist, and tends to produce a calming effect behaviorally.
What method is used to trace afferent axons?
Retrograde labeling method
Why is a living subject required for transneuronal tracing methods to be used to find neural pathways?
Revealing pathways requires infecting neurons with viruses that use the cell's machinery to reproduce and get passed on to the next neuron in the chain.
Which of the following is not a brain area involved in explicit memories?
Rhinal cortex
Prosody is the use of changes in which of the following to convey meaning in speech besides that specified by the particular words?
Rhythm and emphasis
Which of the following about the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is incorrect?
Right hemisphere PFC lesions are associated with deficits in a decision-making task in women but not men
A drug that blocks cannabinoid CB(1) receptors.
Rimonabant
Injection of a substance into the space beneath the skin.
SC Injection
Larry describes the early appearance of signs of thought disorder in his childhood. This is consistent with which of the following:
Schizophrenia often has a prodromal phase in which less extreme variants of the symptoms begin to appear.
similar to function of oligodendrocytes but in PNS, can guide axonal regeneration
Schwann cells
___________ memories can be acquired gradually, whereas ___________ memories must be learned all at once.
Semantic, episodic
Philip's subjective sense of the world is dominated by what theme?
Sense of being rushed
Which of the following best characterizes neurons located within a cytochrome oxidase blobs in a module of the striate cortex
Sensitive to color and low spatial frequencies
Which of the following best characterizes neurons located within a cytochrome oxidase (CO) blobs in a module of the striate cortex?
Sensitive to color and low spatial frequencies; insensitive to orientation; large receptive fields
How do slow-wave sleep and REM sleep affect learning ability?
Slow-wave sleep appears to facilitate declarative learning such as memorizing numbers, while REM sleep improves non-declarative memories, such as how to operate a tool.
Which of these was a finding by fMRI studies on emotional reactivity to happy facial expressions?
Significant sex differences in laterality of amygdala activation
How does slow-wave sleep promote wakefulness?
Slow-wave sleep helps destroy adenosine in the body. Adenosine is a sleep-promoting chemical that shifts the sleep/waking flip-flop toward sleep when it exists in high concentrations, and toward waking when its concentration drops.
Megan was awakened by a sudden gust of wind that blew open a window and broke a vase. Megan was extremely groggy and disoriented when she tried to deal with the broken glass. During what stage of sleep was Megan most likely awakened?
Slow-wave stage 3 sleep
The best stimulus for saltiness receptors is ______________.
Sodium chloride
Which components are the most important contributors to the resting potential?
Sodium ions are pumped out of the cell, making the cell negative. Large anions are unable to leave the cell, again causing the inside of the cell to become negative.
This interacts with external environment. It has afferent nerves (sensory) and Efferent nerves (motor).
Somatic Nervous System
The 2 parts of the peripheral nervous system
Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System
Martha describes her experience of depression as manifesting in salient physical sensations (loss of appetite, muscular weakness). What is the term for this experience?
Somatization (physical manifestation of psychological stress)
How is the primary motor cortex organized?
Somatopically, by body position
A person with damage to this region might have trouble drawing maps or following them
Somatosensory association cortex
an opposition of motion blindness
Some people are blind except for the ability to detect which direction something is moving
___________ frequencies of sound waves are detected by _____________.
Some, means of a place code
How is a receptor potential produced?
Sound waves cause the basilar membrane to move, bending cilia of the hair cells. The bending of the cilia opens ion channels to produce a receptor potential.
This type of learning involves learning about relationships among many stimuli.
Spatial learning
Nathan equates the challenges of his bipolar disorder to
Spiderman's challenges.
Which of the following would be covered by dura mater, an arachnoid membrane, and pia mater?
Spinal cord
The deepest stage of sleep is _____
Stage 4
Which of the following identifies the lowest wave frequency form of sleep?
Stage 4
Which of the following identifies the lowest frequency form of sleep?
Stage 4 sleep
What is transcranial magnetic stimulations (TMS)?
Stimulation of the cerebral cortex by means of magnetic fields produced by passing pulses of electricity through a coil of wire placed next to the skull; interferes with the functions of the brain region that is stimulated
How does electrical stimulation of the brain produce analgesia?
Stimulation of the periaqueductal gray matter releases endogenous opiates that bind to opiate receptors that provide pain relief.
A direct antagonist for the glycine receptor.
Strychnine
Student A claims that the brain can influence how reflexes work. Student B says that reflexes by definition do not include the brain so it cannot influence reflex function. Who is right?
Student A is right. The brain can influence tuning of gamma motor neurons to tighten muscle spindles and thus make them more responsive to stretch.
A research scientist is trying to develop a theory about predicting the success of law students based on observing them sleep after a long day of studying and memorizing facts for the Bar Exam. Which theory is most plausible?
Students who show the most overall stage 3 and stage 4 slow-wave sleep are better at consolidating declarative memories, such as those required to pass the Bar Exam.
Students studying complicated tax law rules for an accounting exam attended an intense 3-hour study session in preparation for taking a practice test. Half of the students kept studying for 2 hours after the study session, while the other half took a 2-hour slow-wave sleep nap. Which of the following best supports the theory that the brain unconsciously rehearses recently acquired information during slow-wave sleep?
Students who took naps performed better on the part of the test that dealt with the material covered in the study session than those who continued to study.
Students studying complicated tax law rules for an accounting exam attended an intense 3-hour study session in preparation for taking of a practice test. Half of the students kept studying for 2 hours after the study session, while the other half took a 2-hour slow-wave sleep nap. Which of the following best supports the theory that the brain unconsciously rehearses recently acquired information during slow-wave sleep?
Students who took naps performed better on the part of the test that dealt with the material covered in the study session than those who continued to study.
A researcher argues that although Lau (2004) found that a decision could be made unconsciously up to 10 seconds prior to the subject knowing about the decision, these decisions are permanent and immutable — they are not subject to change until the subject is conscious of the decision itself. Which of the following, if true, would provide the strongest evidence that the researcher's view is correct?
Subjects have made a decision but they are not aware of the decision consciously. During the 10 second interval subjects are given the option of pushing a button to indicate that they would like to change their decision. None of the subjects pushes the button during the 10 second interval.
Administration of a substance by placing it beneath the tongue.
Sublingual Administration
Which of the following neurotransmitters increases the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain?
Substance P
Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons that connect the ______ with the ________ causes Parkinson's Disease
Substantia nigra; caudate nucleus
Which kinds of molecules stimulate sweet taste receptors?
Sugars and many other things including some amino acids
What are small grooves in the brain called?
Sulci
What are SQUIDS?
Superconducting quantum interference devices
Which of the following is involved in controlling head and eye movements in response to visual stimuli?
Superior colliculi
Which of the following does not contain cerebrospinal fluid?
Surrounding choroid plexus
Thoracic and lumbar, "Fight or flight", Second stage neurons are far from the target organ
Sympathetic nervous system
_____________ strengthening occurs when synapses are active while the membrane of the postsynaptic cell is depolarized.
Synaptic
Why do addicts sometimes have drug cravings for months, or even years, after abstinence from the drug?
Taking the drug for an extended period of time can produce long-lasting changes in the brain.
How can saporin be used to identify brain function?
Target antibodies with saporin attached to bind to a protein that exists in only one type of neuron. The saporin kills the neurons that contain that protein.
_________ information is sent to regions of the parietal lobe.
Taste
What principal structures makes up the midbrain?
Tectum Tegmentum
The region around the lateral ventricles becomes the _____
Telencephalon
How much more often do boys receive a diagnosis of ADHD than girls?
Ten times as often
The bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that neuron.
Terminal button
A PET scan study showed significantly different levels of opioid receptor binding in men and women in which, among others, of the following regions?
Thalamus and Amygdala
Which of the following is a genetic sex difference?
The APOE*E4 allele being linked with greater hippocampal atrophy and memory disruption in women than in men
ATP is carried from the cell body of a neuron to the terminal button at the same time that a protein is carried from the terminal button to the cell body. Which substance will reach its destination first?
The ATP will reach the terminal button first because anterograde transport is faster than retrograde transport.
What is slow-wave sleep?
The EEG shows synchronous firing. Muscle tone is moderate. Eye movements are not rapid. Genital activity is not seen.
Why is an EOG, an electro-oculogram, considered an important part of sleep research using live subjects?
The EOG measures eye movements that are critical for determining when characteristic rapid eye movements of REM sleep occur.
How is the NMDA receptor different from most other receptors?
The NMDA receptor for glutamate has six binding sites, has ion channels that are both voltage and neurotransmitter dependent, and activates both sodium and calcium ion channels
What is the difference between normal prion protein (PrPc) and infectious prion protein (PrPSc)?
The PrPSc is folded differently.
A research scientist is interested in allowing rats to be able to see colors in the ultraviolet spectrum the way bees do. What should the scientist focus on?
The ability to see ultraviolet light would rest on developing cones with a photopigment that was sensitive to frequencies below 380 nm. The scientist could find the gene for the ultraviolet opsin that bees have and insert it into the genome of a rat.
A center-surround organization of receptive fields helps enhance which of the following?
The ability of humans to detect subtle contrast
What can optogenetic methods measure?
The activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time; the key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins
A neuron is exposed to EPSP's, but the neuron does not fire. What happened?
The activity of IPSP's cancelled out the effect of the EPSP's.
Functional imaging scans of patients who have been treated with deep brain stimulation show what changes in the brain?
The activity of the subgenual ACC is decreased, while activity in other regions of the frontal cortex is usually increased.
What would you expect to see in the neurons of a person who has shown tolerance for a drug?
The affinity of the receptors for the drug diminishes over time.
Why might an emotional experience trigger cataplexy?
The amygdala, which mediates emotional responses, has excitatory input into the REM-ON area, the sublaterodorsal nucleus (SLD). An intense emotional experience can stimulate the SLD so strongly that the REM sleep flip-flop get turned on and REM mechanisms are triggered, including the paralysis mechanisms that characterize a cataplectic attack
A subject is undergoing functional imaging. Suddenly a fly enters the room, and the subject reaches out to swat it with his hand. Which part of the brain should light up in the fMRI?
The anterior interior intraparietal sulcus, or AIP
What would be the result of brain damage in the anterior part of the hypothalamus?
The anterior part of the hypothalamus is where the majority of sleep neurons are located in the ventrolateral preoptic area. Damage to this area would prevent sleep.
What is the word "STAG" associated with?
The anterior pituitary gland
What happens when neurogenesis is suppressed while a patient is being treated with antidepressants?
The antidepressant drug becomes less effective.
Which of the following is a tell-tale sign that a neuron has been highly active?
The appearance of Fos proteins in the cell nucleus
After a blow to the head, a football player has trouble standing without falling, and makes jerky movements when walking. Which part of the head was likely struck?
The back of the head was hit, damaging the cerebellum
Which of the following is the body's first reaction to pain?
The body sends pain signals to the brain.
A 16-year-old boy has failed to go through puberty. The boy seems normal in every way. Doctors check the boy's gonads and find that they are fully functional and should be capable of producing the sex hormones that initiate the changes that occur during puberty. Which part of the brain might be the source of the problem?
The boy is likely to have problems in his anterior pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary sends out gonadotrophic hormones that stimulate the gonads to begin producing their own sex hormones.
Examination of the brain of an individual shows almost twice as many neurons as are typically found in an adult human brain. Which of the following is likely?
The brain belonged to an embryo
What is the pattern of growth of autistic brains?
The brain grows quickly during the first two years, but grows very little, or not at all, during early childhood and adolescence.
Which of the following statements is true?
The brain has a limited capacity for functional reorganization.
Why do neuroscientists perfuse, section and stain brain tissue?
The brain is sliced and stained so that we can observe it under a microscope and see the location of the lesion. Brain lesions often miss the mark, so we have to verify the precise location of the brain damage after testing the animal behaviorally. Together, these procedures are referred to as histological methods.
Which of the following serves as a key reference point in stereotaxic surgery?
The bregma
Why are the spinal nerves not considered to be part of the central nervous system if they connect with the spinal cord?
The cell bodies of spinal nerve neurons are located in the spinal cord, but the dendrites of spinal nerve neurons are located in distant parts of the body, not the spinal cord.
Which brain structure has the greatest number of neurons?
The cerebellum
How does the cerebellum allow a person to perform a complicated targeted motion with a fixed endpoint?
The cerebellum calculates the amount of time that the muscle needs to be activated to perform a given action and accurately times when to turn on antagonist muscles to stop the motion.
A master musician suddenly begins to falter in his playing ability. The musician's ability to play notes does not seem to be altered, but his sense of beat and timing does seem to be diminished. Where would you expect to find damage in this man's brain?
The cerebellum, basal ganglia (that affect timing), and auditory cortex on the right side of the brain (that affects beat) are likely to show damage or shrinkage.
In the biosynthesis of catecholamines, which transformation shows the greatest change in the number of atoms?
The change from tyrosine to L-DOPA, which replaces a hydrogen with a hydroxyl group.
How can a PET scan reveal the level of a chemical in the brain?
The chemical in question needs to be tagged with a radioactive marker. The PET scan shows an image of the brain and can light up areas that contain radioactive markers.
This produces the CSF
The choroid plexus
What is the function of the dorsal stream?
The dorsal stream provides visual information that guides navigation and skilled movements directed toward objects.
A researcher at a pharmaceutical company finds a new pain drug that has high affinity for its therapeutic site of action, yet the drug is rejected for use in humans. Which of the following is most likely to be the cause of the rejection?
The drug has high affinity for binding sites of action that produce toxic effects
What is most likely to be occurring when a person develops a tolerance for a drug?
The drug's affinity for its receptors decreases, or the number of receptors decreases
What would you expect to see in the neurons of a person who has shown tolerance for a drug?
The drug's affinity of its receptor decreases, or the number of receptors decreases.
How is a stereotaxic apparatus positioned in a subject's brain?
The electrode is positioned along three axes; lateral-medial, dorsal-ventral, and anterior-posterior.
Examination of an embryo three weeks after conception shows a neural tube that is not yet closed. What should the doctors conclude?
The embryo is normal. The neural tube does not close until 28 days after conception.
How is an endplate potential different from a postsynaptic potential between two different neurons?
The endplate potential is larger in magnitude of depolarization and never inhibitory.
How do the sleep neurons control sleep?
The five arousal neurotransmitters function to arouse the individual during waking periods. When it is time to sleep, the sleep neurons of the ventrolateral preoptic area inhibit the arousal centers and allow the individual to sleep.
If cerebrospinal fluid is being made continuously 24 hours a day, why doesn't the brain overflow with fluid?
The fluid drains into the subarachnoid space.
Explain how cones that are greatly outnumbered by rods can account for most of the information that visual system uses to create a picture of the world.
The fovea is exclusively populated by cones.
A sleep volunteer in a sleep lab claims that she woke up several times during the night. Examining the volunteer's EEG record, at a glance, how can a lab tech identify the times when the volunteer was awake?
The frequency is much greater during waking states, creating a "heavy" line on the EEG recording.
This determines the pitch of a note or sound that will be heard by the ear.
The fundamental frequency
Which part of the brain is most important for recognizing faces?
The fusiform face area (FFA) of the temporal lobe
Which part of the brain is most important for recognizing faces
The fusiform face area of the temporal lobe
Which of the following provides the lease convincing evidence that facial recognition is a learned rather than an inborn trait?
The fusiform gyrus of autistic people who show little interest in other human beings fails to light up in fMRI tests when these subjects view a face.
How do light sensitive agents like ChR2 get introduced into neurons?
The gene that codes for ChR2 gets inserted into the genome of a virus. The virus is injected into the brain and infects neurons which begin expressing the ChR2 gene to create light-sensitive ion channel openers.
What are the three parts of the basal ganglia (which controls movement)?
The globus pallidus The caudate nucleus The putamen
In an experiment, the primary motor cortex is stimulated to produce a hand waving motion in the left hand of the subject. Which parts of the system are involved?
The hand and arm section of the right primary motor cortex form the corticorubral tract that leads to the red nucleus, then crossing over to left side through the cervical spinal cord and on to the hand to create a waving motion, aided by cerebellar input.
A scientist is studying the olfactory system and finds neurons in Area P that have efferents that lead to area Q. The scientist assumes that there are several other links in this chain so he kills the animal and exposes slices of area P to herpes simplex virus and waits for something to happen. Several days later the scientist sees no evidence of transneuronal transport. What appears to be the problem?
The herpes simplex virus can only work if it is applied to the brain of a living animal. Applying it to the tissue of a non-living animal does not give the virus a chance to infect and spread across synapses.
Psychologists note that people learn better and remember better when there is an emotional component to their learning. Which of the following provides the strongest evidence to support this idea?
The hippocampus, which is involved in learning and memory, is part of the limbic system, which controls motivation and emotion in the brain. Thus emotion and learning are closely connected.
A hockey player suffers an injury on the ice and is able to keep playing and score the winning goal in the game. After the game he can't recognize his coach, teammates, or family, yet he can still skate and play superbly. What was likely to have occurred?
The hockey player suffered damage to his temporal lobe near the fusiform gyrus.
How does the homunculus reflect the sophistication of various body parts with respect to movement?
The homunculus devotes much more neural space to parts of the body that need fine motor control, such as the hands, fingers, and lips.
Over the years scientists and non-scientists alike have speculated about the importance of dreams. Which of the following provides the strongest evidence that dreams have an important function for human beings on both a psychological and physiological basis?
The human body is rendered paralyzed during dreams to prevent individuals from acting out their dreams. The fact that the human brain has evolved such an elaborate mechanism to protect people against the possible dangers of dreams — rather than simply eliminating dreams — is a strong indication of how important dreams must be.
Which of the following explains why an intact human brain is well protected from shock that could be caused by sudden head movement?
The human brain is completely immersed in liquid, floating in a bath of CSF.
Which of the following forms from motion is easiest to recognize?
The identity of a friend just from the way she walks without seeing her face
Suppose someone can describe an object in detail but stumbles and fumbles when trying to walk toward it and pick it up. Which is probably damaged the dorsal path or the ventral path?
The inability to guide movement based on vision implies damage to the dorsal path, or the "where" pathway.
A single motor unit in the leg muscle of a cat can raise a 100-gram weight. What is this an example of?
The incredible strength of the contractile mechanism of muscles.
What happens when an infant born with phenylketonuria is fed a diet rich in phenylalanine?
The infant's brain does not develop normally, resulting in mental retardation.
A psychologist who specializes in touch therapy seeks evidence to support her hypothesis that the inner parts of hands and fingers are the most sensuous parts of the body. After extensive work, her data shows that the inner parts of the hands and fingers seem to be some of the least sensuous parts of the body, showing no "pleasurable responses" in fMRI studies. Which of the following might best explain her results?
The inner parts of the hands and fingers have glabrous skin that is typically used for touching others but is rarely touched itself. Therefore, the psychologists should focus on collecting data not from the hands being stimulated, but from the hands stimulating something else, such as another person or a pet.
What is bregma?
The junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery.
Sensory input from the retinas travel through this structure before it is sent to the primary visual cortex.
The lateral geniculate nucleus
Damage to which structure might most severely limit the production of cerebrospinal fluid?
The lateral ventricles
What is the difference between electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy?
The latter allows us to see details inside thick sections of tissue or even slabs of tissue maintained in tissue cultures or in the upper layers of tissue in the exposed living brain
A mad scientist is stimulating the motor cortex on the right side of his patient's brain. Which part of the patient's body is likely to respond?
The left foot
Which half of the retina projects to the left hemisphere of the brain?
The left nasal half
The corpus callosum of a patient is cut. The person is shown the word "apple." Which of the following explains what she will perceive?
The left side of brain would be able to read the word and say it out loud. The right side of the brain would be able to draw a picture of an apple
Damage to this structure may cause a patient to experience problems in processing emotional information.
The limbic system
Where does most Norepinephrine originate?
The locus coeruleus
A man comes to a doctor at his wife's behest for treatment of erectile dysfunction and is fitted with a device to measure penile enlargement during sleep at home. The man insists that he has no dysfunction, and that his failure to experience erections is purely a function of the poor relationship he has with his wife. After a full night's sleep, the man shows no sign of penile enlargement, yet he still insists that he is not impotent. Could the man be correct? How could the doctor check?
The man could be correct. It is possible that the man experienced no REM sleep during the night and therefore had no erections. To test the man's theory, the doctor must test the man's EEG during sleep to see if he experienced any REM sleep.
Which embryo chamber ends up producing the reticular formation?
The midbrain
MT
The middle-temporal cortex, or area V5 - Cells in this area respond selectively when something moves at a particular speed in a particular direction - Detect the acceleration or deceleration and the absolute speed of the moving thing - Does complex processing b/c they adjust for eye position and respond to where something has moved in the world, not where it has moved in the retina - Responds to photographs that imply movement, such as a photo of people running
Which statement is true about the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language?
The model has generated much research. The model is serial, not parallel in nature. The types of aphasia predicted by the model are often not found in pure form. (All of the above are true)
Which part of the brain would a piano player rely on for improving her skills?
The motor association cortex.
How does movement of the dendrites of mechanoreceptors produce changes in membrane potentials?
The movement causes ion channels to open, and the flow of ions into or out of the dendrite causes a change in the membrane potential.
Which neurons in the arm muscle will be activated when a heavy weight is dropped into a person's hand?
The muscle spindle stretch receptors and the Golgi tendon organ receptors
A neurologist stimulating a muscle via motor units wants to create a maximum contraction of the entire muscle. She stimulates motor units at a maximum action potential frequency, yet still is able to produce only a weak contraction of the muscle. What should she do to increase the strength of muscle contraction?
The neurologist should focus on stimulating a greater number of muscle fibers.
A scientist suspects that neurons that employ neurotransmitter Y are involved in learning. How might the scientist use targeted mutations to find evidence for his theory?
The scientist should create a knockout gene for a protein that makes neurotransmitter Y. Evidence to support the theory would be provided if animals are unable to learn when this protein is knocked out.
A woman at a party in the 1920s simultaneously puts a drop of belladonna in her eyes and smokes a cigarette. Which of the drugs is likely to take effect first?
The nicotine in tobacco will take effect first because it activates a fast ionotropic receptor while belladonna (atropine) works through a slower acting metabotropic receptor and a second messenger
A woman at a party in the 1920s simultaneously puts a drop of belladonna in her eyes and smokes a cigarette. Which of the drugs is likely to take effect first?
The nicotine in tobacco will take effect first because it activates a fast ionotropic receptor while belladonna (atropine) works through a slower acting metabotropic receptor and a second messenger.
The auditory hair cells are located here.
The organ of Corti
The cerebral cortex of an embryo has formed four of the six layers it will eventually form. Which layer contains the newest cells?
The outermost layer
Which division is specialized for detecting fine details in an image?
The parvocellular system
A patient has brain damage that causes narcolepsy but not catalepsy. Which of the following best explains the nature of the patient's brain damage?
The patient has damage to both the lateral hypothalamus, where orexinergic neurons are located, and the amygdala that responds to emotional stimuli. Loss of orexinergic neurons favors the "sleep" flip-flop state, but without amygdala input the REM-ON will not initiate catalexy.
A patient's heart stops pumping blood for 10 seconds. What is likely to occur?
The patient will lose consciousness.
A patient with damage to the lateral zone of his cerebellar cortex sitting with his palms on the table is asked to raise his right hand six inches up off the table. Which of the following will likely occur?
The patient's right hand will rise but it will keep rising far past six inches before it finally stops.
In one study, depressed patients who were being successfully treated with an antidepressant were put on a low tryptophan diet. What was the outcome?
The patients' depression returned.
This processes pain
The periaqueductal gray (PAG)
Two ape species have the same brain size but Ape A has a thicker cerebral cortex than Ape B. Which of the following is likely to be true?
The period of asymmetrical division lasts longer in Ape A than Ape B
Why do researchers surmise that the loudness of low-frequency sounds is signaled in the cochlea by the number of axons that fire rather than the rate of firing of axons?
The pitch for low-frequency sounds is normally coded by rate firing. Firing rate can't signal both pitch and loudness, so for low-frequency sounds there must be some other code, such as a greater number of axons that fire, the louder the low-frequency sound.
How is the auditory association cortex organized?
The posterior stream from the primary auditory cortex heads toward the parietal lobe where it is involved in localizing sound. The anterior stream heads to the inferior temporal cortex where it analyzes complex sounds.
A researcher suggests that treating schizophrenia with a precursor of a drug that can be turned into deprenyl once it enters the body. How promising is this precursor drug?
The precursor drug is likely to have disastrous results. Schizophrenia appears to be related to an overproduction of dopamine in the brain. Deprenyl destroys monoamine oxidase B which will prevent enzyme from destroying synaptic dopamine. Preventing the destruction of dopamine will increase brain dopamine and exacerbate schizophrenia.
A researcher suggests treating schizophrenia with a precursor of a drug that can be turned into deprenyl once it enters the body. How promising is this precursor drug?
The precursor drug is likely to have disastrous results. Schizophrenia appears to be related to an overproduction of dopamine in the brain. Deprenyl destroys monoamine oxidase B, which will prevent the enzyme from destroying synaptic dopamine. Preventing the destruction of dopamine will increase brain dopamine and exacerbate schizophrenia
Which is an example of a functional sex difference?
The preferential involvement of the left amygdala in emotional memory for women but preferential involvement of the right amygdala in emotional memory for men The difference in receptor affinity for glucocorticoids between males and females
The article mentions an assortment of opposite sex differences associated with Alzheimer's disease. Which of the following conclusions is true?
The presence of the APOE*E4 allele has been linked with significantly greater hippocampal atrophy and memory disruption in women than in men. Symptoms of depression significantly increase the risk of developing AD in men,but not in women. There exist Alzheimer's-related differences in the hypothalamus of men and women.
How did Lau's study prove that individuals had made decisions unconsciously before they were aware of what decision they had made?
The researchers were able to identify the decision from fMRI patterns 2-3 seconds before the subject was aware of the decision.
The sensory component of pain is mediated primarily by which of the following?
The primary and secondary somatosensory cortex
Goodale suggests which of the following regarding the dorsal stream of the visual cortex?
The primary function of the dorsal stream of the visual cortex is to guide actions rather than simply to perceive spatial locations.
What is special about the location of the primary somatosensory cortex?
The primary somatosensory cortex is located just caudal to the central sulcus, and it receives information from the body senses.
Perfusion
The process by which an animal's blood is replaced by a fluid such as a saline solution or a fixative in preparing the brain for histological examination
In the 1946 study by Nanta, what happened to rats who had their preoptic area destroyed?
The rats who had their preoptic area destroyed developed total insomnia, and died after 3 days.
What causes an afterimage after staring at a green triangle?
The red-green ganglion cells that have been inhibited by the green light have a rebound effect now that they are no longer inhibited and fire, causing a red triangle to be seen.
What is an experimental ablation
The removal or destruction of a portion of the brain of a laboratory animal; presumably, the functions that can no longer be performed are the ones the region previous controlled
A researcher suspects that either the caudate nucleus or the amygdala plays the most important role when people are being untruthful. What might she do to test her hypothesis?
The researcher can use fMRI to measure areas of the brain in a conscious subject. The researcher should expect either the caudate or the amygdala to light up or be especially active during the time when a subject is actively lying.
A researcher wants to utilize sleep to improve human behavior and performance during wakefulness. Which line of research, if possible, might prove most promising?
The researcher might seek to increase the number of sleep spindles that people experience, since spindles have been associated with increased scores on intelligence tests.
A researcher is studying an acetylcholine receptor and wants to determine whether the receptor is ionotropic or metabotropic. Which of the following should the researcher do?
The researcher should expose the receptor to curare. If curare blocks the receptor, it is nicotinic and therefore ionotropic.
A researcher looks at EEG sleep records from a variety of different individuals. To find individuals who are likely to be intelligent, what should the researcher look for in EEG patterns?
The researcher should look for a high level of sleep spindles.
A researcher looks at an EEG sleep records from a variety of different individuals. To find individuals who are likely to be intelligent, what should the researcher look for in EEG patterns?
The researcher should look for a high level of sleep spindles.
A researcher wants to test to see if Drug B has psychoactive effects. The researcher gives his subject an intramuscular injection and sees that absorption of the drug by the brain is so slow that it has little effect. What should the researcher do to provide a faster dose?
The researcher should try intravenous administration of the drug
A researcher wants to test to see if Drug B has psychoactive effects. The researcher gives his subject an intramuscular injection and sees that absorption of the drug by the brain is so slow that it has little effect. What should the researcher do to provide a faster onset of drug effect?
The researcher should try intravenous administration of the drug
Researchers have discovered a new diet drug that gives people a "full" feeling so they don't overeat. The researchers are about to undergo large-scale tests of the drug and are worried about side effects. Which side effect would you predict that they will encounter?
The researchers should see drowsiness as a side effect, since satiety is likely to inhibit orexinergic neurons, which will fail to stimulate the arousal system of the brain, allowing the sleep/waking flip-flop to switch to a "sleep" mode.
Researchers find that smell recognition is eliminated when a brain region is damaged with radio frequency lesions. How can the researchers determine whether the deficit was caused by damage to neuron cell bodies, axons passing nearby, or both?
The researchers should use kainic acid to destroy local neurons but not axons passing by the same region.
Why were the results of a U.S. government study of the use of carotid stents in patients important?
The results showed more strokes and a higher death rate, making the stent less effective than medical management alone.
This area helps with stress
The reticular formation
What is the endogenous rhythm of an organism?
The rhythm from the internal biological clock independent of environmental cues.
Which of the following identifies two ipsilateral structures?
The right knee and the right arm
A researcher examines the right posterior hippocampus of New York taxi drivers, and compares the size to non-taxi drivers. What do you think he will find?
The right posterior hippocampus of the taxi drivers will be larger than the same area in non-taxi drivers.
A research scientist injects an adenosine antagonist extracellularly into the sleep promoting region of the hypothalamus (vlPOA) of an animal. Which result should the scientist expect?
The scientist can expect increased histaminergic activity in brain areas that receive input from vlPOA and a more alert and wakeful animal.
A scientist has identified a molecule that he suspects is either a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator. What can the scientist do to determine whether it is a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator?
The scientist must identify the primary binding site that either open ion channels or initiates a second messenger system that opens ion channels. If the molecule bind to the primary binding site, it is a neurotransmitter. If the molecule binds to some alternative binding site in the receptor, it is a neuromodulator
How can a scientist identify the endogenous rhythm of a biological clock?
The scientist must measure the animal's daily activity cycle in a habitat of dim light or no light.
A scientist knows that the visual association area of the cortex receives input from the thalamus. Typically, the thalamus leads directly to the V1 area of the visual cortex, then V1 leads to the visual association cortex. However, in some cases thalamus fibers lead directly to the visual association cortex skipping over V1. How can the scientist determine whether the input is coming directly from the thalamus to the visual association cortex or indirectly through V1?
The scientist should inject pseudorabies virus into the association cortex area and see where the fibers lead.
A scientist is studying autism and finds that there appears to be a strong genetic component to the disorder. However, critics point out that environmental factors such as exposure to vaccinations could be causing autism, and the genetic component seen was probably due to subjects in the study experiencing the same upbringing and family environment. How can the scientist distinguish between environmental and genetic factors in this situation?
The scientist should look at autism data for identical twins who were adopted by different families that provided different environments and different vaccination histories.
A research scientist is doing a massive project in which she needs to measure serotonin levels in the hippocampus of human subjects following the administration of a drug she calls X50. The scientist has job offers from two institutions: Institution A has excellent facilities for PET scanning and Institution B has excellent facilities for fMRI scanning. Which offer should the scientist take?
The scientist should take the offer from institution A because she needs PET technology that is capable of not only measuring ongoing metabolic activity in a live human subject, but also of measuring levels of serotonin in subjects.
A scientist wants to identify the neurons in the brain that use a peptide hormone as a second messenger. What should the scientist do?
The scientist should use antibodies that are specific for the peptide and are linked to a fluorescent dye to locate the brain neurons that feature this peptide. Then the brain can be sliced and tissues that show fluorescence will mark where the peptide is located.
Why is the human sense of smell often considered to be inferior to that of other mammals?
The sense of smell in humans is actually quite sophisticated. The problem with humans is that they try to smell from higher in the air rather than sniffing the ground. When sniffing near the ground, human olfaction is comparable to other mammals.
The membrane of an axon is depolarized, yet sodium ions do not flow across the membrane. Why not?
The sodium channels are refractory.
How does the splitting of a photopigment in a photoreceptor cause a signal to be sent from the retina to other parts of the brain?
The splitting of the photopigment produces the receptor potential: hyperpolarization of the membrane of the photoreceptor.
A student in a school laboratory has prepared brain tissue but is having trouble distinguishing neuron cell bodies in her unstained brain slices under a standard light microscope. Which of the following identifies the best practical solution to her problem?
The student should repeat the experiment, this time using a methylene blue dye and a confocal laser scanning electron microscope.
What is the apparent purpose of the subcortical pathway that gives newborns a preference to view faces?
The subcortical preference for viewing faces is to get the baby involved in looking at faces in order to begin the process of learning to recognize faces using the fusiform face area.
In a sleep lab, subjects come in for sleep analysis once a week. A subject who has exhibited normal sleep patterns for months suddenly registers inordinately long sessions of REM sleep during his weekly session. Which of the following provides the simplest explanation for this phenomenon?
The subject is severely sleep deprived and is preferentially making up for lost REM sleep.
A subject in an experiment is sleep-deprived for three days, getting only an average of 2 hours of sleep per night. When the subject gets a chance to sleep freely, which of the following is likely to occur?
The subject will sleep for 10-12 hours with much more slow-wave and REM sleep than usual.
all-trans-retinal
The substance formed during the visual process by the action of light on 11-cis-retinal.
Damage to which brain area causes Parkinson's disease?
The substantia nigra in the midbrain
A brain damaged patient is having trouble executing such actions as tying his shoes and opening an aspirin bottle. Which of the following might be the patient's problem?
The supplementary motor cortex is probably damaged because it is involved in sequential movements like tying shoes.
Where is the biological clock located in the rat brain?
The suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus
What is the relationship between cataplexy and REM sleep behavior disorder?
The two have opposite symptoms. Cataplexy features complete paralysis when a person is fully conscious. REM sleep behavior disorder has no paralysis when a person is fully engaged in REM sleep.
What is computerized tomography (CT or CT scan?)
The use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body
What are optogenetic methods?
The use of a genetically modified virus to insert light-sensitive ion channels into the membrane of particular neurons in the brain; can depolarize or hyperpolarize the neurons when light of the appropriate wavelength is applied
Which of the following best describes the original characterizations of the dorsal and ventral streams?
The ventral stream recognizes what an object is and the dorsal stream identifies where the object is and where it is going.
How does the ear use a mechanical advantage to transmit vibrations to the cochlea?
The vibration movements from the stapes to the oval window are smaller, but more forceful than the movements of the malleus to the stapes.
A patient who suffered an injury has difficulty recognizing objects such as an apple and shovel by sight. Which of the following is the most likely location for the injury?
The visual association cortex
Which of the following is incorrect regarding sex differences in the hippocampal structures?
The volume of the CA1 region and the number of pyramidal cells it contains are significantly larger in female than in male rats.
A university is studying the effects of a new anti-anxiety drug. One group of volunteers receives the drug. Another group of volunteers receives a placebo. Both groups of volunteers report that they feel less anxiety. What is the explanation for the improvement in the volunteers who did not take the drug?
The volunteers who did not take the drug believed the pills they took would work
High activity in the orexinergic neurons help tip the sleep/waking flip-flop toward which of the following?
The waking state
Why have some medical personnel dropped the word "epilepsy" and replaced it with "seizure disorder"?
The word "epilepsy" has negative connotations attached to it.
Ratio between dose that produces the desired effect in 50% of the animals and the dose that produces toxic effects in 50% of the animals.
Therapeutic Index
A research scientist measures activity from the cochlear nerve axons involved in place coding of pitch, and finds a sudden icrease in firing rate from slow to fast. What can the scientist conclude?
There has been an increase in loudness of a sound.
How does Parkinson's Disease occur?
There is a disruption of the dopamine system in the Nigro-Striatal system. (The dopamine is blocked coming from the substantia nigra to the striatum)
What is the mechanism by which benzodiazepines work?
They promote the activity of the GABA-a receptor
Why is the survival rate for patients with malignant gliomas so low?
They are more resistant to chemotherapy and radiation.
What unique quality do the cells on the inside of the neural tube possess?
They are stem cells that are capable of turning into cells that produce neurons
When are macroelectrodes used (vs. micro electrodes)?
They are used when we want to record the activity of region of the brain as a whole
Which of the following statements is true of cocaine and amphetamines?
They both act as strong dopamine agonists.
What might be the reason that the fusiform face area is not activated when persons with autism view pictures of human faces?
They have a lack of interest in the human face.
Which statement about patients with pure alexia is NOT true?
They have lost their memories of the spelling of words.
Analysis of home movies of schizophrenics as children found that these children differ from their normal siblings or normal peers in what way?
They have more negative affect in their facial expressions.
How do atypical antipsychotic drugs work?
They increase dopaminergic activity in the prefrontal cortex while reducing it in the mesolimbic system.
Why are drugs that block dopamine receptors not useful in treatment of cocaine abuse?
They produce unpleasant feelings.
What is the function of mirror neurons?
They respond when the individual makes a particular movement or sees another individual making that movement.
A man's cat was sick for a month and lost a great deal of weight. When the cat got better, to help it regain the weight it had lost, the man tried to get the cat to drink extra milk by sweetening it with sugar to make it taste better. Was this a good idea?
This was not a good idea. Unlike other vertebrates, cats lack the ability to recognize sweet as a taste. So adding sugar wouldn't make the cat more likely to drink extra milk.
What was the primary purpose of taste receptors for sour from an evolutionary perspective?
To avoid acidic foods that may have become toxic due to bacterial fermentation.
What early experience is necessary to maintain binocular input to the neurons of the visual cortex?
To maintain binocular responsiveness, cortical cells must receive simultaneous activity from both eyes fixating on the same object at the same time.
This is the primary function of the vestibular sacs
To monitor the orientation of the head
What is the goal of neuroscience research?
To understand how the brain works
A decrease in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly.
Tolerance
__________ refers to a decreased sensitivity to a drug after repeated use.
Tolerance
Administration of a substance directly onto the skin or mucous membrane.
Topical Administration
What treatment produces immediate, but temporary, relief from depression?
Total sleep deprivation
These are the most important cutaneous stimulations of the somatosensory system.
Touch, temperature, and pain
Which of the following is NOT a treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Transorbital lobotomy
What is number 5 of the cranial nerves?
Trigeminal
A primary reason that teenagers use the "mosquito" ringtone on their cell phones is so that their teachers and parents won't be able to hear the phones ring.
True
Alzheimer's disease-related neurofibrillary pathology differs in the hypothalamus of men and women.
True
Barnes et al. found that each unit increase in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology was associated with a 3-fold increase in AD risk in men, but an over 20-fold increase in AD risk in women
True
GABA has been shown to have opposing effects on neurons located in the substantia nigra of male and female rat pups
True
Genetic mechanisms can induce sex differences in the brain independently of hormone action.
True
Hearing loss is more likely due to exposure to very loud noises than merely to aging.
True
Lalumiere and McGaugh suggest that stimulation of the left but not right hemisphere amygdala modulates memory storages in male rats.
True
Some bilateral (existing on both sides of the brain) structures are preferentially activated in different hemispheres between the sexes.
True
The differences within a sex are much more substantial than those between the sexes.
True
There is evidence that behavioral tasks can be carried out equally well by the two sexes, but different areas of the brain are activated
True
What is the process of serotonin biosynthesis?
TryptoPHAN --> 5HTP (HydroxytrptoPHAN) --> 5HT (HydroxytripTOMINE)
What is the process of catecholamine biosynthesis?
Tyrosine --> L-Dopa --> Dopamine --> Norepinephrine --> Epinephrine
1. If glutamate is present 2. Postsynaptic membrane is depolarized (No Mg2+)
Under what conditions will NMDA receptors open?
One axon attached to Soma. Axon divides and one branch receives sensory information and the other sends the information into the CNS
Unipolar neuron
Secretion of NE increases:
Vigilance and enhances readiness to act when a signal is detected
Most of the research on the relationship between amount of exercise we do during the day, and the amount of sleep we require that night, suggests that _______________
Vigorous exercise during the day does not result in more sleep at night.
During REM sleep, this area of the brain is especially active.
Visual association cortex
Which portion of the brain is NOT involved in analysis of written words?
Wernicke's area
Where the receptor is located, what its normal effects are, and whether the drug activates the receptors or blocks its actions.
What determines the effects of a particular drug?
Tryptophan
What is the precursor of serotonin?
A neurologist suspects that her patient has limb apraxia. Which of the following actions would this patient be likely to perform if he really does have limb apraxia?
When asked to show how he would butter an imaginary slice of bread the patient would use his finger as the butter knife.
What did Dr. Weekes of Pomona College find in her research on stress?
When individuals are under high levels of stress for short periods of time their memory improves.
Explain how light creates a change in membrane potential when it hits a rod in the retina.
When light strikes molecules of the photopigment, the hyperpolarization that ensues reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the photoreceptor.Because the neurotransmitter normally hyperpolarizes the dendrites of the bipolar cell, a reduction in its release causes the membrane of the bipolar cell to depolarize.
How does transduction occur in "salty" receptor?
When present in the saliva, sodium enters the taste cell and depolarizes it, and triggers action potentials that cause the cell to release a neurotransmitter.
Why must neural circuits involved in written and auditory information eventually converge?
When words have been identified, meaning must be accessed, and neural circuits must have access to the same linguistic and semantic information that identify words and meaning.
What does the more selective method of creating a lesion allow us to determine?
Whether behavioral effects of destroying a particular brain structure are caused by death of neurons located there or by the destruction of axons that pass nearby
Fetal alcohol syndrome is associated with:
a small head and unusual facial characteristics
The appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by a drug when the drug is administered repeatedly and then suddenly no longer taken.
Withdrawal Symptom
Why do habitual users of a drug suffer from withdrawal symptoms?
Withdrawal symptoms constitute the body's attempt to compensate for the effects of the drug...
Why are the lives of most people with even the most severe sleep apnea rarely threatened?
Without any oxygen being taken in, the blood of people with sleep apnea accumulates carbon dioxide, which triggers chemoreceptors that in turn stimulate gasping behavior, causing the person to wake up.
Which of the following best illustrates the most important function of the cerebrospinal fluid within the subarachnoid space?
Without the support of the cerebrospinal fluid, the brain would collapse of its own weight
_____________________ memory consists of information about current events, but may change from day to day.
Working
Which of the following is an example of a lateralized function of the brain?
Writing
Does stereotaxic technique still cause damage to brain?
YES! comparison is needed to be able to detect true changes in behavior due to lesioning
If we shine a beam of red light and a beam of bluish green light together on a white screen, we will see this color light.
Yellow
A scientist applies small doses of apomorphine to a synapse and sees inhibition. With larger doses apomorphine acts as an agonist. Could her observations be correct?
Yes, her observations are correct. A low does of apomorphine acts as an antagonist, because it stimulates the presynaptic receptors and inhibits the production and release of dopamine. Higher doses begin to stimulate postsynaptic D2 receptors, and the drug begins to act like a direct agonist
receptive field
a circular center with an antagonistic doughnut-shaped surrounding that is part of the visual field that excites or inhibits the brain while the surrounding areas counteracts this inhibition or excitation
What is a retinal?
a lipid
Narcolepsy may be defined as _____
a sleep disorder characterized by periods of irresistible sleep, attacks of cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations.
Opium is derived from ______ produced by ______.
a sticky resin; opium poppy
fovea
a tiny area of the retina specialized for acute, detailed vision
koniocellular neurons
a type of ganglion cell that has small cell bodies and are similar to the parvocellular neurons besides the fact that they are located in the retina
magnocellular neurons
a type of ganglion cell with larger cell bodies and receptive fields and are distributed evenly throughout the retina
magnocellular neurons
a type of ganglion cell with larger cell bodies and receptive fields that responds more to movement; are distributed evenly throughout the retina
parvocellular neurons
a type of ganglion cell with small cell bodies and small receptive fields located mostly in or near the fovea, which has many cones
parvocellular neurons
a type of ganglion cell with small cell bodies and small receptive fields, are mostly in or near the fovea
koniocellular neurons
a type of ganglion cell with small cell bodies, similar to the parvocellular neurons, but they occur throughout the retina
Light functions as ________ in an organism's biological clock.
a zeitgeber
the inner portion of the adrenal gland, located atop the kidney, controlled by sympathetic nerves fibers; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
adrenal medulla
How does the biological clock-time of day influence the sleep/waking flip-flop?
a. The biological clock-time of day will raise adenosine levels during the morning, which in turn excite the arousal system neurons, which themselves stimulate vlPOA to flip the flip-flop toward waking. c. The biological clock-time of day will stimulate the LH orexinergic neurons during the morning, which in turn stimulate the arousal system neurons, which themselves inhibit vlPOA to flip the flip-flop toward waking.
ventral stream
another name for the "what" pathway"
blindsight
after damage to area V1 people have no conscious vision, no visual imagery, and no visual images in their dreams, but they still have an ability to respond to visual information that they report not seeing
Verbal behavior is a lateralized function; most language disturbances occur
after damage to the left side of the brain, whether people are left-handed or right-handed.
dorsal stream
another name for the "where pathway"
a structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system
amygdala
What are photoreceptors made of?
an outer segment connected by a cilium to the inner segment, which contains the nucleus
A patient with fluent and grammatical speech and good comprehension, but who might, for example, have trouble finding the correct word to name or describe nouns when asked to describe what people were doing in a series of pictures, would have
anomic aphasia.
hypercomplex cells
another name for end-stopped cells
What are the 5 regions of the intraparietal sulcus?
anterior, lateral, ventral, caudal and medial
Damage to the hippocampus or to regions of the brain that supply its inputs and receive its outputs, causes ________ amnesia.
anterograde
Tracing Connections of neural circuits
anterograde and retrograde labeling
Semantic dementia is caused by degeneration of the neocortex of the _______.
anterolateral temporal lobe
The immune system develops ________ through exposure to ________.
antibodies; antigens
A disproportionate number of children with ADHD develop _______ and _______ as adults.
antisocial personality disorder; substance abuse disorder
Chronic sleep deprivation has is linked to which of the following?
anxiety and depression
Researchers believe that variations in a gene that encodes production of the BDNF protein may play a significant role in _________.
anxiety and depression
Which two psychiatric disorders appear to share common brain mechanisms?
anxiety and depression
The ________ end of the basilar membrane specializes in processing ________.
apical, low-frequency sound
The term for genetically pre-programmed cell death is _________.
apoptosis
Which of the following is NOT a neuroplastic recovery process?
apoptosis
death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism inside the cell
apoptosis
According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language, Broca's area and Wernicke's area are connected via the _________.
arcuate fasciculus
MRI scans have shown that subcortical lesions damage the ____________________, a fiber bundle connecting Wernicke's area and Broca's area, causing conduction aphasia.
arcuate fasciculus
Cones
are abundant in and near the fovea, are less active in dim light, essential for color vision; provide 90% o the brain's input and each rececptor has its own line to the brain
Rods
are abundant in the periphery, respond to faint light, and each receptor shares a line with 10s or 100s of others
midget ganglion cells
are cells in the fovea of humans and other primates that is small and responds to just a single cone; as a result, each cone in the fovea has a direct line to the brain, which registers the exact location of the input
feature detectors
are the neurons that detect the presence of a particular aspect of an object, such as a shape or direction of move
areas V1 and V2
are vital to noting visual perceptions
blind spot (optic disk)
area at the back of the retina where the optic nerve exits, devoid of receptors
Lesion
area of damage caused by ablation techniques
secondary visual cortex (V2)
area of the brain that processes information from the primary visual cortex and transmits it to additional areas
primary visual cortex/area V1
area of the cortex responsible for the first stage of visual processing -*feature detectors* (detect certain qualities of the visual world e.g., edges, surfaces -simple cells, complex cells, hypercomplex cells
Area V4
area of the visual cortex particularly important for color constancy and visual attention
inferior temporal cortex
area that allows us detect objects, not the amount of light or darkness on the retina
By definition, receptive fields are _____.
areas of the retina that, when stimulated, produce a change in the firing of the cells in the visual system
What does form from motion do?
assists in perceiving 3D forms; may involve right hemisphere more than left; regions anterior to extrastriate body area involved in processing movements of body parts
the portion of the PNS that controls the body's vegetative functions
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
a group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system
basal ganglia
Pitch is encoded in two ways: high frequency sounds cause the ___________ of the basilar membrane to flex and low frequency sounds cause the ___________ of the basilar membrane to flex.
base, apex
The property of adjustable sensitivity of the gamma motor neurons refers to the observation that when gamma motor neurons are active, they _______.
become shorter, and more sensitive to change in muscle length
At around three months, grasping ____.
becomes voluntary
At birth, grasping ____.
begins as a reflex
What trait makes a person high risk for alcoholism?
being able to drink a lot without effect
The current theories regarding the cause of autism focus more on ________ and less on _______, compared to the past.
biological factors; parenting factors
The one common pharmacological effect of antischizophrenic drugs is that they______________.
block dopamine receptors
Speech has a regular rhythm and ____________; we stress some words and vary the pitch of our voice to indicate phrasing and distinguish between assertions and questions.
cadence
a fissure located in the occipital lobe onthe medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks
calcarine fissure
The presence of _______________ in marijuana has a protective effect against dependence on cannabis.
cannabidiol
What are cytochrome oxidase blobs?
central region of a module of the primary visual cortex; revealed by a stain for cytochrome oxidase; contains wavelength-sensitive neurons: receives red-green info from parvo and blue info from konio
one of the three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons
cerebellar peduncle
The ____________ modulates balance and posture.
cerebellum
a major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar hemispheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system
cerebellum
This condition leaves people unable to condition discriminate among different hues of the visual association cortex ________.
cerebral achromatopsia.
one of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex
cerebral hemisphere
What is optic flow?
complex motion of points in visual field; caused by relativity: movement between observer and environment; provides info on relative distance of object from observer and relative direction of movement; happens in area right beside V5 called MT
The auditory cortex is organized into two streams: an anterior stream, involved in perception of ____________; and a posterior stream, involved in perception of ____________.
complex sounds; form
What is the fusiform gyrus?
contains fusiform face area; region of visual association cortex location in inferior temporal lobe; perception of faces and other complex objects that require expertise to recognize
A neuron has only one input, an excitatory input from a single axon. The neuron appears to be inhibited somehow, even though it has only a single excitatory input, so neural integration would seem to be impossible. What might be causing this inhibition?
correct answer on page 44
with respect to the CNS, a slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis
cross section
Bregma
cross shaped landmark with sutures on top of skull
What do low-frequency signals of spatial frequency give us?
detail basic edges; focus between large areas of light and dark
A reinforcing system must perform two funtions. First, the reinforcing stimulus must be recognized, and second, the connection between the neurons that _______ and the neurons that ________, must be strengthened.
detect the stimulus; produce the response
fMRI
detects patterns of oxygen distribution in the brain. more active = high conc of oxygen
Law of Specific Nerve Energies
developed by Johannes Muller that stated impulses in one neuron indicate light, whereas impulses in another neuron indicate sound---whatever excites a particular nerve establishes a special kind of energy unique to that nerve
A mad scientist has created a new drug that mimics an important neurotransmitter. It attaches on to the binding site where the neurotransmitter normally attaches. This type of drug is called an (n)
direct agonist
Hubel and Weisel
distinguished several types of cells in the visual cortex
One of the hallmark findings in memory research indicates that if you want to remember information for a long time, _____.
don't cram at the last minute
The research by Knecht in 2004 demonstrated that __________ is an essential part of long-lasting, long-term potentiation.
dopamine
"toward the back"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back
dorsal
a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons
dorsal root ganglion
One of the messages of the clip appears to be that:
drinking alcohol is harmful not only early in pregnancy, but also later in pregnancy.
What should animals be treated with to reduce the likelihood of brain damage following anoxia?
drugs that block NMDA receptors
the outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible
dura mater
In the basal ganglia pathway, the VA/VL thalamus is ______ by direct the pathway, and _________ by the indirect pathway.
excited; inhibited
Cravings for crack cocaine are a learned behavior. Dr. Rosenthal's therapy puts a recovering addict in a virtual crack-related situation, which induces cravings. When the cravings are repeatedly not followed by the drug, the recovering addict's learned response of craving will eventually be ________.
extinguished
How are functional MRI (fMRI) scans able to detect ongoing regional metabolic activity in the brain?
fMRI scans can detect local blood oxygen levels. Areas with high blood oxygen levels have high metabolic activity.
the most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the telenncephalon and diencephalon
forebrain
a fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system
fornix
ventricle located between the cerebellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of the metencephalon
fourth ventricle
the point of the retina that is directly behind the middle of the pupil; designed for "high special acuity", or fine vision with lots of detail
fovea
A majority of people who are depressed experience_________________.
fragmented sleep
People with Broca's aphasia have great difficulty saying the little words with grammatical meaning, such as a, the, some, in, or about. These words are called ________ words.
function
People afflicted with Broca's aphasia have more difficulty with ______, and much less difficulty with ______.
function words; content words
optic nerve
ganglion cell axons that exit through the back of the eye and continue to the brain
What is center-surround cell?
ganglion cell receptive field consisting of a circular center which is then surrounded by a ring; center responds in a particular way (pending the cell) and the surround responds in the exact opposite way
Loss of oxygen or glucose triggers excessive depolarization and excessive neurotransmitter release in neurons that make _____.
glutamate
a convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures
gyrus
simple cells
has a receptive field with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones—the more light that shines in the excitatory zone, the more the cell responds; the more light shines in the inhibitory zone, the less the cell responds
area V4
has cells that contribute to visual attention—this location becomes active as people deliberately shift their attention from one part of a display to another
A newspaper editor is trying to explain to his new photo assistant the type of information provided by various spatial frequencies. He tells him that small objects, large objects with sharp edges, and details within large objects are all represented by __________________ spatial frequencies.
high
Characteristics of the periphery?
high convergence, many photoreceptors converging on few ganglion cells... must greater area processed by ganglion cells
the most caudal of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon
hindbrain
the group of nuclei of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in regulation of the ANS, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands, and integration of species-typical behaviors
hypothalamus
The acquisition of specific behaviors and skills is the most important form of __________ memory.
implicit
Dr. Obert makes the observation that drug use in society usually occurs ____.
in cycles
Cones are located in the ---- .
in the fovea
What is cerebral achromatopsia?
inability to discriminate among different hues; caused by damage to V8; cannot even imagine colors
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces
What is prosopagnosia?
inability to recognize faces after brain damage; can recognize objects
What would no low-frequency of spatial frequency lead to?
inability to tell shape of object
In contrast to excitotoxicity, apoptosis __________
includes digestion of cell components by glial cells which prevents inflammation
What is the dorsal stream of visual analysis?
indicate what, not where; striate cortex>posterior parietal cortex
What is the ventral stream of visual analysis?
indicate where, but no what; striate>inferior temporal cortex
protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the auditory system
inferior colliculi
Where does the ventral stream end?
inferior temporal cortex
CT scan
info from series of x-rays of brain are processed by a cpu so that virtual slices can be generated and inspected
Sensory information is sent to the brain or ganglia, where __________ integrate the information.
interneurons
Color-vision deficiency
is a less mild case of color blindness caused by a deficit on the X-chromosome when people lack one or two of the types of cones, but proves that it is possible to have otherwise satisfactory vision without seeing color
When a rat encounters a painful stimulus, somatosensory input activates strong synapses in the
lateral nucleus
optic chiasm
is preceded by the optic nerve; location where half of the axons cross the opposite hemisphere of the human brain
Stereotaxic atlas function
is the result of careful measurements from many brains from a particular species. this catelogs the average location of all major brain areas using 3D coordinates
dorsal stream, or "where" pathway
is the visual path in the parietal cortex that helps the motor system find and use objects
What is the pretectal and optic tectum pathway?
it coordinates eye movements; controls muscles of the iris and ciliary muscles (control lens); help direct our attention to sudden movements in periphery of visual field
Problems with radio freq. technique
it damages fibers of passage! destroys axons of other neurons passing through target area. now you cannot detect if the change in behavior is due to the fact that 2 unrelated areas of brain are now disconnected from eachother
When a rat encounters a painful stimulus, somatosensory input activates strong synapses in the ________.
lateral nucleus
one of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon
lateral ventricle
What is the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus?
it receives its input from the retina and optic nerves; transports info the the primar visual cortex in occ. lobe; contains 6 layers of neurons, each of which receives input from only one eye.
After an action potential has begun and ended, by how much does the concentration of sodium in the cell change?
it stays largely unchanged.
Whether a drug is an agonist or and antagonist depends on ______.
its effect on the postsynaptic cell
The volume of the primary auditory cortex of a musician is very likely to be ___________ than that of a non-musician, and the neural response in this area to musical tones would be _________ in musicians.
larger, greater
the fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes
lateral fissure
a group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex
lateral geniculate nucleus
According to studies conducted at Harvard Medical School and Trent University, students who were well rested consistently showed marked improvement in ____________ over students who were sleep deprived.
learning a new skill
Problem with electrolytic technique
leaves behind metallic residues which can alter the functioning of surviving tissue in area around lesion. now you cannot detect if the changes in behavior are due to the intentional damage or the residues
Generally speaking, deficits in speech and language follow damage to the __________.
left cerebral hemisphere
Damage to the ________ parietal hemisphere causes apraxia of ________ hand.
left, both the right and left
With functinal MRI, brain activity is measured indirectly, by detecting _________.
levels of oxygen in blood vessels
phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge ("limbus") of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system
limbic cortex
According to Dr. Hirsch, where in the brain specifically is the sensation of smell processed?
limbic system
a group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting fiber bundles
limbic system
A drug that is _________ is more likely to pass through the blood-brain barrier.
lipid soluble
complex cells
located in areas V1 and V2, do not respond to the exact location of a stimulus; it responds to a pattern of light in a particular orientation (i.e. vertical bar) anywhere within its large receptive field
What are the responsibilites of the dorsal stream in visually guided movements?
locating objects, recognizing size differences
In a study on sleep deprivation, Dr. Smith of Trent University in Canada found that college students who stayed out late partying on a Friday night _______________.
lost 30% of the information they learned in classes just two days earlier
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is also known as _________, and brought attention to the brain disease ______.
mad cow disease; BSE
The _____________ pathway is specialized for helping the motor system find objects, move toward them, grasp them, etc.
magnocellular
What is pursuit movement?
maintaining an object on the fovea; slower than saccades
MST
medial superior temporal cortex that enable you to distinguish b/w the result of eye movements and the result of object movements
The ______ receives input from all sensory systems and projects to the thalamus.
medulla
the most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately rostral to the spinal cord
medulla oblongata
Our ability to remember things better and hang onto them over time, making memories durable and stable, is referred to as _____.
memory consolidation
Stuttering is found more frequently in _____ than in _____, and occurs in about ____ of the population.
men; women; 1%
three layers of tissues that encase the CNS: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater
meninges
the plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into two symmetrical halves
midsagittal plane
The cochlea detects frequency by two means:
moderate to high frequencies by place coding, and low frequencies by rate coding.
What term describes a reflex in which a muscle contracts in response to its being quickly stretched?
monosynaptic stretch reflex
Although schizophrenia is not usually diagnosed in childhood, when it is, the symptoms are likely to be ______ than when it is identified as an adult.
more severe
MST
most neurons in this area are "silent" during eye movement; they respond briskly if something moves relative to the background
The clip suggests a link between dyslexia and _______ perception.
motion
Area V5
motion detection
the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the premotor cortex
motor association cortex
Motor output leaves the brain or ganglia via _________, which trigger muscle or gland activity.
motor neurons
It is important to recognize that the primary motor cortex is organized in terms of particular__________of particular parts of the body.
movements
The capacity of opiates to produce analgesia is due to an action on ______ receptors within the ______.
mu; periaqueductal gray matter
What is conjuctiva?
mucous membranes that line the eyelid and fold back to attach to the eye; hide attachments of muscles to the eye
stimulated by the left visual world that travels to the right side of the brain; its output connects to the optic chiasm
nasal hemi-retina
What is the trichromatic theory?
need short, medium and long wavelength cones together to determine a color (mixing of LIGHT, not pigment)
Sham Lesion Group
needed for comparison the group of animals that undergo same procedure but lesion is NOT created. same process!
What is a key difference between the cells in the PNS and the cells in the CNS?
nerve cells in the PNS have regenerative properties while nerve cells in the CNS do not.
imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the CNS, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain
neuraxis
Reflexes that are too strong, too weak, or absent may indicate
neurological deficits
What are amacrine cells?
neurons in the retina that interconnect adjacent ganglion cells and the innerprocesses of the bipolar cells; act as interneurons; most types of cells in the eye (24-29 different types)
What are horizontal cells?
neurons in the retina that interconnect adjacent photoreceptors and the outerprocesses of the bipolar cells; lateral inhibition - allow eyes to adjust under bright and dim light
What are complex cells?
neurons in visual cortex that respond to presence of a line segment with a particular orientation located within its receptive field; do not have an inhibitory surround, responds anywhere in its receptive field; respond equally well to white lines on black or black lines on white; increased firing when line moved perpendicular to its angle
What are hypercomplex cells?
neurons in visual cortex that respond to presence of a line segment with a particular orientation that ends at a particular point within the cell's receptive field; fires for cells of a particular orientation; cell has no inhibitory surround; does have inhibitory region meant to detect where lines end
REM sleep behavior disorder involves exhibiting ________, while cataplexy involves ________
no REM paralysis during REM sleep and acting out dreams; complete paralysis that occurs during wakings.
Learning to recognize music, learning sequences, and classical conditioning are examples of ____________ memory tasks.
nondeclarative
Learning to recognize faces, melodies, and pictures are all examples of _________.
nondeclarative memory tasks
Infants' early efforts at reaching are ____.
not accurate
_________ conditioning involves the formation of an association between a stimulus and a voluntary behavior.
operant
What type of learning is associated with consequences?
operant learning
an x-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the base of the brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland
optic chiasm
What are simple cells?
oriention-sensitive neurons in the striate cortex; receptive field is organized in an opponent fashion; cell has specific line orientation that it is looking for; also has an area for inhibition and excitation
People with ___________________ dysgaphia can only sound out words and therefore have difficulty spelling irregular words such as half or busy.
orthographic
the region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors
periaqueductal gray matter
The components of the eye control how much light enters the eye and focus the image on the retina at the back of the eye, which contains the __________.
photoreceptors
The perceived _____________ of an auditory stimulus is determined by the frequency of vibration, which is measured in ___________.
pitch, hertz (Hz)
EEG (funct and type)
placed on surface of scalp in order to obtain noninvasive records of gross cortical activity underneath electrodes SURFACE AND NON-INVASIVE.
Macroelectrodes (funct and type)
placed with brain to monitor activity of larger masses of nerve cells.
The supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex are involved in the ________.
planning of movements
What is retinal disparity?
points on objects located at difference distances from the observer will fall on slightly different locations on the two retinas; stereoscopic vision (stereopsis); binocular vision provides a vivid perception of depth through this process; allows for 3D image
The locus coeruleus is a group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the ________.
pons
A ___________ excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is an intracellular measurement of the EPSPs produced by the synapse of the perforant path axons with the dentate granule cells.
population
What is the receptive field?
portion of visual field in which the presentation of visual stimuli will produce an alteration in the firing rate of a particular neuron; part of visual field that an individual neuron sees; visual stimulus must be located here to produce a response
The dorsal stream of the visual cortex continues into the ___________ and carries information relating to _______________.
posterior parietal cortex, object location
The functional imaging study by Soon et al (2008) provided results suggesting that the _______ appears to be involved in storing information about decisions, and transmits it to the ________ where the process of executing the response begins.
posterior parietal cortex; SMA
neurons of the ANS that form synapses directly with their target organ
postganglionic neuron
Which cortical areas are actively involved in planning and sequencing a basketball shot?
prefrontal and premotor cortex
According to Dr. Todorov, what can we do to improve our ability to recognize faces?
practice studying and remembering people's distinct facial features
Abnormalities in the _______ cortex may play a key role in schizophrenia and drug abuse.
prefrontal
the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex
prefrontal cortex
the efferent neuron of the ANS whose cell body is located in the cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal gray matter and whose terminal buttons synapse upon postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia
preganglionic neuron
A drug that block reuptake in a synapse is categorized as a (n)
presynaptic heteroreceptor
Located in the precentral gyrus, the ________________ sends commands to the muscles and lower levels of the motor system.
primary motor cortex
the region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles
primary motor cortex
the region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system
primary somatosensory cortex
The lateral geniculate nucleus transmits its output to the ______.
primary visual cortex
the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system
primary visual cortex
We need REM sleep for many reasons, but one of them is to strengthen our _____ memory, which we use to retain skills like playing the piano or shooting a basketball.
procedural
Secondary visual cortex
processes the information sent from the primary visual cortex further and transmits it to additional areas - Has reciprocal connections (Ex. V1 sends info to V2, and V2 returns info to V1)
Patients with Broca's aphasia have difficulty ____________ speech but seem to be able to fully _____________ speech.
producing, understand
Broca's area is often referred to as the center for _________.
production of speech
cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS
progenitor cells
an axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region
projection fiber
Hans Selye argued that ill health noted after stress exposure reflects________________.
prolonged secretion of glucocorticoids
Retinex Theory (or the Retina + Cortex Theory)
proposed by Edwin Land that the cortex compares information from various parts of the retina to determine the brightness and color for each area
Opponent-process theory
proposed by Ewald Hering stating that we perceive color in terms of opposites
Tri-chromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz)
proposed that we perceive color by comparing the responses across a few type of receptors, each of which is sensitive to a different range of wavelengths
opsins
proteins that retinal combines with to form visual pigments
A study of male twin pairs showed abuse of every category of drugs except _________________ was influenced by genetic factors.
psychedelics
special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development
radial glia
What are saccades?
rapid, jerky movement that can be used to scan a visual scene
What are ganglion cells?
receive info from bipolar cells; axons travel through the optic nerves; transmit visual info to the rest of the brain
What is one pattern recognition system?
recognize parts; assemble into wholes; look at parts/elements of flower, then make rose
What is the lateral occipital complex?
region of extrastriate cortex; perception of objects other than people's faces and bodies
What is the parahippocampal place area?
region of limbic cortex located on medial temporal lobe; perception of particular places/locations; damage to lateral occipital cortex - lose object identification but not "scene" placement
What is the extrastriate body area?
region of visual association cortex located in lateral occipitotemporal cortex; perception of human body, perception of body parts other than faces; responds well to headless bodies and various human body parts; doesn't respond much to faces or random objects
In instrumental conditioning, favorable consequences are referred to as __________ stimuli, whereas unfavorable consequences are referred to as __________ stimuli.
reinforcing, punishing
What is spatial frequency?
relative width of bands in sine-wave grating; measured in cycles per degree of visual angle; how often the image changes gives the angel of vision
hypercomplex cells
resembles complex cells; however, they have a strong inhibitory area at one end of its bar-shaped receptive field
negative color after-image
result of staring at a colored object for a prolonged length of time and then looking at a white surface, the image is seen as a negative image with a replacement of red with green, green with red, yellow and blue with each other, and black and white with each other
Damage to __________ would result in a loss of muscle tone.
reticular activating system
Which of the following is NOT part of the basal ganglia:
reticular activating system
a large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon
reticular formation
lateral inhibition
retina's way of sharpening contrasts to emphasize the borders of objects
What is the main pathway of transmission for visual information?
retino-geniculo-cortical
located in the periphery that detects the presence or absence of light, or "white and black"
rods
"toward the beak"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the front ot the face
rostral
a slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground
sagittal section
Hunger-related signals activate orexinergic neurons, and ________ inhibit them.
satiety-related signals
The instructions for the Stroop Test ask the participant to
say aloud the colors of the words that are shown.
A microscope that shows objects in three dimensions, scanning tissue with a moving beam, is called a _________.
scanning electron microscope
allows some materials to cross, but prevents others from crossing
semi-permeable
A sudden head movement is detected by the _______ when endolymph moves hair cells in the ________.
semicircular canals, ampulla
Ganglion cells
send axons to the thalamus and are the first cells in the visual pathway to generate action potentials
Sensors detect external stimuli and internal conditions and transmit information along ___________.
sensory neurons
We receive information about the environment from these.
sensory receptors
According to Dr. Todorov, there is evidence that shows we are better at recognizing the faces of people who ____________than those who do not.
share our race and gender
Some people, particularly those with higher levels of intelligence, produce more _____ during Stage 2 sleep while they are learning a complex new skill or training intensively on a demanding task.
sleep spindles
What are receptor potentials?
slow, graded electrical potentials produced by receptor cells in response to physical stimuli
parvocellular neurons
small cell bodies with small receptive fields in or near the fovea -hook up to cones -*color/fine detail*
koniocellular neurons
small ganglion cells that occur throughout the retina
What do high-frequency signals of spatial frequency give us?
small object information; details of larger objects; specific edges
People who have anomic aphasia often employ circumlocutions, which literally means ______.
speaking in a roundabout way
For a person who suffers from social phobia, there is a strong desire to avoid _______________.
speaking or performing in public
What are photopigments?
special molecules embedded in the membrane of the lamellae; consist of two parts: opsin and retinal
Deficits in the production or comprehension of _________, more often involve left-hemisphere brain regions.
speech
Broca's area is the area of the inferior prefrontal cortex of the left hemisphere hypothesized to be the center of __________.
speech production
Which stage of sleep is characterized by irregular EEG with sleep spindles and K-complexes?
stage 2
This sleep stage is characterized by increased heart rate, increased respiration, increased brain activity, and an irregular EEG.
stage REM
What does it mean to "pull an all-nighter"?
stay up all night studying
a groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure
sulcus
According to Watkins et al., ___________ is a disorder of "selection, initiation, and execution of motor sequences necessary for fluent speech production."
stuttering
the fluid-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater
subarachnoid space
the region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface
subcortical region
division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to two identical progenitor cells; increases the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it
symmetrical division
the portion of the ANS that controls functions that accompany arousal and expenditure of energy
sympathetic division
When the brain interprets negative events as stressors, it activates the ____________.
sympathetic nervous system
Olfactory receptor cells send a process toward the surface of the mucosa, which divides into __________ to _________ cilia that penetrate the layer of mucus.
ten, twenty
As an environmental agent harmful to prenatal development, alcohol is a(n) _________.
teratogen
the largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the hypothalamus; contains nuclei that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive information from it
thalamus
Comprehensive study of HM's memory function and his brain has helped scientists understand ___________.
that memory was not just one process
color constancy
the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting ex. yellow ski goggles
color constancy
the ability to recognize the color of an object even if the lighting changes
blindsight
the ability to respond in limited ways to visual information without perceiving it consciously
The visual signal is translated into an auditory code in the _______.
the angular gyrus
receptive field
the area in visual space that excites or inhibits any neuron
prestriate cortex
the band of tissue in the occipital lobe that surrounds the primary visual cortex and contains areas of secondary visual cortex.
Stimuli of different frequencies maximally deform different regions of ________.
the basilar membrane
hypercomplex cells
the cell responds to a bar-shaped pattern of light anywhere in its broad receptive field, provided the bar does not extend beyond a certain point
What is optic flow
the complex motion of points in the visual field caused by relative movement between the observer and the environment
What are the magnocellular layers?
the inner two layers; contain neurons that contain cell bodies that are larger than those of the outer four layers; trasmit info about form, movement, depth and intensity differences
Prosopagnosia
the inability to recognize faces that occurs after damage to the fusiform gyrus of the inferior temporal cortex, especially in the right hemisphere.
A functional-imaging study by Iacoboni (2005) suggests that the mirror neuron system encodes not only an action, but also ________.
the intent of the action
The way in which an aura is expressed will vary depending on ________.
the location of the focus
The common aspect of all natural reinforcers relates to ____________________.
the release of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens
Pain appears to have three different perceptual and behavioral effects which are:
the sensory component, the immediate emotional consequences of pain, and the long-term emotional implications of chronic pain
The primary visual cortex is often called what?
the striate cortex
Opponent-Process Theory
the visual system neurons beyond the receptors themselves respond with an increase in activity to indicate one color of light and a decrease to indicate the opposite color. The three pairs of opposites are red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black.
inferior temporal cortex
their neurons contribute to our capacity for shape constancy—the ability to recognize an object's shape even as it changes position, angle, lighting, etc.
Patients with autism often have a difficult time forming __________, that is, they are unable to predict and explain the behavior of other human beings in terms of their mental states.
theory of mind
trichromatic/Young-Helmholtz theory
theory that color is perceived through the relative rates of response by three kinds of cones, each one maximally sensitive to a different set of wavelengths
When specific cells in the retina are not firing it is because _____.
there is no light stimulating the field
Besides receiving information from taste receptors, the gustatory cortex also receives
thermal, mechanical, visceral, and nociceptive (painful) stimuli
ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon
third ventricle
The drug tPA has benefits if administered within ________ hours of a stroke.
three
Most addictive drugs such as cocaine, heroin and alcohol show ____________.
tolerance rather than sensitization.
The beginning of a grand mal seizure is called the _________________.
tonic phase
ganglion cells
type of neuron in the retina that receives input from the bipolar cells -provide output for retina -form the optic nerve
Parvocellular cells
type of retinal ganglion cell specialized for detecting color and fine detail
Magnocellular cells
type of retinal ganglion cell specialized for detecting movements
cones
type of retinal receptor that contributes to color perception
complex cell
type of visual cortex cell located in areas V1 and V2 that responds to a pattern of light in a particular orientation anywhere within its large receptive field
simple cell
type of visual cortex cell that has a receptive field with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones
Which of the following is a precursors of norepinephrine?
tyrosine
Classical conditioning occurs when __________ stimuli and responses are transformed into ____________ stimuli and responses.
unconditional, conditional
In the context of a classical conditioning experiment, when a dog salivates as he eats his food, the dog's salivation is called the ___________.
unconditioned response
In the context of a classical conditioning experiment, when a dog salivates as he eats his food, the food is considered the ____________.
unconditioned stimulus
The negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as decreased motivation and impaired social interactions, and the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia appear to be related to _____.
under-activity in the prefrontal cortex
The fact that methylphenidate, a dopamine agonist, alleviates the symptoms of ADHD has suggested the hypothesis that this disorder is caused by ______ of dopaminergic transmission.
underactivity
a layer of cells that line the inside of the neural tube; contains progenitor cells that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS
ventricular zone
a nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons to the primary motor cortex
ventrolateral nucleus
The _________ group consists of the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract, the reticulospinal tract, and the ventral corticospinal tract.
ventromedial
Rabies and polio are caused by ___________.
viral encephalitis
Rabies and polio are caused by ____________________/
viral encephalitis
Most reaching behavior is controlled by______.
vision
Patients who are unable to recognize common objects have ________.
visual agnosia
11. People with ________ are unable to identify common objects due to damage to the _______.
visual agnosia; ventral stream
People with ________ are unable to identify common objects due to damage to the _______.
visual agnosia; ventral stream
Functional-imaging studies have shown that specific types of short-term visual memories involve activity of specific regions of the
visual association cortex.
What is the lateral region of the intraparietal sulcus responsible for?
visual attention and control of saccadic movements
What is the ventral region of the intraparietal sulcus responsible for?
visual attention, control of saccadic movements, visual control of reaching and pointing
What is the anterior region of the intraparietal sulcus responsible for?
visual control of grasping and manipulating hand movements
What is the medial region of the the intraparietal sulcus responsible for?
visual control of reaching and point
dorsal stream
visual path in the parietal cortex that helps the motor system locate objects, the *"where"* path
ventral stream
visual paths in the temporal cortex that are specialized for identifying and recognizing objects, the *"what"* path
parvocellular input
visual pathway in the cerebral cortex that is sensitive to details and shape
mixed parvocellular/magnocellular input
visual pathway in the cerebral cortex that issensitive to brightness and color
magnocellular input
visual pathway in the cerebral cortex that responds to movement
Fusiform Gyrus
vital to faces and visual expertise of all types (i.e. recognizing models of cars at a glance, species of birds, or types of flowers)—people with greater expertise show great activation in this area of the inferior temporal cortex
designed to be clear and keep the eyeball big and around; sustains the dimensions of the lenses and the iris; allows the light to pass through
vitreous humor
binocular input
when both eyes are pointed in the same direction, most neurons in the visual cortex receive stimulation from both eyes
sensitive period
when experience have a particularly strong and enduring influence throughout the visual experience
optic chiasm
where half of the axons (in humans) cross to the opposite hemisphere
area V1
where most visual information from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus goes located in the occipital lobe
Area V3
which area of the secondary association cortex of the visual cortex - recognizes moving shapes
In the opponent-process theory for processing color, blue opposes _________.
white
Obsessions are seen in both schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The difference is that with obsessive-compulsive disorder, the patient _____________.
wishes the obsessions would go away
Sandra, a schizophrenic patient, is displaying symptoms of low psychomotor speed. Most likely, she is have difficulty ___________.
with rapid movements of her fingers, hands, and legs
Administering an opiate for a lengthy period of time and then blocking its effects by injecting naloxone causes ___________________.
withdrawal symptoms
Patients with lesions in the prefrontal cortex show deficits in ________.
working memory
What is tritanopia?
world seen in reds and greens; blue cones lacking; sky looks green; yellow looks pinkish
If we shine a beam of red light and a beam of blueish green light together on a white screen, we will see this color light
yellow