BIS2C final

what developed after hagfishes but before lamprey

vertebrae

What are some major features of sponges? Name all of it. skeleton made with spicules and collagen derivatives suspension feeders no gut non-motile monoblastic

skeleton made with spicules and collagen derivatives suspension feeders no gut non-motile monoblastic

Class Gastropoda

slugs and snails, stomach foot, torsion

What are lancelets

small filter-feeding marine animals that have segmented body muscles and chordate features present in adults

Chlamydias

small, gram -, cocci, obligate parasites, pathogenic, eukaryotic chloroplasts

microphyllous leaves

small, simple leaf with a single vascular strand. Lycophytes. Originated from sterile lateral sporangia.

Agrobacterium

soil bacteria, infects flowering plants, entry through wounds (crown gall)

segmentation

some bilaterians are characterized by having repeated segments, some segments fuse into tagma for specialized functions (arthropods,annelids)

heterocyst

specialize for N fixation

Pupa:

stage in a holometabola insect Egg → larva → pupa → adult

Gastrula:

stage in embryonic development in which the blastopore is fully developed, and there are three layers of cells

notochord

stiff, hollow cord made of collagen that serves as a point of support and muscle attachment; derived from mesoderm, replaced with vertebrae in vertebrates; helps to provide efficient locomotion

nematocyst

stinging organ that contains toxins; can be chemically or mechanically activated; found in cnidarians (in the cnidocytes)

Cubozoa (box jellies)

stings known to be toxic

fiber cells

structural elements of xylem

chytrid

swimming spores; single posterior flagellum; causes a disease in amphibians that is leading to mass extinctions

Fish scales are homologous

teeth (dermal)

Coelom:

the body cavity in metazoans, located between the intestinal canal and the body wall

coelom

the body cavity in metazoans, located between the intestinal canal and the body wall

What demonstrates the concept of "deep homology"

the cephalopod eye is convergent with that of vertebrates, shares some common genes that are involved in the eye development in the two groups

Ancestral State

the character state of the most recent common ancestor.

thorax

the chest; between neck and abdomen

Chelicerae:

the feeding organs of chelicerata

cephalothorax

the fused head and thorax of spiders and other chelicerate arthropods -Chelicerata: 2 tagmata (cephalothorax, abdomen)

carapace

the hard upper shell of a turtle, crustacean, or arachnid

What is a carapace?

the hard upper shell of a turtle, crustacean, or arachnid.

carapace:

the hard upper shell of a turtle, crustacean, or arachnid; Crustacea: carapace covers thorax and head

thorax

the middle segment in hexapods. This is where the legs and wings attach. head->thorax->abdomen

What specific evidence supports choanoflagellates as the sister group of Metazoa? (3)

the presence of collar cells DNA sequence data (phylogenetic analysis) homologous cell signaling/adhesion genes.

Nematocyst:

the stinging organ that contains toxins in cnidaria

extinction

the taxon no longer exists.

Creoarcheota

thermophilic and acidophilic

the function of an outgroup

to root an unrooted tree

LGT

transformation, transduction (phage mediated), conjugation (sex pillus-plasmids)

tetrapod

transition to life on land: use lungs, modification of skin, internal fertilization, jointed fins modified to limbs, evolution of shelled eggs w/ membranes

incongruent phylogenetic trees

trees don't match up

nematoda

triploblastic spiral mosaic bilateral complete one way gut decomposers synap: amphids

What are some major features of annelids?

trochophore larvae (free swimming larva)

Molluscan Reproduction

trochopore larva --> veliger larva --> adult - direct development in some - land snails --> monoecious

diploblasty

two tissue layers (endoderm and ectoderm); cnidarians and ctenophores

What is bilateral symmetry?

two-sided symmetry

Molluscan life cycle

typically: trochophore larva>>veliger larva>> adult however some do have direct development Ex. freaky land snails are monecious and pierce each other with "love darts" before they exchange sperm

polytomy

uncertain about relationship

yeast

unicellular crown fungi

suction feeding

used by fish; unidirectional flow (water goes in the mouth and out the pharyngeal slit); uses suction

systematics

used formal methods to estimate evolutionary relationships

Principle of Continuity

used in sponges; out pore is smaller than combined area of all smaller pores; water moves slower inside the sponge in order to maximize nutrient absorption; water moves fastest at the exit pore (osculum)

Synapomorphies in angiosperms:

vessel elements, companion cells, Flowers, Double fertilization, Triploid endosperm, carpel, fruits

virion

virus outside host

The communication in cephalopods is largely

visual: chromatophores are cells with pigment that change in shape leading to color change

first cell of the diploid sporophyte generation is _____

zygote

What is the body plan of echinodermata?

• There is a oral side (with the mouth) and an aboral side • The gut is complete with regional specialization. • There is no head or brain; diffuse neural net • Respiration by diffusion

What is is in the digestive system in earthworms?

•Complete, 1-way processing gut •Pharynx •Esophagus •Crop •Gizzard •Intestine

Vertebrates

- enlarged brain - cranial skeleton - vertebral column of bone or cartilage

Innovation of wings

- evolved ONCE within insects -evolved early in phylogeny as well (MRCA is wingless, ex. silverfish) -wings evolved from dorsal appendages on the base of legs in crustaceans the dorsal appendages are used for respiration suggesting that wings arose from gill-like structures

Pharyngeal slits

- openings between the pharynx and the exterior - associated with filer feeding or respiration

What are distinguishing features of crustaceans?

-3 tagmata (head, throax, adbomen) -2 pairs of antennae -dorsal carapace covers head and thorax -nauplius larval stage

Protostomes:

-Blastopore becomes mouth -Have spiral, mosaic cleavage -Unequal division of cells → embryo has distinct top and bottom -Cell fate determined early mRNAs determine cell development -If a protostome embryo lost a few cells during early development, the embryo would cease to develop and die

c. Chondrichthyans

" cartilaginous fish" - so sharks, skates, and ray - loss of bone - skeleton made of cartilage - powerful jaws, excellent swimmers - mostly predatory - can grow very large ( ex. Megalodon that was 50 ft long >> whale sharks ( filter feeder) 40 ft >> Great white sharks 20 ft

Protosomes

"mouth first" MRCA HAD: 1) blastopore becomes mouth 2) mesoderm arising near lip of blastopore 3) schizocoely 1. Arrow worms 2. Lophotrochozoans 3. Ecdysozoans

protostome

"mouth first;" blastopore becomes the mouth; mollusca, annelida, nemotoda, and arthropoda; usually mosaic (spiral) cleavage

What are some characteristics of Annelids?

"segmented worms;" paired setae, segmentation, well-developed organ system, use coelom as hydrostatic skeleton to support movement, processing gut, protostome, lophotrochozoan

Scyphozoa

"true jellies"

phylogram

# of character changes

Lamprey

- blood-sucking parasites of fish - no bone, no jaw - sucker like mouth and rasping teeth - larvae are mud dwelling, filter feeders

Cnidarians

- carnivorous - gain additional nutritional benefits from symbiotic photosynthetic protists

Chondrichthyans (sharks)

- cartilaginous fish - skeleton made of flexible cartilage (bone lost secondarily) - generally predators, some scavengers - powerful jaws, excellent swimmers

Lancelets

- cephalochordates - small filter feeding marine animals - chordate features present in adults - segmented body muscles

What are Chondrichtheyes?

- chordata - sharks, skates, rays • Skeleton made of flexible cartilage • Mostly predaceous, some scavengers • Powerful jaws, excellent swimmers

What are lampreys?

- chordata • No bone, no jaws, but cartilaginous vertebrae are present • Sucker- like mouth with rasping teeth • Many species are ectoparasites of fish

What are ostracoderms?

- chordata - armored jawless fish • Extinct, armor- plated, Silurian to Devonian (~400mya) • Jawless but the armor plates were made of bone • Para- or polyphyletic • Filter feeders or scavengers

What are Cubozoa?

- cnidaria • Also called box jellies or sea wasps. • Sting is very toxic, may cause death in humans. • Some species with well-developed eyes.

Evolution of a jaw

1. Jawless fishes --> gill arches, cartilaginous gill supports 2. Early jawed fishes --> anterior gills become modified as bony jaws 3. Modern jawed fished --> additional gill arches added and teeth acquired

4 extant Reptiles clades

1. Lepidosaurs 2. Turtles 3. Crocodiles 4. Dinosaurs

Divisions of protostomes

1. Lophotrochozoans 2. Ecdyozoans

What are the two body morphologies of cnidaria?

1. Medusa: free-living form, 'sea jelly', oral end down 2. Polyp: sessile form, 'anemone', oral end up

What are the two types of body types for sponges?

1. encrusting 2. upright

Bilaterally symmetrical animals

Distinct anterior (front) and posterior (back) ends; cephalization; differentiation of anterior end into a head, with concentration of sensory organs; Segmentation: serial repetition of body parts in well-defined segements (subset of taxa-arthropods)

Unique SYNAPOMORPHIES of metazoa

Distinctive male gametes: spermotozoa Blastula Septate junctions Collagen in extracellular matrix

segmentation

Division of an animal body into segments; characteristic of Annelida, Arthropoda, and Chordata

Tagmosis

Division of body into functional subunits; regional specialization of groups of body segments (tagmata)

Cnidarian feeding

ALL are CANIVOROUS small prey is captured with cnida convered tentacles and brought into the gastrovascular cavity where extracellular digestion occurs. Then by products of digestion are brought by phagocytosis into nutritive cells where digestion is completed intracellularly

Key characteristics of the kingdom Fungi?

Absorptive nutrition; cell walls contain chitin and glucans and they reproduce by production of spores; thallus (body) can be multicellular or unicellular; Multicellular have filaments called hyphae

General features of mollusca

Bilaterally symmetrical (secondary asymmetry in some) • Reduced coelom • Body plan: mantle, foot, and visceral mass • Mouth with a radula (lost in some groups)

Mollusca

Bilaterally symmetrical (some are secondarily asymmetrical) coelomate protostomes with complete guts, reduced coelom, open circulatory system (hemocoel), characteristic body plan (mantle, visceral mass, and foot), mouth with radula (rasping tongue-like organ), well developed nervous system, excretory system in form of nephridia; include Chitons and gastropods (snails, slugs, nudibranchs, clams, mussels, oysters, squids, octopuses, nautiluses)

Characteristic features of molluscs

Bilaterally symmetrical coelomate protostomes with: 1. Complete gut 2.Reduced coelom 3.Open circulatory system with typically three-chambered heart and associated vessels 4.Body plan of : mantle, visceral mass, and foot 5.Mouth with radula 6.Well-developed nervous system 7.Excretory system in the from of nephridia

What is segmentation?

Body parts that are repeated in animals with bilateral symmetry

Visceral mass in Mollusca

Body proper, with digestive, circulatory, excretory and reproductive organs

Why are choanoflagellates important to study for the evolution of multicellularity in animals?

Choanoflagelletes have many features that were previously thought to only occur in animals such as colonial structures, single flagellum, collar, signalling, and cell adhesion. This means that these features evolved prior to the MRCA of choanoflagelletes and animals even if multicellularity may have evolved in the stem leading to common ancestor animals.

How did insect wings evolve?

Dorsal appendages at the base of the legs; in crustaceans the dorsal appendages are used for respiration; this argues that pro-wings arose from gill-like structures in a larval aquatic stage, and were retained and modified in adults for other purposes

the diagnostic features of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms) (5)

Double ferilization Endosperm Carpel Flowers fruit Reduced megagametophyes

Know the diagnostic features of Seed plants

Seed Pollen Heterospory Retention of megagametophyte

the diagnostic features of Seed plants (4)

Seed Pollen Heterospory Retention of megagametophyte

Differences between LGT and Sexual Reproduction

Sexual: Two identical organisms, one way to be done, entire genome is transferred LGT: Can occur between two different species or domains, donor-receptor relationship, doesn't transfer the full genome, there are many different ways to do LGT

Echinodermata reproduction

Sexual; mostly dioecious with external fertilization; regeneration of body parts is common--->means of asexual reproduction

opistokont traits

Shared Traits: All shared traits of eukaryotes Shared DERIVED Traits: Flagellum (if present) single and posterior

What are features of humans?

Shared with other primates 1. grasping fingers on all four limbs 2. flat fingernails 3. binocular vision & forward eyes Only humans 4. increased brain size 5. modifications to the skull to enable speech 6. extensive use and construction of tools

Chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fish)

Sharks, skates, rays; skeleton made of flexible cartilage (bone lost secondarily); generally predators, some scavengers; powerful jaws, excellent swimmers

Examples of flatworms/platyhelminthes

Sheep liver fluke Parasite-induced behavior modification

Cone snails

Shoot harpoon-like radula (laden with toxin) at prey

What are microRNAs

Short stretches of RNA involved in gene regulation Found in all lineages except ctenophores

Glass sponges and demosponges

Siliceous spicules

Choanoflagellates

Small group of aquatic heterotrophic eukaryotes; cell similar in structure to sponge choanocytes; microbial (some are unicellular and some are colonial but none are multicellular); cell ovid, with a collar of microvilli surrounding a single flagellum; sister group of Metazoa

Gastropods

Snails, limpets, slugs, whelks, conchs, sea slugs, sea hares, etc; Shell in one piece (univalve), usually coiled; torsion; mostly herbivores, but include some carnivores

Hemiptera

True bugs; plant feeders

3. Scyphozoa

True jellyfish that were named for their extensive mesoglea

Bilateral symmetry

a single plane divides animal into left and right mirror-image halves

catch collagen

a special type of connective tissue in sea stars that changes the rigidity of the body very quickly; controlled by the nervous system (not muscles)

Tagmata:

a specialized grouping of multiple segments into a coherently functional morphological unit

Blastula:

a stage in the embryonic stage of all animals; a hollow ball of cells

derived state

a state that is different from the ancestral state as it has been derived along the branch leading to the taxa

1. Lancelets

aka cephalochordates - small filter feeding marine animals in which the adults show chordate features - sister to tunicates + vertebrates - non vertebrate clade - has endostyle

Ecdysis

all Ecdysozoa molt a chitinous skeleton,

Tagmata

arthropods have multiple segments which have been fused into tagma that perform specialized functions.

Collagen

associated with all types of connective tissues, the skeletal plates are connected by collagen

how the outgroup is selected

based on independent evidence)

whittaker 5 kingdoms

based on nutrition

darwin tree

based on vertical gene transfer

radial cleavage:

cells stack directly on top of each other -Characteristic of deuterostomes

invariant characters

characters that all share the same character state

derived

characters that change/appear in ingroup

ancestral

characters that were in common ancestors (out group)

unique chacters

characters where all but one species have the same character state

lactococcus lactis

cheese

syconoid sponges

choanocyte lie in canals

leuconoid sponges

choanocytes lie in chambers like clusters of grapes

porifora

choanocytes, spicules, many small in, one out, high velocity

compound tunicate

chordata suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: notochord

solitary tunicate

chordata suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: notochord

hagfish

chordate, scavengers, no bone, no jaws, tongue with rasping teeth, tie themselves in knot, slime

eukaryotes infect

eukaryotes

chordata

ex: solitary tunicate, compound tunicate triploblastic radial regulative cleavage bilateral one way complete gut chew and digest synap: dorsal tubular nerve cord, notochord, post anal tail, endostyle thyroid gland

Polyphyly

excludes MRCA of included species, unnatural

synapomorphies of ecdysozoans

exoskeleton molting

What are some major innovations of arthropoda?

exoskeleton, jointed appendages

fruit

expanded ovary

haplontic

expansion of haploid phase (fungi and some algae). The diploid stage is unicellular, spores produced by meiosis. Only the haploid stage is multicellular, gametes produced by mitosis.

symmetry

explains the body structure of an organism; can have asymmetry, radial symmetry, pentaradial symmetry, or bilateral symmetry

Endostyle

cilliated groove on ventral side of pharynx ( secretes mucus to gather food particles) - found in lancelets and tunicates - present in larval lapreys but further becomes thryroid gland

Lophotrochozoa

clade of protostomes that exhibit a trochophore larvae stage and/or a lophophore feeding structure

the information conveyed by the branch lengths of cladograms is ________ and chronograms is ________

cladograms --> nothing chronograms --> time

Class Bivalvia

clams, oysters, mussels (two shells; also called Pelecypoda = hatchet foot), no radula, burrowing foot

What type of circulatory system do earthworms have?

closed

basidium

club shaped structure that produces spores in basidiomycota; spores develop on the outside

Multiple fruits

cluster of flowers

what evolved on branch leading to cnidaria (2)

cnidae nerve net

giant green sea anemone

cnidaria predator incomplete two way gut radial symmetry traits: diploblastic, no polyp stage, cnidocytes, photosynthetic symbiont

upside down jelly

cnidaria predator incomplete two way gut radial symmetry traits: diploblastic, no polyp stage, cnidocytes, photosynthetic symbiont

strawberry anemone

cnidaria predator incomplete two way gut radial symmetry traits: diploblastic, no polyp stage, cnidocytes, photosynthetic symbionts

moon jelly

cnidaria predator incomplete two way gut radial symmetry traits: diploblastic, polyp and medusa forms, cnidocytes

gorgonian

cnidaria predator incomplete two way gut radial symmetry in polyps and asymmetric in colony traits: diploblastic, polyp and medusa stage, cnidocytes

unrooted tree

constrains but doesn't completely specify the possible set of ancestor-descendant relationships. Not a phylogeny. No root node. Used to estimate phylogeny (most phylogeny estimation programs perform evaluations on unrooted trees). Evolutionary relationships change depending on where the optimal unrooted tree is rooted. For a given number of species, N, there are many more rooted than unrooted trees (2N-3). For internal nodes, all possible state assignments=#states^(#internal nodes)

Macrophagy

consumption of larger food particles (than possible with filter feeding ie sponges) -consequence of acquisition of gut and nervous systm

Amniotes

contains: mammals, and reptiles Key innovations to go further terrestrial 1. impermeable skin 2. efficient kidneys 3. amniote egg

fruiting body

formed from hyphae, contain spores which are dispersed for reproduction; mushrooms are an example of a fruiting body

ascus

found in ascomycota fungi species; cylindrical, develops ascopores on the inside

trochophore

free swimming feeding larval stage

planula larva

free swimming, flattened, ciliated from barious spicies mainly in cnidarians.

trochophore larva

free swimming, specialized with mouth stomach intestine and anus (mollusca and annelida)

Medusa:

free-living form of cnidarians ("sea jelly") Has mouth facing down Sexual form

planula larva

free-swimming, ciliated larval form typical of the cnidarians; bilateral symmetry; not feeding

planula larva

free-swimming, flattened, ciliated, bilaterally symmetric larval form of various cnidarian species

medusa

free-swimming; cnidarians; sexual life cycle stage

jaws evolved

from bony plates in the skin that held the gill slits open

wings evolved

from dorsal appendages at base of legs (used for respiration in crustaceans

Are pharyngeal slits a synapomorphy of chordata or deuterostomes?

deuterostomes

Cuticle (waxy layer to reduce desiccation) Pigments for UV protection Mutualistic fungal associations Sporic life cycle

diagnostic features of land plants

congruence

different characters support the same tree

cephalothorax

fused head and thorax of chelicerata (horseshoe crabs, scorpions, mites, ticks, and spiders)

tagmata

fused segments

tagmata

fused segments which perform specialized functions; insects have 3 (head, thorax, abdomen); chelicerata have 2 (cephalothorax and abdomen)

Lungs

gas filled organs that function in respiration evolved early in Chordata

Diploblasty

ectoderm + endoderm

triploblasty

ectoderm + mesoderm + endoderm; triploblastic animals are either Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate or Coelomate

high GC gram +

elaborate branching filaments, chains of spores at tip of filament, tuberculosis

What is triploblasty?

embryo with three layers. Ectoderm + endoderm + mesoderm

What is diploblasty?

embryo with two layers. Ectoderm + endoderm

macroparasites

endemic

what evolved on branch leading to cnidaria and bilateria (1)

gastrula

What is modularity?

has similar advantages to multicellularity, it leads to regional functional specialization of the body.Leads to improved performance in animals

catch collagen:

holds skeletal plates together in echinoderms Can be tight or loose to make organism tough or soft

Spiracle:

holes in hexapod's body Part of tracheal system (breathing in insects)

horsetails

hollow for air and strength

6. Cnidocyte

specialized cells with unique stinging/adhesion properties called cnida, most common are NEMATOCYST -the coiled cnida will be discharded suddenly by hydrostatic pressure that penetrats prey and injects poison

Medusa

one of two body morphologies in Cnidarians. Free-living form, "sea jelly" oral end down

Polyp

one of two body morphologies in Cnnidarians, sessile form, "anemone' oral end up

incomplete gut

one opening; two way gut; cnidarian

hemimetabolous

insect development in which changes between larvae and adult are gradual; nymphs; larvae very similar to adults

Endoderm

inside embryonic tissue

Endoskeleton:

internal calcareous support structure

animal derived traits

internal digestion, muscle & movement, extracellular matrix molecules (collagen), unique cell junctions, multicellularity

Lungs:

internal organ where oxygen from the atmosphere is diffused into the circulatory system

microsporidia

intracellular parasite; eukaryote that lacks a mitochondria

bacteria pathogen

invasiveness, toxigenicity

speciation

one species diverging into separate species

Enterocoely

is process by which animals embryos develop, mesoderm is formed during the developing embryo stage and the middle pinches in

Nematocyst

is the stinging organ that contains the toxins

"diagnostic feature" of a group

it is a trait that is inferred to have evolved in the MRCA of the group, which is equivalent to saying that it is a synapomorphy of the group

Coelom

it is the body cavity in Metazoans that is located between the intestinal canal and the body wall.

New info in Anthropod phylogeny

it used to be thought that insects (hexapods) are sister to myriapods( milipedes) ==supported by morphological characters like appendages and tracheae ( but convergent adaptions to life on land) however, now it is believed that insects are sister to crustaceans ** Crustaceans are paraphyletic and insects arise within them** hella weird

aquatic

plants arose in what type of environment?

What are the polychaetes that were discussed in class?

polychaete worms, rag worms, feather duster worms, spaghetti worms, beard worms, zombie worms

What is the difference between medusae vs polyps? What distinguishing quality that separate them? polyps are sessile while medusae are free-swimming/floating Anthozoa,

polyps are sessile while medusae are free-swimming/floating Anthozoa,

basidiospore

pores produced by the basidium of basidiomycota

sponges

porifera suspension feeder no gut asymmetric traits: choanocytes, spicules

Explain powered flight, lung/air bladder, paired limbs, and amniotic egg.

powered flight generate enough thrust to keep body aloft lung/air bladder are used in buoyancy and respiration amniotic egg allows early development away from water

polychaetes -part of which phylum -5 members

rag worms 1. zombie worms 2. rag worms 3. beard worms 4. spaghetti worms 5. feather duster worms

What is endothermy? Describe its function

raising body temp above ambient temp and then defending that temp (specializing physiological repertoire for one temp = higher performance)

Radula

rasping organ for feeding. use some conveyer belt like action to scoop up food into mouth and down esophagus

RNA retrovirus

regenerates by reverse transcriptase

Tagmosis

regional specialization of body (ie they have different tagmata of head, thorax, and abdomen) - degree varies with kids. ie centipedes have a higher degree than lobsters

ambulacra

regions with tube feet

radial (regulative) cleavage

regulative cleavage; deuterostomes; equal division of cells; stacked appearance; cell fate decided late in development

exotoxins

released by living, highly fatal (tetanus, cholera, plague, anthrax)

endotoxin

released when cell bursts (salmonella) rarely fatal

oxygenic photosynthesis

remove electrons from water

monocots

rep parts in 3, scattered vascular tissue, no secondary growth, parallel veins

Segmentation: -def -homoplasious or homologous?

repeated segments that may fuse into tagma for specialized functions homoplasious

cnidae:

specialized collection of cells for prey capture and defense Associated with stinging

define trochophore

specialized, free-swimming larval stage. Cilia are used for locomotion and feeding.

trochophore larva

specialized, free-swimming larval stage; has a mouth and an anus, can go out and feed; only in aquatic lophotrochozoans

trochophore larva:

spherical or pear-shaped and are girdled by a ring of cilia, the prototroch, that enables them to swim characteristic of marine annelids

what evolved on branch leading to: porifera (1)

spicules

Calcareous sponges

spicules of calcium carbonate

synapomorphies of panarthropoda

segmentation ventral nervous system

What structures are involved in Annelid movement?

segmentation, coelom, paired setae, and complex musculature -longitudinal muscles: contract and make segments fat -circular muscles: contract and makes segments skinny

heterospory

selaginella and seed plants

lycophytes

selaginella, lycopodium

ginkgo

separate plants, dichotomous, bad smell

paired setae

serve as anchoring points for movement -Present in most annelids (lost in leeches) -Come in pairs -Situated on parapodia in polychaetes

Aggregate fruits

several carpels

pandemic

sudden outbreak that spreads (world maybe)

Single-celled filaments called hyphae form the main body of a typical fungus. A disadvantage of having a body composed of single-celled filaments like this is that it is:

susceptible to desiccation

atypical composition of a gene

sushi

Lichens

symbiosis of fungi with photobiont -majority of body is thallus made up of fungal hyphae -food for wildlife -20000+ species form lichens -majority are Ascomycota (evolved independently, at least 8 times but has also been lost several times) -lichen forming fungi are obligately dependent on their photobiont -used as food, medicine, dye, chemical additives

What are synapomorphies of chordata?

synapomorphies (at least in embryo) - Notochord - Dorsal hollow nerve cord - Postanal tail

choanocytes

synapomorphy of Porifera; help with intracellular digestion and phagocytosis; help with water flow through the sponge; "collar cells"

spicules

synapomorphy of Porifera; supportive and defensive structures; vary in structure and chemistry (some are glass); a hard, calcareous skeletal element typical of sponges.

postanal tail

synapomorphy of chordates it is an extension of the body that runs past the anal opening, in some species it is only present in the embryo stage.

postanal tail

synapomorphy of chordates; an extension of the body that runs past the anal opening; may only be present in the embryo stage (humans)

Glass sponges and demosponges

siliceous spicules Demosponges --> have spongin (complex network of collagen) but no spicules; harvested for bath sponges

homoplasy

similarity in a trait among different organisms that has evolved independently, similarity of states contradicts phylogeny

homology

similarity in a trait among different organisms that is due to inheritance from a common ancestor, similarity of states reflects common ancestor, evolutionary history, trait evolution that mirrors phylogeny

principle of continuity

since the osculum is so much smaller than the total SA of the pores, the water shoots out with greater velocity

Classic view phylogeny shows that insects (hexapods) and myriapods are...

sister taxa

chlorophytes

sister to charophytes and land plants.

e2. reptiles

sister to mammals mainly lepidosaurs, turtles, crocodiles, and dinosaurs (including birds)

e3. mammals

sister to reptiles 1. prototherians ( echindna, duck billed playputs)== egg laying 2. marsupials== pouched mammals, isolated in Australia 3. eutherians== placental animals

spicuoles

skeleton pieces

leech characteristics

lack setae produce anesthetics, antigoagulant, and vasodilator

nauplius larva

larva for crustaceans

planula larva:

larva of cnidaria -Bilateral symmetry -Ciliated -Result of sexual reproduction → develops into polyp

Bipinnaria larva:

larva of echinoderms Bilateral symmetry Ciliated

3. Crustaceans

lineage of Anthropods that includes crabs, shrimp, krill, barnacles(sessile version of crab), roly poly ( sow bugs, terrestrial isopods), etc -three body tagmata -specialized appendages for sensing -dorsal carapace

4. Hexapods

lineage of Anthropods that includes insects -most diverse subgroup -just three insect orders contribute half of all described animal species :O (butterflies, ants, and beetles) -three tagmata (head, thorax, abdomen) -one antennae pair -three leg pairs -respiration by tracheae -wings - madibles (hugely modified now though)

1. Chelicerata

lineage of Anthropods that includes spiders, ticks, scorpions, horseshoe crab (crazy cool thing from lab) etc -two body tagmata -4 pair legs with pincers -predators & parasites

radial

lined up cells

Pseudocoelomates (roundworm)

lined with mesoderm but no mesoderm surrounds the internal organs

4. Cubozoa

small group that is extremely toxic. includes box and cube jellies - creepy lookin things with eyes

Cubozoa

small group, cube or box jellies, very toxic, some eyes with epidermal cornea, cellular lens, and multi-layered retina

Nanoarchaeota

small in deep sea vent off iceland

hemimetabolous

small increases in body size (cockroaches, grasshoppers, etc) egg → nymph → adult incomplete metamorphosis

DNA viruses

small pox, herpes

Mesoderm

source of most organs and organ systems

What is tagmatization?

specialization of regions of the body for specific functions

multicellular

specialize, less predation, efficient feeding, increased surface area to volume

Cnidocyte

specialized cell with unique stinging or adhesive structure called a cnida (most common type: nematocysts) - discharged suddenly by hydrostatic pressure, penetrating prey and injecting poison

cnidocyte

specialized cell with unique stinging or adhesive structure called a cnida that is discharged by hydrostatic pressure, penetrating prey and injecting poison

What is a cnidae?

specialized cells most often associated with stinging

What is cnidae?

specialized cells most often associated with stinging.

collagen

main component of connective tissue in many animals; depending upon the degree of mineralization, collagen tissues may be rigid (bone), compliant (tendon), or have a gradient from rigid to compliant (cartilage)

value of vascular cambium

maintain efficient transport rigid structural support (grow taller) formation of bark prevents water loss & infection

Explain arthropods compound eyes.

make up by a bunch of individually oriented ommatidium have wide vision and good motion detection but poor resolution

hyphae

make up the mycelium; high SA to V ratio; increase environmental contact (good for absorptive heterotrophy); forage by growth; susceptible to desiccation

Homosporous

male and female gametangia occur on each individual

Heterosporous

male and female gametangia occur on separate individuals

strobilus

male, modified leaves for scales

Reptile scales are homologous

mammal hair and bird feathers (epidermal)

2. Chordates

mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians, birds etc 1. Lancelets 2. Tunicates 3. Vertebrates

dinoflagellates

marine, primary producers, golden brown, equitorial and longitudinal flagella, bioluminescent, red tide

extracellular matrix

material of heterogenous composition surrounding cells and performing many functions including adhesion of cells; provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells

celomate

mesoderm lines cavity and gut, earth

What organisms are included in myriapoda?

millipede and centipede

parsimony informative

minimum number of steps for character change will differ

swim bladder

modified lungs (swim bladder and lungs can't occur together, because swim bladders are lungs); used to control buoyancy

aeolid nudibranchs

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present sequestration of cnidocytes

california sea hare

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula present

kellets whelk snail

molluscs predator complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

dorid nudibranchs

molluscs predator complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula present sequestration of cnidocytes

bay mussel

molluscs suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

giant rock scallop

molluscs suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

smooth washington clam

molluscs suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

foot

molluscs use to aid in movement

ecdysis

molting

Ecdysis:

molting of a chitinous exoskeleton The animal slowly emerges from its old exoskeleton and remains vulnerable until it hardens

ecdysis

molting of the exoskeleton

Pteridophytes

monilophytes

cloroplast DNA inversion

monilophytes and seed plants

What are mono, diplo, and triploblastic? Give example of each. mono: one germ layer (sponges) diplo: two germ layers (cnidaria and ctenophore) triplo: three germ layers (bilaterians) Germ layer: embryonic tissue layers formed during early environment

mono: one germ layer (sponges) diplo: two germ layers (cnidaria and ctenophore) triplo: three germ layers (bilaterians) Germ layer: embryonic tissue layers formed during early environment

What are the characteristics of echinodermata?

Echinodermata • Synapomorphies - Pentaradial symmetry (as adults) - Endoskeleton of calcareous plates - Water vascular system • Epidermis - Spines or pedicellariae • No head or brain • Reproduction - Dioecious - External fertilization • All marine - Predators, grazers, suspension feeders

What is the endoskeleton in echinodermata?

Endoskeleton of Calcareous Plates • Echinoderms have an endoskeleton derived from mesoderm • The endoskeleton is covered in epidermis • The skeletal plates are connected by catch collagen which can be stiff or flexible which controls body tone without muscle

endosymbiosis levels

Endosymbiosis: when an organism (the host) brings in another organism (the symbiont) inside of its cell, only really works w/ eukaryotic cells as hosts. Primary--symbiont has not experienced a prior symbiosis, secondary--symbiont has undergone primary endosymbiosis

T/F: Universal homologies include DNA, ribsosomes, and mitochondria.

False

What are choanocytes?

Flagellated cells that capture food and create current within the cell. Also known as collar cells

Chitons

Flattened, multiple shell plates, multiple gills

Acoelomate

Flatworm

Endoderm

Gastrodermis

adaptive value of heterospory

Genetic diversity. Separate, unisexual male and female gametophytes reduces the probability of self fertilization, which maintains genetic diversity in the population via outcrossing Parental investment. Provisioning the megaspore & thus female gametophyte with nutrients

What types of feeders are Mollusca?

Herbivores, detritivores, carnivores, filter feeders, parasites

Sponge sexual reproduction

Hermaphrodites but not self-fertilizing; sperm and eggs produced at different times and sperm released into environment through the aquiferous system; reach the egg by crossing cellular barrier of choanocytes; enter the mesohyl; locate the egg and fertilize it

Know the diagnostic features of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms)

Heterospory is a diagnostic feature of land plants, as well as flower, carpel, highly reduced female gametophyte, and double fertilization

Bipinnaria larva

It is the first stage of development for most if not all species of starfishes

Carapace

It is the hard shell on different organisms can be in turtles or lobsters, arachnids

Blastopore

It is the opening post the developmental stage that would eventually become either the protostome (mouth first) or deuterostome (anus first)

parsimony

Occam's razor, prefer the competing hypothesis that minimizes the number of ad hoc/just so assumptions. We prefer evolutionary history that minimizes the number of required changes

Major groups of Annelid

Polychaeta (most likely paraphyletic) and Clitellata

Polychaete Worms

Polychaete (Annelida) • A diverse, ecologically varied group with numerous life histories. • Predators, filter feeders, and suspension feeders.

What is stridulation?

Pulling the file of one wing over the scraper on the wing underneath to create sound

progression of adaptations in chordata (put in order) -bone -bone lost -jaws -vertebrae -cranium

REMEMBER: Corn Vanishes Just By Biting Cranium Vertebrae Jaws Bone Bone lost

main features of ctenophores

Radial symmetry All marine Diploblastic Have neurons and muscles Complete gut No regional specialization Predatory, cannibals

Cnidaria Features

Radial symmetry, around a longitudinal axis with oral (open) and aboral ends; often with tentacles around the oral end; incomplete gut; diploblastic; nerve net: diffuse, non-centralized nervous system; muscle cells present but simple

notochord

synapomorphy of chordates; cartilaginous support structure; support and muscle attachment; derived from mesoderm; often becomes intervertebral discs in most vertebrates (like humans)

Evolution of powered flight in insects: is it a synapomorphy?

synapomorphy of pterygote insects (but was lost in some)

Thorax:

tagma present in many organisms

What organism(s) are in Platyhelminthes?

tapeworms

If petals and sepals are indistinguishable

tepals

Character state

the actual state of the character (post anal tail is absent, animal is not able to fly etc.)

pupa

the encased developmental stage between the larva and the adult in certain insects that undergo complete metamorphosis

Enterocoely:

the process by which deuterostomes develop mesoderms (The endoderm forms pouches that then detach and form hollow cavities)

In hemimetabolous organisms, larvae and adults use (different/the same) food resource

the same

pharyngeal slits:

the slits that water leaves the body through after the pharynx has pulled water in for feeding/breathing -Not a synapomorphy bc evolved in MRCA of all deuterostomes, not just chordata

Nematocysts:

the stinging organ in cnidaria that contains toxins Gets signal → releases coiled stinger Organ within cnidae

extant

the taxa(on) still exists

water vascular system

the water vascular system is used to slowly pull apart muscles along with specialized "catch collagen"

Why are tunicates considered chordata?

their larval stage possesses all of the synapomorphies characteristic of chordates, it just loses them

Colonization of land involved...

use of lungs (modified swim bladder), modification of jointed fins to become limbs

Cnidarian life cycle

usually an alteration between asexual polyp and sexual medusa stage So, 1. Medusae will swim around and release sperm/eggs (can be monoecious or dioecious most times they are sexually variable) >gastulation occurs< 2. then the zygote will develop into a ciliated larva 3. larva settles and forms polyp 4. polyp asexually buds making polyp colonies some of which will produce and release medusae

abnormal sequence similarity

usually low AG ratio, small section of high AG ratio

Mollusc reproduction

varies; most are dioecious; external fertilization (chitons and bivalves) or internal fertilization (gastropods and cephalopods)

rhizoids

water absorbing

problems with parsimony

we assume the cost is the same for all steps, not actually the case ie character developed costs more than character lost

What feature of cubozoan cnidarians is unusual in the context of cnidarian evolution?

well-developed eyes

What is sea star wasting syndrome?

• Mysterious, recurrent disease with periodic outbreaks along the Pacific Coast • High mortality rate, likely cause by a virus (densovirus) • Significant impacts to invertebrate communities

What is important about bird phylogeny?

• Birds and Crocodiles are the last remaining lineages within Archosauria. • Birds are not only part of the clade Reptilia, they are within the Dinosauri

How do vertebrates develop in chordata?

• Bone is secreted by the ends of segmented muscle blocks. • The bone breaks up the notochord and leaves behind intervertebral discs.

What are lobe finned fish?

• Bony fish that lack bony spines (rays) as part of their fins • The fins are joined to the body by a single bone • Coelacanths

What are Scyphozoa?

• Both polyp and medusa forms. • Includes many common jellies; moon jellies - cnidaria

What are hydrozoans?

• Both solitary and colonial (siphonophore) forms. - By-the-wind sailor (solitary) and Portugese man-o-war (colonial) - cnidaria

What causes Lyme disease?

• Caused by three different bacteria (Spirochetes) • Spread by ticks in the genus Ixodes • Produces characteristic 'bulls-eye' pattern

define visceral mass (mollusca)

• Central mass that encloses digestive, circulatory, excretory, and reproductive organs (not including foot).

define radial cleavage

• Characteristic of Deuterostomes • Equal division of cells, stacked appearance • Cell fate determined by proximity to other cells and late in development. • Anus is formed first, then the mouth.

define spiral cleavage

• Characteristic of Protostomes* • Unequal division of cells, embryo has a distinct top and bottom • Cell fate determined early. • Mouth is formed first, then the anus.

What kind of communication do cephalopoda (mollusca) have?

• Communication in cephalopods is highly visual • Chromatophores are able to mimic color and texture

What is special about ants?

• Complex social organization and communication • Division of labor, non-reproductive worker caste

What are nudibranchs (gastropods)?

• Diverse, colorful, no shell, all marine, predaceous

What are the characteristics of pork tapeworm (Taenia)?

• Encysted larvae in undercooked pork (can be in humans as well). • Cysts form in muscle, brain, or eyes. - platyhelminthes

What are the key features of birds?

• Endothermic (produce and maintain heat) • Flight and feathers • Hollow bones • Efficient respiration (air sacs) & high metabolism

What are the general characteristics of echinodermata?

• Epidermis - Spines or pedicellariae • No head or brain • Reproduction - Dioecious - External fertilization • All marine - Predators, grazers, suspension feeders

define mantle (mollusca)

• Fold of tissue along the dorsal surface that covers the visceral mass and encloses the mantle cavity. • Secretes the shell (when present).

What is a dorsal hollow nerve cord?

• Formed by an embryonic folding of the ectoderm • Develops into the central nervous system in vertebrates

What are lungfish?

• Have functional gills and lungs. • Fossil lungfish (380 may) closely resemble extant species. • Some species can survive out of the water for extended periods.

What is the difference in how body cavities are formed in protostomes and deuterostomes

• In protostomes, the coelom forms from a mass of cells which splits. • In deuterostomes, the coelom forms from mesdodermal pouches.

How did jaws evolve in chordata?

• Jaws are derived from gill arches that supported pharyngeal slits. • Transition from cartilaginous supports to bone; the anterior arches modified into jaws.

define foot (mollusca)

• Large, ventral muscle mass. • Used for locomotion, burrowing, and feeding. • Modified as a siphon (bivalves) or tentacles (cephalopods).

What is a ray-finned fish?

• Largest group of bony fish; 30,000 described species • Both freshwater and marine, diverse feeding habits

What are bipinnaria larva?

• Larvae are all bilateral, adults are pentaradial with exceptions. • Sand dollars and sea cucumbers have secondary bilateral symmetry.

How did lungs evolve?

• Lungs, i.e. gas filled organs that function in respiration evolved in the MRCA of Osteichthyans. • The MRCA of osteichthyans lived in oxygen poor conditions and evolved an air pocket off the digestive tract. • There are two modern derivatives: 1) swim bladder, and 2) lungs

How do spiders reproduce?

• Males have modified pedipalps for sperm delivery • Female genitalia is internal, with some external parts • Elaborate courtship and behavior • Eggs are deposited into an eggsac, protected by the female

What are examples of symbiosis in sponges?

• Many sponges have mutualistic algae or cyanobacteria. • Some sponges also have commensal organisms that use them for shelter. - Classic case: shrimp (Spongicola) that is an obligate inhabitant of a glass sponge (Euplectella).

What is the extracellular matrix (ECM)?

• Mixture of non-living material that provides support and facilitates cell-to-cell adhesion. • Most cells need the ECM to survive. • Associated with all types of connective tissues; collagen.

How do Echinodermata reproduce?

• Mostly dioecious with external fertilization; spawning behavior • Asexual reproduction by regeneration

How do mollusca reproduction?

• Mostly dioecious, some hermaphrodites. • External fertilization (chitons, bivalves), and internal fertilization (gastropods, cephalopods). • Wide variety of complex mating rituals in some taxa.

What are paired setae?

• Paired setae are present in most annelids (lost in leeches) • Serve as anchoring points for movement • Situated on parapodia in polychaetes - made of chitin

Ctenophores

"Comb Jellies" -radial symmetry -diploblastic -complete gut -nerve net -simple musculature mainly eat plankton and other ctenophores (cool video from class) recent phylogeny suggest they are sister to all other Metazoa suggesting that nerves and muscles originated twice

What innovations of amniotes have enabled them to successfully adapt to a land-based existence.

1.Impermeable skin 2.Efficient Kidneys 3.Desiccation 4.resistant egg 5.No metamorphic larval stage

Crustacean characteristics

1.Three body tagmata: head, thorax, abdomen 2. Appendages specialized for sensing, locomotion, resp, etc 3. Dorsal carapce (head and thorax) 4. Diverse feeding habits

Characteristics of Chelicerata

1.Two body tagmata: cephalothorax and abdomen 2.Appendages such as chelicerae, pedipalps, usually 4 pairs of legs 3. Mostly predators and parasites 4. Spiders use silk

characterisitics of echinoderms

1.calcareous endoskeleton composed of plates/ossicles often with spines 2. pentaradial symmetry with no head 3. complex water vascular system, derived from coelom: functions in gas exchange, locomotion, and feeding 4. complete gut with regional specialization 5.diffuse nervous system with no brain 5. respiration and excretion by diffusion across epidermis

sister group

2 groups that are each other's closest relatives - share common ancestor

diploblastic

2 layers (ectoderm + endoderm) ex ctenophore and cnidaria

Basidiomycota

2nd largest group of fungi; makes basidium spores; variable fruiting bodies

- sense RNA

3-5. made into sense first. or can bind to sense to stop translation.

Cubozoa:

(box jellies): BOTH stages are present (polyp reduced and medusa). Super predator, deadly, fast swimming and toxic to any cnidarian Specialized organs "eye" like ← can someone explain what we need to know on this??

gram (+/-) are stained purple

+

Annelida

- bilaterally symmetrical - coelomate, protostomes - segmented body - each segment paired with chitinous setae - polychaetes --> segments with parapodia - body wall with inner longitudinal and outs circular muscles - presegmental head and postsegmental terminal area - closed circulatory system, cutaneous respiration - complete gut - well developed excretory system and central nervous system

What are Xiphosura

- chelicerata - horseshoe crab • Few living species, but an extensive fossil record. • Body morphology is largely unchanged (stasis) for 400

What are placoderms?

- chordata - armored fish • Extinct, armor- plated, first vertebrates to have jaws • At least one species gave live birth • The 'teeth' of placoderms are bony plates

Endostyle

- ciliated groove on the ventral surface of the pharynx - found in lancelets, tunicates, and in the larvae of lampreys - in lampreys --> metamorphoses into the thyroid gland in adults; homologous to the thyroid gland found in vertebrates

Oligochaetes

- classic deposit feeders -cross-fertilizing hermaphrodites held together during mating with mucus secreted by clitellum - eggs and sperm placed in a protective cocoon from which small worms emerge

What are myxozoans?

- cnidaria • Highly modified, parasitic cnidarians that specialize on freshwater fish. • Life cycle has multiple hosts (Tubifex worms) and salmonid fish.

sea stars

- common, largely predatory

Holometabolous metamorphosis

- complete egg --> larva --> pupa --> adult - 85% of all insects

Notochord

- dorsal supporting rod, semi-rigid yet flexible - develops in embryo, replaced by vertebrae in most vertebrates

Prothotherians

- egg laying mammals - echidna and platypus

Ctenophores (comb jellies)

- enigmatic group of uncertain position - radial symmetry - diploblastic development - complete gut - nervous system - simple musculature

What are diptera?

- flies (hexapoda) • 150,000 species • One pair of wings modified into counterweights; halteres • Great diversity in life history; herbivores, predators, parasites, etc • Medical significance

sea lilies and feather stars

- flower shaped body, oral surface facing up - sea lilies --> attached to stalk - feather stars --> more mobile

enterocoely

- found in deuterostomes

Schizocoely

- found in protostomes

Hemimetabolous metamorphosis

- incomplete egg --> nymph -->adult

Eusocial insects

- live in colonies with divisions of labor - some individuals reproduce but most belong to a non-reproductive worker caste - termites, ants, some bees and wasps - often ecologically dominant and reach high densities

Brittle stars

- long slender arms - locomotion by arm movement - abundant but secretive

What are the characteristics of the mantis shrimp?

- malacostraca • Amazing predators with specialized morphology • Excellent vision, eyes on stalks and can freely rotate • Two types of hunting strategies: 1) spearing, 2) smashing

Nudibranchs (sea slugs)

- marine gastropods without a shell - many species are brightly called due to toxicity - ingest cnidarian tissue and store undischarged nematocysts in elongated protrusions on their backs (cerata) - expropriates the defensive mechanisms of other animals

What are ephemeroptera?

- mayflies - paleoptera • Two pairs of wings, cannot be folded horizontally. • Aquatic larvae live up to one year before molting to the adult stage which may last only hours.

What are diplopoda?

- millipedes (Myriopoda) • Two pairs of legs per segment • Many different body morphologies • Some are bioluminescent and produce cyanide as defense • All are herbivores

Gastropods

- shell in one piece usually coiled - torsion - mostly herbivores

What are hagfishes?

- slime eels (chordata) • No bone, no jaws, no vertebrae, but they have a cranium. • Predators on polychaetes or scavengers

Choanoflagellates

- small group of aquatic heterotrohic eukaryotes - 140 species, some strictly unicellular others colonial - cell structure similar to sponge choanocytes - cell ovoid, with a collar of microvilli (tentacles) surrounding the single flagellum

Trend of social insects

- social insects are ecologically dominant species because they can reach high densities. - Ex: termites, ants, some bees, some wasps - often have a worker caste system with queen( who are terrifyingly fertile)

Sea cucumbers

- soft-bodied and slug-like - greatly elongated oral/aboral axis, secondarily bilateral - grazers, suspension feeders

Myriapoda (centipedes, millipedes)

- two body tagmata 1. cephalization 2. abdomen - numerous segments - centipedes --> carnivorous with poison fangs, one pair or legs per segment - millipedes --> scavengers, two pairs of legs per body segment

Chelicerata (arachnids)

- two body tagmata 1. cephalization 2. adbomen - characteristic appendages 1. chelicerae (pincers) 2. pedipalps 3. usually 4 pairs of legs - mostly predators and parasites - spiders use silk to snare prey

Anthropoda reproduction

-Dioecious -internal fertilization -often larval stage - complex metamorphosis in some insects and crustaceans

key features of bilateria

-Have bilateral symmetry -Cephalized: have well defined head with a concentration of sense organs -Segmentation: repeated segments that may fuse into tagma for specialized functions -Triploblastic Blastula and gastrula

a. hag fish

-NO bone or JAWS, - tounge with rasping teeth - produce copious amounts of slime -scavege on dead animal carcasses

reproduction of spiders

-Pedipalps modified as sperm delivery organs -Sperm delivered onto web (egg sac) where eggs or deposited -external fertilization -Female protects egg sac

Key innovations of tetrapods (5)

-Use of lungs -Modifications of jointed fins to become limbs -Modifications of skin -Internal fertilization -Evolution of shelled eggs with membranes (not in amphibians)

1. Echinoderms

-aquatic bottom dwelling 1. calcareous endoskeleton : has skeletal plates (aka ossicles that are connected by collagen) with spines or "pincher" structures. derives from the mesoderm and is covered in epidermis 2. Pentaradial Symmetry: no head but oral/aboral axis (however larvae is bilateral symmetry) has reversion to bilateral in sea cucumbers and sand dollars 3. Water Vascular System : Gas exchange, locomotion, feeding 1. Sea lillies, feather starts ( oral side up) 2. sea starts ( predatory) 3. brittle starts ( long slender arm thing) 4. sea urchins ( no arms, but spiky- purple thing from lab) they consume kelp so its important things like otters eat them 5. sea cucumbers( soft bodied slugs, partial bilateral, gross natural defense:their guts)

b. lampreys

-bloodsucking parasite of fish - essentially leech for fish - NO bone or JAWS - sucker like mouth - larvae live in mud

Understand the information conveyed by the branch lengths of -cladograms -chronograms

-cladograms= (nothing) -chronograms= (time)

What are some of its major groups?

-crinoidea - sea lilies & feather stars (652 spp.) -asteroidea - sea stars (1500 spp.) -ophiuroidea - brittle stars (2000 spp) -echinoidea: sea urchins (950 spp) -holothuroidea: sea cucumbers (1150 spp)

Explain what are cnidocytes, nematocysts, muscle, diploblasty? What are their function in cnidarians?

-diploblasty: contains and endoderm and ectoderm -The cnidocyte is the area where the nematocyst is housed in and nematocysts are the things that are shot out of a cnidarian

Gastrulation

-formation of cell layers by invagination of blastula that forms the gastrula - can be diploblastic or triploblastic.

e1. amphibians

-lose water rapidly through skin, - early development requires water often can either be: 1. caecilliams ( limbless) 2. frogs and toads ( tailess) 3. salamanders (tailed) - many population are endagered because of the pathogenic chytrid fungus we talked about previously

Polyp:

-sessile form of cnidaria (aka "anemone") -Mouth faces up -Produces medusa through asexual reproduction

b. Bivavles

-shell in two parts -non sessile -filter feeders= NO radula -use siphon for food and water many are endangered given rising water temps also, some freshwater clams include a parasitic larval stage that mimics a minnow so fish eat it and become infected

Modifications to body plan (look over lecture 30 slide 17)

-shell plates and repeated gills (chitons) - torsion (gastropods) -burrowing foot (bivalves) -tentacles +siphon (cephalopods)

Choanoflagellates

-sister clade to animals -aquatic heterotrophic eukaryotes -has an oval cell body with a collar of microvilli(tenticales) that surround a single flagellum to help locomotion and feeding on trapped bacteria

c. Gastropods

-univalved but usually a coiled shell -torsion (twisting so anus lies above head=gross) -herbivores (some carnivores like cone snails that use harpoon radula at prey)

Explain the mechanism of water pumping in sponges. How are they able to do that?

-water and food particles go in via pores and water comes out cia osculum -Inhalent surface pores collect the water (sponge), the incurrent canals channel water to spherical choanocyte chambers where the flagellated choanocytes pump water in. The excurrent canal system moves the water out of the champers and is expelled through osculum.

complete gut

1 way gut - present in all animal phyla except for porifera and cnidaria

complete gut

1 way gut that is developed in most of the organism following cnidaria and constitutes of a single pathway from where food enters through one end and exits through another.

What are the three phylum that are deuterostomes?

1) Chordates, 2) Echinoderms, and 3) Hemichordates

Hydrostatic skeleton in annelids

1) Contraction of circular muscles---->elongation of body segments 2) Contraction of longitudinal muscles----->shortening of body segments

What are synapomorphies of amniotes?

1) Impermeable skin 2) Efficient kidneys 3) Amniote egg (resists desiccation)

complete gut

1-way; two openings (mouth and anus); Ctenophora, Mollusca, Annelida, Nematoda, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Chordata

hexapoda characteristics

1. 3 tagmata: head, thorax, and abdomen 2. 1 pair of antennae 3. 3 pairs of legs 4. respiration by tracheae 5. originally mouthparts with mandibles 6. wings

Cnidarian Clade

1. Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pen) : no medusa stage, 2. Hydrozoa 3. Scyphozoa (sea jellies) 4. Cubozoa (cube/box jellies)

4 Major Cnidarian Clades

1. Anthozoa --> sea anemones, coral, sea pens 2. Hydrozoa --> hydrozoans 3. Scyphozoa --> sea jellies 4. Cubozoa --> cube or box jellies

Four major groups of Arthropod

1. Chelicerata 2. Myriapoda 3. Crustacea 4. Hexapoda

What are the three types of evidence that choanoflagellates are the sister group of metazoa?

1. Collar cells (choanocytes) also seen in sponges (and other animals). 2. DNA sequence data. 3. Homologous cell signaling and adhesion genes (shh).

Diploblastic lineages

1. Ctenophores 2. Placozoans 3. Cnidarians

Synapomorphies of Eumetazoa

1. Gastrulation: formation of gut for extracellular digestion 2. Diploblasty (later modified to triploblasty) 3. Nervous system 4. Musculature

Sponge lineages

1. Glass sponge (sister to demo) 2. Demosponges (majority of sponge lineages) 3. Calcareous sponges (only clade with calcium carbonate spicules)

What are advantages to multicellularity?

1. Increased Size • Safety from predation • Efficient feeding 2. Division of Labor • Specialization • Increased complexity 3. Dispersal • Specialization of cells devoted to producing gametes. • Gametes tend to travel further.

Innovations that arose in Chordates

1. Internal skeleton with vertebrae 2. Jaws 3. Two pair of walking limbs

Innovations that arose within chordates

1. Internal skeleton with vertebrae 2. Jaws 3. Two pairs of walking limbs

3 Major Chordate Clades

1. Lancelets 2. Tunicates 3. Vertebrates

What key features were gained to transition to land in chordata?

1. Use of lungs 2. Modification of jointed fins to become limbs 3. Modifications to the skin 4. Internal fertilization 5. Evolution of shelled eggs with membranes (not in amphibians

Metazoa

1. multicellular eukaryotes 2. diplontic life cycle 3. Heterotrophs 4. Food ingested (nutrient exchange) 5. Spermatozoa (distinct male gametes) 6. Motility ( at least one stage) 7. Collagen (in extracellular matrix) 8. distinct cell junctions 9. distinct developmet ( zygote>blastula>gastrula) 10. animal specific miRNAs

tissues in the gymnosperm seed (3)

1. new diploid tissue (embryo) 2. remaining haploid gametophyte (surrounding embryo) 3. diploid integument (seed coat) from parent sporophyte

What are synapomorphies of chordates? What function do these characters serve?

1. notochord = cartelagenous support structure that also allows for muscle attachment; from mesoderm; also aids in propulsion 2. dorsal hollow nerve cord = forms from folded ectoderm; becomes nervous system in vertebrates 3. postanal tail = provides propulsion

gromia

1.2 in diameter single cell (in Rhizaria)

chitons: ___ shell plates?

8 shell plates

26. What factors have contributed to the success of insects? Be able to describe this in terms of terms of their morphology, development, feeding, ecology, etc.

85% of all insects demonstrate complete metamorphosis with highly specialized and diverse lifestyles which support their diverse ecology of being predators, herbivores, or parasitoids, pollinators and pests. It has allowed them to develop many unique defenses etc. Complete metamorphosis is also advantageous because adults and larvae have different diets, so they can specialize to their respective food source.

Importance of the human microbiome

90% of the cells in the human body are microbial cells; skin, conjunctiva, oral cavity, intestinal tract, upper respiratory tract, urogenital tract; each person has a different finger tip microbial community; Amniotic fluid bacteria, breast milk, external breast microbes, uterus, and vagina are all important for helping a baby develop an immune system when it is first born; helps with digestion and many other body functions

---now were done with lophotrochozoans and move to ecdysozoan part of protosomes----

:)

incomplete gut

A 2 way gut, present in mostly cnidaria where there is a single opening from where food enters and leaves

closed circulatory system

A circulatory system in which the oxygen-carrying blood cells never leave the blood vessels

open circulatory system

A circulatory system that allows the blood to flow out of the blood vessels and into various body cavities so that the cells are in direct contact with the blood

What is a coelom? What are the three types of coela that we discussed in lecture? What are the differences between coelom formation in protostomes and deuterostomes?

A coelom is the body cavity in between the intestinal cavity and the gut wall. There are three different types of coelom: acoelomate found in flatworms, pseudocoelomate in roundworms, and coelomate in everything else.

What are the characteristics of panarthropoda?

A diverse assemblage of animals characterized by segmentation, a ventral nervous system and a compound eye

Blastula

A hollow ball of cells, all metazoa have this

Nauplius

A larvae in the crustacean life cycle (motile)

Marsupials

A mammal of an order whose members are born incompletely developed and are typically carried and suckled in a pouch on the mother's belly; spotted-tailed native cat, marsupial mole, sugar glider, numbat, crest-tailed marsupial mouse, wombat, kangaroo, etc

+ sense RNA

5 to 3. directly to protein

What are Crinoidea?

600 described extant species, many more in the fossil record • Both shallow water and deep trenches • Oral surface in dorsal, aboral surface is ventral • Sea Lily's are attached to the surface by a stalk - echinodermata

Mantle in Mollusca

Dorsal body wall: fold of tissue that covers the visceral mass and encloses the mantle cavity (containing gills), shell (when present) is secreted by mantle

Know the diagnostic features of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms)

Double ferilization Endosperm Carpel Flowers fruit Reduced megagametophyes

colonial and multicellular

ECM, communication

How do annelids move?

Each segment can change shape for locomotion • Longitudinal muscles contract, causing the segment to get 'fat' • Circular muscles contract, causing the segment to get 'skinny'

Describe movement in an earthworm.

Each segment changes shape to move Longitudinal muscles make segment fat Circular muscles make segment skinny Paired setae serve as anchoring points

Endomycorrihzea

Arbuscular mycorrhizae, Hyphae enter cell walls, but not plasma membrane, Most common, vesicles

What was the function of pro-wings?

Argument that pro-wings arose from gill-like structures in larval aquatic stage, that were retained and modified in adults for other purposes ie thermoregulation, gliding, sailing

What are placoderms and why are they important

Armor-plated predators before which jaws likely evolved

Placoderms

Armor-plated predators with jaws and teeth-like structures; first jawed vertebrate; originated in Silurian, extinct by end of Devonian

Crustaceans

Arthropod; crabs, shrimp, lobsters, barnacles, isopods, copepods, etc; three body tagmata=head, thorax, and abdomen; appendages (some two-branched) specialized for sensing, locomotion, respiration, etc; dorsal carapace; diverse feeding habits (predators, filter feeders, scavengers...)

What are pancrustacea?

Arthropoda. Clade that includes Malacostraca, Cirripedia, and Hexapoda

What groups are in Ecdysozoa?

Arthropods and Nematodes

What groups comprise Ecdysozoa (as learned in lecture)? What is ecdysis? Specifically, what is being shed?

Arthropods and nematodes have comprise of ecdysis which is the molting of chitinous exoskeleton. The old exoskeleton of the animal is being shed for a new one to be had, the new one is vulnerable until it hardens.

Why do we consider arthropods as hyperdiverse? Which groups contain the largest number of species and why do you think this is so?

Arthropods are hyperdiverse because there are different species that are in between them. There is different type of reproduction and metamorphosis within singular species.

What is the difference between segmentation and tagmatization? What animal groups show evidence of segmentation?

Arthropods have multiple segments that have been fused into tagma that perform special functions.That means that animals utilize the segmentation to join and appropriate its usage. All arthropods are segmented

Myriapoda

Arthropods; complete gut; protostomes; triploblastic; bilateral symmetry; centipedes and millipedes; two body tagmata (head and trunk); numerous segments, each with one (centipede) or two (millipede) pairs of legs; centipedes=carnivorous with poison fangs; millipedes=scavengers (some secrete cyanide in defense)

Hexapods

Arthropods; triploblastic; bilateral symmetry; complete gut; protostomes; insects; three tagmata: head, thorax, and abdomen; one pair of antennae (two pairs in other crustaceans); three pairs of legs (located on the thorax); respiration by tracheae; originally=mouthparts with mandibles; wings evolved once

Why do tunicates appear to contradict the synapomorphies of chordates? What evidence supports their placement in Chordata?

As adults they lack all the synapomorphies of chordates, however we see all of these features in the larval stage, which goes through metamorphosis to the adult stage. There is evidence from the larval stage that they were present then lost.

1. Nematodes

Ecdysozoan family includes round worms and many species of ag and medical uses - have pseudocoelomate

Sea Cucumbers (Holothuroidea)

Echindermata; deuterstomes; triploid; soft-bodied and slug-like (ossicles much reduced); greatly elongated oral/aboral axis, secondarily bilateral; grazers, suspension feeders

What group were pharyngeal slits lost in?

Echinodermata

Sea stars (Asteroidea)

Echinoderms; Deuterostomes; Triploblastic; complete gut; pentaradial symmetry; common, largely predatory

Mesoglea

Ectoderm and endoderm

Biofilm steps

Attachment and aggregation (free-swimming prokaryotes bind to a surface, grow and divide) => extracellular matrix production => behavior and communication (signal molecules to attract same species) => generation of heterogeneity (signal molecules to attract different species)

Why does modularity in the body plan promote the evolution of improved performance? A) Modular animals have more parts B) Modularity allows functional specialization of body parts C) Modularity allows animals to be bigger D) Body parts can be damaged without loss of function to entire body

B) Modularity allows functional specialization of body parts

What is quorum sensing?

Bacteria "talk" to each other Bacteria are "multi-cellular" Bacteria can distinguish self from other Discovered by Bonnie Bassler and team Bacteria send out signal and other bacteria can understand them and identify them

mosses

Bryophyta, sporophyte and gametophyte grow at same time

T/F: Cyanobacteria use chloroplasts to perform photosynthesis.

False

Where the great Amazon River flows into the Atlantic Ocean on the coast of Brazil it creates a huge plume of river water in the ocean. Beneath this plume lie vast reefs dominated by sponges. It is the world's greatest sponge honey-hole. Why do the sponges like this location so much? A) The water from the Amazon is warm B) The water from the Amazon kills or discourages would-be competitors C) The Amazon plume is rich in organic particles which sponges eat D) They are the only animals that can withstand flowing river water E) Because it is dark

C) The Amazon plume is rich in organic particles which sponges eat

Which of the following is a synapomorphy for Arthropoda? A) muscle B) vertebral column C) jointed appendages D) triploblasty E) segmented body plan

C) jointed appendages

Describe feeding in sea stars. What are the functions of the water vascular system and catch collagen in their feeding behavior?

Feeding is by use of everting their stomach. Sea stars use a hydraulic system controlled by locomotion and their water vascular system for feeding, water transportation and respiration. Water enters through the pores and circulates through the canals that lead to the tube feet.

Extant clades of Amphibians

Caecilians (limbless), frogs and toads (tailless), and salamanders (tailed)

Alkaloids

Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, morphine, strychnine, quinine, ephedrine

Chelicerae

Can be either a pair of appendages at the front of the mouth, look like modified pincers.

Are Cnidarians herbivorous, carnivorous, or omnivorous?

Carnivorous

cartilage

Cartilage cells surrounded by ECM, before bone evolved, found in sharks (bone lost)

What are gap junctions?

Cell junction that does communication

What are desmosomes?

Cell junction that link adjacent cells

What are tight junctions?

Cell junction that stitch cells together

Radial Cleavage

Cells accumulate in even, symmetrical layers

Spiral Cleavage

Cells divide at an oblique angle to the animal-vegetal axis, and new cells lie in furrows between existing ones; many Lophotrochozoans

What groups comprise Chelicerata? How are they distinguished from other arthropods?

Chelicerata include spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and mites and ticks. They have two tagmata (cephalothorax, abdomen), Chelicerae(,pair of appendages in front of the mouth in arachnids and some other arthropods, usually modified as pincer-like claws), Four pairs of walking legs and pedipalps.

Major groups of Arthropoda

Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Crustacea, Hexapoda

arthropods

Chelicerata-arachnids, horseshoe crab, Myriapoda-centipedes, millipedes, Crustacea-crabs, shrimp, lobsters, barnacles, Hexapoda-insects and allies (respiration by tracheae)

Modifications to generalized molluscan body plan

Chitons (shell plates and repeated gills) and gastropods (torsion)

Modification to generalized molluscan body plan

Chitons have shell plates/repeated gills and gastropods have torsion Bivalves have a burrowing foot and cephalopods have arms/tentacles+ siphon for propulsion

Major clades of Mollusca

Chitons, gastropods, bivalves, cephalopods

choanoflagellate cell and colony

Choanoflagellate has a single, posterior flagellum, and each singular choanoflagellate cell colonizes around a single stalk Have a collar Choanoflagellate colonies formed exclusively by dividing cells staying together. Have Rosette and Chain colonies that are formed by the slow swimmers

________ are the sister group of animals

Choanoflagellates

Opisthokonts Include (3)

Choanoflagellates Animals Fungi

What specific evidence supports choanoflagellates as the sister group of Metazoa?

Choanoflagellates are the sister group to metazoa because of the choanocytes that are also seen on sponges, they also have DNA sequence data and have homologous cell signaling and adhesion genes

Symmetry

An animal is symmetrical if at least one plane can divide it into two similar, mirror-image halves

mycorrhizae

An association of the root of a plant with the mycelium of a fungus; increase plant's ability to take in more water

Curare

D-tubocurarine: Muscle relaxant, alkaloid, paralysis

Which group of Cnidarians has the most living species? A. Cubozoans (20) B. Schyphozoans (200) C. Hydrozoans (3000) D. Anthozoans(6000)

D. Anthozoans(6000)

Korarchaeota

DNA isolated from hot springs

thermus aquaticus

DNA polymerase for PCR

Ostracoderms

Heavily armored (bony), extinct jawless fish; probably filter feeders and scavengers

Chelicerata

Horeshoe crabs, scorpions, mites, ticks, spiders; two body tagmata (cephalothorax and abdomen); characteristic appendages (chelicerae=pincers, pedipalps, usually four pairs of legs); mostly predators and parasites; spiders use silk (produced by glands in abdomen) to snare prey

Sheep liver fluke (Dicroceoelim) life cycle

Illustrates parasite-induced behavior modification; fluke eggs shed in sheep feces---->snail becomes infected by eating feces----->ant becomes infected by consuming contaminated snail slime----->some fluke larva migrate to ant brain: induce change in behavior----->ant climbs vegetation (instead of returning to nest), enhancing transmission to grazing sheep

What key innovations to terrestrial environments do amniotes posses

Impermeable skin Efficient kidneys Amniote egg with shell and membranes that resist desiccation

phloem

Information-Superhighway

Cnidarian/nudibranch story

Plumed sea slugs feed primarily on sea anemones and hydroids; have elongated protrusions (cerata) on their back; ingest the nematocysts and transport them undischarged to the tips of the cerata (they are placed in sacs that open to the outside), the nematocysts are then used by the slug for its own defense

What are chitons?

Polyplacopohora: Chitons (mollusca) • Dorsoventrally flattened • 8 shell plates • Graze rocks with radula • All marine, mostly intertidal

Anthozoa:

Polyps only, can be solitary or colonial. (Includes anemones, corals, sea fans) Has the most living species

What is the key feature of opisthokonts?

Posterior flagellum, if present

secondary growth

Produced by lateral meristems Meristematic cells give rise to many tissues Vascular cambium: ring of cells between primary xylem and phloem, allows shoot and root to increase in girth.Produces secondary xylem to interior (gives rise to wood), secondary phloem to exterior (gives rise to bark) Secondary vascular tissues maintain efficient transport as plant ages Rigid structural support allows plants to grow taller, compete more effectively for light & enhance dispersal Formation of bark prevents water loss and infection

Developmental tendencies of protostomes and deuterostomes

Protostomes: mesoderm forms near lip of blastopore; coelom (if present) formed by splitting of mesoderm Deuterostomes: mesoderm and coelom form from out-pocketing of gut wall

Major clades of mammals

Prototherians (echidna, duck-billed platypus), marsupials, eutherians

How do arthropoda reproduce?

Reproduction monoecious or dioecious, internal or external fertilization. Larval or juvenile stage in most, complex metamorphosis among Hexapods

extremophile adaptations

Make proteins more stable, slow down enzyme rates, decrease fluidity of membranes, increase osmolality inside cell

Beard Worms

Polychaete (Annelida) Chemolithoautotrophs that live in deep ocean environments, have no gut, and are in an obligate symbiosis with bacteria.

Rag Worms

Polychaete (Annelida) • Active predators with well- developed jaws and an extendable pharynx.

What is a placenta?

It is the tissue attached to the uterine wall that nourishes the fetus through the umbilical cord.

Explain the evolution of vertebrae, jaws, and bone using examples from the chordate phylogeny from lecture.

Vertebrae is present first in lampreys, then you see that placoderms are the first to have developed jaws with at least the bony plates.. They are derived from gill arches supporting pharyngeal slits. You do not see bones until later on where there is a single bone in the fins of a lobe finned fish. [Bone developed in ostracoderms but this is an extinct lineage. Bone was lost in sharks and relatives.]

Jawless fishes include

hagfishes and lampreys

swim bladder

helps control buoyancy; internal, filled with gas; found in many bony fish

Hemimetabolous life cycles

adults develop wings and sex organs after the last molt

Hemocoel

aka open circulatory system. found in: 1. Anthropods 2. Molluscs

which plants exhibit the haplontic life cycle

algal

virus infects

all

pharyngeal slits

all deuterostomes except echinoderms

parsimony uninformative

all same or only one different

What is multicellularity?

allows individual cells to specialize, and be assembled into functionally specialized body parts.

Life cycle of cnidaria

alternation between the asexual polyp stage and the sexual medusa stage.

The Dikarya and angiosperms both share:

an (n+n) stage

gills

an organ specialized for gas exchange with water

parasite

an organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the host's expense

beatles

arthropod scavenger complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

3 phyla with segmentation

arthropods annelida chordata

three sponge body types

asconoid, syconoid, leuconoid -asconoid is smallest bc gets least amount of food -leuconoid is biggest

spores

asexual reproductive cell capable of developing into an adult organism without gametic fusion; diploid and unicellualr

Tapeworm

attachment organ, many boxes that release fertilized eggs, no guts, no heads

which plants exhibit the heterosporic life cycle

Seed Plants Lepto. Ferns spike moss

What is the difference between segmentation and tagmatization? What animal groups show evidence of segmentation?

Segmentation is the division of the animal's body plan into repeated segments. Tagmatization is the fusion of these segments. Arthropods(from ectoderm), annelids(from ectoderm), and chordates(from mesoderm) show evidence of segmentation.

What is an annelid?

Segmented/Bristle worms Sister Group to Mollusca

Solar-powered sea slugs

Sequester alga-derived chloroplasts for use as photosynthetic machines; has acquired one or more nuclear-encoded algal genes in its own genome: LGT between two eukaryotes

Why do tunicates appear to contradict the synapomorphies of chordates?

The larvae of tunicate exhibit all three synapomorphies, but then they go through metamorphosis and lose them all

Know the diagnostic features of Land Plants (Embryophytes)

The sporic life cycle (AoG) is a diagnostic for land plants, they also have vegetative innovation including, cuticle to reduce desiccation, pigment for UV protection and mutualistic fungal association. All of the reproduction innovation are also involved as diagnostic features.

Consider the lichen symbiosis. What is the photobiont? What is the mycobiont? Which of these can live on their own?

The photosynthesizing organism is the photobiont. The fungus is called the mycobiont. Photobionts (algae/cyanobacteria) can live on their own but lichen depends on the photobiont for survival.

water vascular system

The water vascular system is a hydraulic system used by echinoderms, such as sea stars and sea urchins, for locomotion, food and waste transportation, and respiration. The system is composed of canals connecting numerous tube feet.

tracheid

before lycophytes high resistance, steep tension gradient, Air bubble has no effect

what evolved on branch leading to bilateria (2)

bilateral symmetry mesoderm

Symmetry

bilateral symmetry, radial symmetry, pentaradial symmetry, symmetrical

yersinia pestis

black death

Synapomorphies of metazoa?

blastula, multicellularity, diplontic life cycle, extracellular matrix, and unique cell-to-cell junctions

Calcareous sponges

Spicules of calcium carbonate

spider silk

Spinnerets: produce silk -Located on back of abdomen Silk used for many purposes: prey capture protective retreats egg cases molting

Why are sponges often dominant organisms in marine benthic environments and experience limited predation?

Sponge spicules provide physical deterrent; sponges have potent biochemical defenses (biotoxins); they use antimicrobial agents to prevent infection by microbes; they employ chemical warfare (chemical repellants) against organisms that compete for space with them

Are there solutions to these threats?

Stop over-harvesting large animals

coelom

body cavity; located between the intestinal canal and body wall; 3 types (acoelomate; pseudocoelomate; and coelmate)

What is a key feature of sharks and relatives

bone was lost

Osteichthyes.

bony fish, phirranah

cladogram

branch lengths arbitrary, only topographic info

phylogram

branch lengths reflect amount of character change

Chronogram

branch lengths reflect temporal information

a. Polychaeta

branch of Annelids (most likely paraphyletic) -marine worms with well developed: head, tentacles, setae, parapodia, sensory structures -usually dioecious with external fertilization and trochophore larva

organism (can/cannot) have both lung and swim bladder

cannot

The arthropod whose body consists of a head, followed by numerous segments each bearing one pair of appendages, and who has predatory life style using venom claws is:

centipede

What are some characteristics that tend to be associated with bilateral symmetry?

cephalization; complete (1 way) gut = complete gastrulation; segmentation; and a mesoderm forms

Describe the image forming eyes in cephalopods. (Pretend that you are teaching a friend what this is)

cephalopods have a camera lens eye like humans do

Desiccation water transport Gravity intense UV radiation dispersal of gametes

challenges of life on land

missense

changes amino acid

1st codon

changes...least likely tree

Homoplasy

character shared by a set of species bit not present in their common ancestor, an example includes the creation of wings in different animals.

paired setae

characteristic of Annelids (lost in leeches); bristles that serve as anchoring points for movement

pharyngeal slits

characteristic of chordates and hemichordates; pharynx brings water in through the mouth and then passes it back out through the slits; used in feeding and respiration

spiral cleavage

characteristics of protostomes, unequal division of cells, embryo has a distinct top and bottom, cell fate is determined very early

What feature do horseshoe crabs have that separates them from crustaceans?

chelicerae

ascomycota and Arthropoda both share

chitin

Class Polyplacophora

chitons (many plate bearers), shell plates + repeated gills

Name all of its mollusc major groups. chitons bivalves gastropods cephalopods

chitons,bivalves,gastropods,cephalopods

Glaucophytes

chloroplast retains peptidoglycan between membranes.

stentor

cillia, algae symbiosis

hydroid

cnidaria suspension feeder incomplete two way gut radial symmetry in polyps and asymetric in colony traits: diploblastic, two body forms: polyp and medusa, cnidocytes

Explain echinoderm ecology and diversity.

There are about 7000 total echinoderm species outbreaks of sea stars can damage coral reefs (crown of thorns)

Explain the diversity of life-history patterns in insects.

There are over 1,000,000 species and a lot this diversification comes from how some specific insects are pollinators of some specific angiosperms

Clitellum

Thickened band in middle of body that secretes a cocoon for protection of young

Spongin:

collagen-based protein that provides structure and flexibility in porifera

What supports choanoflagellates as the sister group to Metazoa?

collar cells are seen in choanoflagellates and sponges; DNA sequence data; and homologous cell signaling and adhesion genes

define multicellular

collection of many attached cells (usually of same genotype); differentiation and division of labor and reproductive capabilities

what is a postanal tail

combined with notochord and musculature, used for propulsion

leaves

compressed photosynthetic structure emerging laterally from a stem or branch that possesses vascular tissue

cell fate

concentration gradients, induction

Zygomycetes

conjugating, terrestrial, coenocytic, Stalked sporangiophores contain sporangia

incorrect trees

convergence, reversal, evolution rate

selaginella

heterosporous

plasmogamy

cytoplasms of two individuals of different mating types fuse

bird and bat vertebrate 4 limb

homologous

virulence

degree of pathogenicity

dsRNA

diarrhea

conflict

different characters support different trees

periplasmic space

digestion enzymes and transport enzymes

pollen tube

digests through the sporophyte tissue to the megagametophyte

plasmodial slime molds

diploid resting stage in harsh conditions, cool moist habitat.

microbes

disease agents, model systems

Trocophore larva

distinctive band of cillia

Proteobacteria

diverse metabolic, CA photoautotrphic, some nitrogen fixing rhizobium (ecoli)

Spiral cleavage

divide at oblique angle = furrows

Acoelomate (flatworms)

do not have enclosed body cavities

Name all of its major features and synapomorphies discussed in class for chordates and vertebrates.

dorsal hollow nerve, notochord, postanal tail (chordates synapomorphy),pharyngeal slits (deuterostome synapomorphy)

wings most likely formed from?

dorsal leg appendages due to comparative gene esxpression

Why are tunicates chordates?

dorsal nerve chord, postanal tail, notochord present in the larval form which undergoes metamorphosis to the adult stage

What is a notocord

dorsal supporting rod, rigid and flexible develops in embryo, replaced by vertebrae in most vertebrates

holometabolous: (complete metamorphosis)

dramatic changes in form (butterflies, beetles, flies, ants, bees, wasps) egg → larva → pupa → adult

lithotrophy

e- source= inorganic

organotrophy

e- source= organic

Tube Feet

each flexible hollow appendages protruding through ambulacra either used for locomotion or collection of food and operated through a hydraulic pressure within the water vascular system.

tracheae

each of a number of fine chitinous tubes in the body of an insect, conveying air directly to the tissues; what hexapods use to breathe

pedipalps

each of the second pair of appendages attached to the cephalothorax of most arachnids; they are variously specialized as pincers in scorpions, sensory organs in spiders (can also be modified for sperm delivery , and locomotory organs in horseshoe crabs.

sea cucumber

echinoderm deposit feeder complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, locomotion with movement of tube feet

purple urchin

echinoderm grazing complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, spines, locomotion with movement of spines

white urchin

echinoderm grazing complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, spines, locomotion with movement of spines

chocolate chip star

echinoderm predator/scavenger complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, locomotion with movement of tube feet

leather star

echinoderm predator/scavenger complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, locomotion with movement of tube feet

pisaster star

echinoderm predator/scavenger complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, locomotion with movement of tube feet

sand star

echinoderm predator/scavenger complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, locomotion with movement of tube feet

bat star

echinoderm scavenger complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, locomotion with movement of tube feet

brittle star

echinoderm scavenger incomplete two way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet may be present, spines may be present, locomotion with movement of arm appendages

land plants

embryophytes, cuticle, stomata

Lw GC Gram +

endospores to protect DNA in harsh times, mycoplasmas are smaller, anthrax, staph

bacteria growth classification

energy source, electron source, carbon source

chemotrophy

energy source= chemicals

phototrophy

energy source= light

tight junctions

ensure directional movement

gnetophytes

ephedra, welwitchia, gnetum, separate sexes, like angiosperms, no swimming sperm

microparasites

epidemic

radial cleavage

equal division of cells stacked appearance, cell fate determined by proximity to other cells and late in development.

archea

ether, lipid monolayer

fungus

eukaryote; chitin in cell walls; absorptive heterotroph; can be a decomposer, parasite, or mutualist; opisthokont (sister to animals and choanoflagellates); spend most of their lives as underground active foragers

bacteria infect

eukaryotes

How is its jaws, bones, and paired limbs evolved?

evolution of bone, jaws, and paired limbs happened after lamprey the anterior arch evolved into jaws (gill slits decrease in number)

non-motile sperm

evolved independently in conifers and gnetophytes as well as angiosperm

vessel elements and DF

evolved independently in gnetophytes and angiosperms

secondary growth

evolved independently in lycophytes and seed plants

vascular tissue

evolved independently in mosses and vascular plants

Parasite-induced behavior modification by platyhelminthes

ex. fluke found on sheep liver fluke eggs in sheep feces, which is eaten by a snail, that becomes infected and dies, which is consumed by an ant that also dies, then the larvae will migrate into ant brain and change behavior to go towards vegetaion so that a grazing sheep will eat it. =Terrifying

Cnidaria

ex. sea anenomes, coral, sea/cube jellies, and hydrozoans 1. radial symmetry 2. one oral (open) aboral end often surrounded with tentacles 3. incomplete gut>>leads to gastrovascular cavity 4. diploblastic: layers seperated by gel like MESOGLEA 5. polyp or medusa body( can alternate between also) 6. cnidocyte 7. nerve net 8. simple muscle cells 9. Some sensory developments (some medusa(cube jellies) have eyes :O

arthropods

ex: cockroach, porcelain crab, hermit crab, tarantula, gooseneck barancle, acorn baranacle, horseshoe crab, crab, scorpion, shrimp, millipede, beatles tribloblastic unique cleavage bilateral complete 1 way gut predator synap: joined appendages, exoskelton...

cnidaria

ex: hydroid, strawberry anemone, moon jelly, gorgonian, giant green sea anemone, upside-down jelly diploblastic irregular cleavage radial symmetry two way incomplete gut use cnidocytes synap: cnidocytes

echinoderms

ex: purple urchin, sea cucumber, sand dollar, brittle star, green brittle star, bat star, pisaster star, leather star, chocolate chip star, sand star, white urchin triploblastic radial regulatory cleavage incomplete and complete pentaradial symmetry suspension feeders synap: water vascular system and pointy skin

molluscs

ex: wavy top turban snail, turban snail, limpets, kellets whelk snail, dorid nudibranchs, chitons, california sea hare, aeolid nudibranchs, giant rock scallop, bay mussel, giant keyhole limpet, smooth washington clam triploblastic spiral mosaic bilateral complete one way gut suspension feeders/predators synap: shell, mantle, foot, and radula

Annelids

ex:feather duster worms, rag worms, and spagetti worms Triploblastic spiral mosaic bilateral complete 1 way gut suspension feeders/predators synap:paired seta

Spiracle

external respiratory opening, in number of pores in the body of an insect, which each of a pair of vestigial slits being the eye of a cartilaginous fish.

complex roots

f Euphyllophytes: complex branching root system derived from stems, root hairs developed form dermis

T/F: If a particular character is homologous within a clade, then it must be a synapomorphy of that clade.

false

mosaic

fate determined early

What are Chelicerae?

feeding appendages in the form of pincers or fangs

carpel

female sex organ of flower plants

parsimony

fewest changes (evolutionary steps)

Cartilage

firm, whitish flexible connective tissue.

bipinnaria larva

first stage in the larval development of most starfish. Movement and feeding is accomplished by the bands of cilia -Larvae are all bilateral, adults are

Triploblastic development

formation of a complete gut and a body cavity or coelom

dorsal hollow nerve cord

formed by an embryonic folding of the ectoderm. Develops into the central nervous system in vertebrates.

Mycorrhizae

fungi and plant roots

liverworts

gemmae cups, rhizoids, haploid, Antheridia, Archegonia

Bacillus thuringiensis

genes code to kill insects

mitochondria are

gram negative

Sea jelly and hydrozoan reproduction

Usually dioecious

Annelid reproduction: Polychaetes

Usually dioecious with external fertilization and trochophore larva

Polychaetes reproduction (clade of annelids)

Usually dioecious, with external fertilization and trochophore larva

Polyp

Usually sessile

Trochophore Larva

simple structure that is oval with flagellum at two ends, and a band of cilia around equator

charales

sister of land

Haustoria

hyphae push into cells and absorb nutrients

Spicules

in Porifera, they serve as supportive and defensive structures. Structure and chemistry are different between sponge clades

tracheae

in arthropoda; used for respiration; network of tubes that extend throughout body; replaces lungs through diffusion; the tracheal system consists of tracheoles, air sacs, tracheae, and spiracles

polyp

in cnidarians; a sessile, asexual life cycle stage

Carapace:

in crabs, shrimp, and lobsters, the thorax and abdomen fuse into the carapace

Schizocoely

in protosomes when the coelom is formed by the splitting of the mesoderm

paraphyly

includes some but not all descendants of a given common ancestor, unnatural

hemimetabolous metamorphosis

incomplete metamorphosis 3 stage: egg-nymph-adult

What is hemimetabolous

incomplete metamorphosis • Adults have wings and develop gradually from nymphs • Three stages: egg, nymph, adult • Nymphs typically have the same diet as adults • Nymphs lack functional wings

Hemimetabolous:

incomplete metamorphosis in paleoptera and neoptera

number of described Animal species

increase GREATLY with appearance of triploblasty - majority of species are in bilateria family

vessel elements

increase efficiency of transport

basal

independant carpals, fruit

cellular slime mold

individual motile cells that aggregate into a multicellular fruiting body

phylogeny

is a history of branching (speciation) events.

Tetrapod

is a subset in chordates, divided in four classes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds

exoskeleton

is external skeleton that supports the animals body it is common in arthropods.

which plants exhibit the sporic life cycle

land plants

Foot:

large, ventral muscle mass in molluscs Used for moving, burrowing, feeding Modified into siphon (valves) or tentacles

megaphyll

larger, more complex leaf with ramified vascular tissue. Monilophytes and seed plants

ascomycota

largest group of fungi; ascus spores; variety of fruiting bodies; sexual or asexual reproduction

Ray-finned fish

largest lade of bony fish

which sponge body type have evolved multiple times

leuconoid

Mesoderm:

lies between endo and ectoderm and differentiates into muscles and major organs

Pupa

life stage in insects that undergo transformation. This is present in all complete metamorphosis, for example it is the middle stage from a caterpillar to a butterfly.

energy source

light (photo) or chemical (chemo)

model based approach to phylogeny reconstruction

likelyhood of character state changes

2. Myriapoda

lineage of Anthropods that include cent/milipedes -two body tagmata -numerous segments with two pairs of legs -centipedes =carnivorous and scary fangs millipedes =scavangers, held in class

amoebozoans

loboseans, plasmodial slime molds, cellular slime molds, sister to opistikonts

what evolved on branch leading to lophotrocozoa (2)

lophophore trocophore

groups in protostomes

lophotrochozoa (annelida, mollusca) ecdysozoa (panarthropoda, nematoda)

pocket off digestive tract

lungs and swim bladders

Colonization of land

lungs, limbs, modified skin, internal fertilization, shelled eggs

__________ formed dominant parts of Carboniferous forests that later developed into coal deposits?

lychophytes

club mosses

lycopodia

Setae

made of chitin on the outside of worms, they are used to anchor into substrate for movement

mantle

makes the shell; molluscs; fold of tissue that covers the organs of the visceral mass that secretes hard shell

Reasons Bilateral symmetry is significant

means these animals have: 1. Anterior/Posterior Ends 2. Cephalization 3. Segmentation 4. Increased sensory & locomotor ability

-sense ssRNA

measles, mumps, rabies, influenza

ferns

megaphylls, sori

collar cells are synapomorphic of

metazoe and choanoflagettes

Euryarcheota

methanogens, produce methane by reducing CO2, obligate anaerobes

lycopodium

microphyll, homosporous

homoplasy in leaves

microphylls developed in lycophytes, megaphylls in seed plants

mesoderm

middle layer; part of triploblasty; gives rise to muscles and major organ systems

cone

modified stem, female

2 lophotrochozoa

mollusca annelida

what phylum are octopi/squids a part of? -what are their tentacles derived from?

mollusca tentacles derived from foot

turban snail

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell and mantle present

chitons

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

giant keyhole limpet

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

limpets

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

wavy top turban snail

molluscs grazer complete one way gut bilateral traits: specialized muscular foot for locomotion radula and shell present

epidemic

more cases in community than normal

Multicellularity has evolved _______ times in the tree of life

more than 20 times

MRCA

most recent common ancestor

synapomorphies of protostomes

mouth from blastopore mesoderm arising near lip of blastopore schizocoely

Protostomes

mouth is formed first, then the anus. The coelom forms from a mass of cells which splits

Mandibles:

mouth part of arthropods

radula

mouth parts, lost in bivalves mollusca rasping organ used for feeding

Metazoa:

multicellular animals in the opisthokonta clade

What are the synapomorphies of Animals?

multicellularity; unique junctions between cells; extracellular matrix; blastula

Flukes

multiple asexual stages, two hosts-snail and vertebrate. Humans get lung or liver flukes.

Radial Symmetry:

multiple planes of symmetry

What are some of its innovations AND diversity? (Name all that were used in class)

muscular foot, visceral mass, mantle, radula

Basidiomycetes

mushrooms, rusts and smuts, Ectomycorrhizae, at tip

monophyly

natural groupings, includes all descendant species of a common ancestor. A monophyletic group can be defined for each internal node

dorsal hollow nerve cord:

nerve cord dorsal to notochord Derived from ectoderm Develops in the central nervous system in vertebrates

what evolved on branch leading to ctenophores (3)

neurons muscles complete guts

Lamprey

no bone, no jaws, notochord surrounded by cartilaginous arches, vertebra, larvae are mud-dwelling filter feeders

archea bacteria

no cytoskeleton, cell wall, haploid, binary fission, circular chromosomes, plasmid, translation and transcription coupled, no nucleus, operons, single RNA pol, LGT, no organelles

acelomate

no real gut cavity, other tissue between gut and mesoderm, flat

psilotum

no roots, dichotomous, no leaves

cladogram

no scale

Extracellular matrix:

nonliving material found between 2 cells that provides support

extracellular matrix:

nonliving material found between 2 cells that provides support

outgroup

not study. determine ancestral character states

archea infect

nothing

karyogamy

nuclei fuse

carbon source

organic (hetero) or inorganic (auto)

electron source

organic (organo) or inorganic (litho)

Diploblasty:

organism has an ectoderm and endoderm -Ectoderm turns into epidermis in mature stage -Endoderm turns into gastrodermis

Triploblasty:

organism has ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm

incomplete gut:

organism has only one opening that food goes both in and out of Food flows both directions inside digestive system

ectoderm

outermost of the embryonic tissue layers, becomes the epidermis and nerve tissue

true

outgroups are not primitive/less derived than species within the ingroup. (T/F)

Ectoderm

outside embryonic tissue

nitrifiers

oxidize ammonia to nitrate

chelicerae

pair of appendages in front of the mouth in arachnids and some other arthropods, often modified as pincer-like claws

chelicerae

pair of appendages in front of the mouth in arachnids and some other arthropods, usually modified as pincerlike claws; characteristic of chelicerates

Gills

paired respiratory organ in fishes by where oxygen is extracted from water flowing over surfaces within and attached to the pharynx

2 ecdysozoa

panarthropoda nematoda

Crustaceans are

paraphyletic

Apicomplexans

parasites, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, apical complex to enter host

Thorax

part of the mammal body between the neck and the abdomen including the cavity of the ribs and breastbone that allows for the respiration

eudicots

parts in 4 or 5, vascular tissue in rings, branching veins

Accessory fruits

parts other than carpels

What are synapomorphies of echinoderms?

pentaradial symmetry in the adults (bilateral larvae), endoskeleton of calcareous plates, and water vascular system (w/ tube feet)

petals and sepals

perianth

Animal Development

pertains to the cleavage & gastrulation

amoebozoan feeding

phagocytosis, parasites, predators, scavangers

cyanobacteria

photoautotrophs with chlorophyll a, fix N, internal membrane system, eukaryotic chloroplasts

define opsins

photosensitive pigments in the photoreceptors: e.g., rhodopsin and photopsin

chlamydomona

photosynthesis, flagella

blepharisma

pink, cilia, food vaculoes

gram-negative

pink, thin peptidoglycan layer, periplasmic space

First vertebrates to have jaws

placoderms (armored fish) (teeth were bone plates)

most seed plants

pollen, secondary growth, heterospory

Describe some diversity of annelids. (Name all that were used in class)

polychaeta - marine worms (most diverse) oligochaeta - earthworm hirudinea - leeches

Body forms of cnidaria

polyp and medusa, alternate between during life cycle

Hydrozoa:

polyps and medusae, solitary AND colonial. (portuguese man of war)

cycads

potent carcinogen, tropical, separate plants

Marsupials

pouched mammals

Occam's razor

prefer the hypothesis that minimizes the number of ad hoc assumptions.

worms are (proto/deuterostomes)?

protostomes

2 groups of bilateria

protostomes deuterostomes

What are the major groups of bilaterian?

protostomes & deuterostomes

triploblasty

protostomes and deuterostomes; three cell layers; ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

radula

rasping organ used for feeding; scrapes up algae

bacillus

rod

Anthozoa

sea anemones, corals, sea pens, no medusa

Holothuroidea

sea cucumbers

Scyphozoa

sea jellies

Pedipalps

second pair of appendages attached to the cephalothorax in most arachnids, example includes pincers in scorpions, sensory organs in spiders, and locomotion organs in horseshoe crabs.

pedipalps

second pair of chelicerae and in male spiders, are used to transfer sperm to the female (found in spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, etc); used as feeding appendages in females

absorptive heterotrophy

secrete enzymes outside of their "bodies" in order to digest food molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed (makes them good biosynthetic factories for: drugs, enzymes, acids, and alcohols)

mantle

secretes shell, produces and contains sense and respiratory organs, encloses mantle cavity for respiration and storage

hyphae

septate or coenocytic

What are the 3 types of cell-to-cell junctions in animals? What is their function?

serve as support and facilitates communication 1. tight junctions: seal between cells 2. desmosomes: link adjacent cells; rivets 3. gap junctions: allow communication

polyp

sessile form that produces medusae asexually and forms colonies

reproduction in echinodermata

sexual: mostly dioecious with external fertilization asexual through regeneration of body parts

synapamorphy

shared derived trait

synapomorphy

shared derived traits

ecdysis

shedding of the exoskeleton due to growth/morphological change

Cone snails

shoot harpoon-like radula laden with toxin at prey

What are the 4 major tissue types in metazoans? Ephithellal: covers external & internal structures, ex: skin on surface Connective: Serve binding & support function Muscular: Cells specialize for forceful movement Nervous: reception of stimuli & conduction of impulses (esp. to muscles)

Ephithellal: covers external & internal structures, ex: skin on surface Connective: Serve binding & support function Muscular: Cells specialize for forceful movement Nervous: reception of stimuli & conduction of impulses (esp. to muscles)

Ectoderm

Epidermis

Unique characteristics of metazoans are also synapomorphies to what clade

Eumetazoa

Social insects

Eusocial insects live in colonies with division of labor; some individuals reproduce (queen, male) but most are non-reproducing workers; ecologically dominant species and reach high densities

Convergence in reptiles

Evolution of snake-like reptiles, case of the ratite birds, and marsupial/eutherian convergence in mammals

evolution of multicellularity

Evolved independently at least 25 times Evolved in fungi and animals, but not in choanoflagellates

What are gastropods?

Gastropods: Snails and Slugs (mollusca) • Single shell (or none) • Feed with a radula • Torsion

Hedgehog gene

Gene involved in cell signaling known in metazoans and choanoflagellates, but not other nonmetazoan taxa

culturingq

Growth of microorganisms in controlled/defined conditions. General approach to collect sample, make environment w/ specific growth conditions (energy, electrons, carbon, etc), dilution/passing until one obtains a pure sample w/ just a single clone.

hornworts

Have stomata, which do not close, split lengthwise to release spores

polytomies

However, phylogenies may contain ______, an internal with 3 or more descendant branches, which may reflect:

What are some threats coral reefs? (Name all that were used in class)

Humans, Bleaching, Overfishing

water vascular system:

Hydraulic system found in Echinoderms, used to control -Locomotion -Feeding -Waste transportation -Respiration

earthworm movement

Hydrostatic skeleton, circular muscles lengthen, longitudinal muscles shorten, Setae anchor

Annelid reproduction: others (Clitellata)

Monoecious with internal fertilization and direct development (no trochophore larva)

Clitellata reproduction

Monoecious, with internal fert and no larba

Aquiferous system

Water flows in through ostia to the internal chambers and out the osculum propelled by the movement of flagella of choanocytes

deuterostome

"anus first," balstopore becomes the anus; echinodermeta and chordata; only form the enterocoelous plan; radial cleavage

Deuterostomes

"doo doo deutersosomes" blastopore becomes anus -mesoderm & coelom form from outpocketing of gut wall 1. Echinoderms 2. Chordates 3. Hermichordates

Hemimetabolous:

"incomplete metamorphosis" Gradual metamorphosis. Change/Growth happens over successive molts

Explain the symbioses in sponges?

...

coral and dinoflagellates

...

What is a coelom?

A fluid-filled cavity

What is a virus (1)?

A non-cellular infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms using the existing cellular machinery and cause the synthesis of specialized elements (virions, virus particles) which can transfer the infection to new cells.

Mandibles

A pair of appendages near the insect's mouth, most anterior to the three pairs of oral appendages. Used to grasp, crush and cut the insects food, also used to defend against predators.

N-1

A phylogeny with N species has ________ speciation events (internal nodes)

Parasitism

A relationship where one species benefits at the expense of the other (ex: Mosquitos and humans)

Bilateral Symmetry

A single plane divides animal into left and right mirror-image halves (vertebrates); segmentation and increased sensory and locomotor ability are associated with bilateral symmetry

catch collagen

A special type of connective tissue that changes the rigidity of the body very quickly

Cnidarian feeding

All carnivorous with some extracellular digestion in gastrovascular cavity and some intracellular Some symbiotic with photosynthetic protists

Requirements of multicellularity

Adhesion: cells must stay/stick together Communication between cells Dependence Differentiation: cells specialize at different tasks

What are advantages to multicellularity? What differentiates it from coloniality?

Advantages: 1. division of labor (possibility of specialized cell function) 2. better SA to V ratio 3. increased size (feeding efficiency and safety from predators) 4. dispersal (some cells are specialized for reproduction) Different from coloniality because some cells give up reproduction in order to specialize

How is DNA transferred to plants?

Agrobacterium, particle bombardment (biolistics)

Emetazoan

All animals except sponges Therefore MRCA (synapomorphies) has diploblastic construction, gastrula, nervous system and musculature

Sponge Features

All aquatic, mostly marine; ~8000 species (7000 species of demosponges); adults sessile, larvae motile; mostly filter feeders on microscopic particles (bacteria, organic detritus, etc), captured on microvilli, digested intracellularly; Asexual reproduction through budding or fragmentation; Sexual: most sponges are hermaphrodites but not self-fertilizing

Know the diagnostic features of Land Plants (Embryophytes)

Alternation of generations Cuticle Microrrhizae Protected embry Sporophyte Sporangia Antheridia and archegonia Air-dispersed spores sporopollenin

the diagnostic features of Land Plants (Embryophytes)

Alternation of generations Cuticle Microrrhizae Protected embry Sporophyte Sporangia Antheridia and archegonia Air-dispersed spores sporopollenin

Radial Symmetry

Animal in form of cylinder, parts arranged around the long axis, and with multiple imaginary planes that divide the animal into equal halves

hard

An episode of simultaneous speciation, where 3 or more descent species are produced from a single speciation event (in which case we call it a _______ polytomy')

endoskeleton

An internal skeleton covered by other, soft body tissues

Endoskeleton

An internal skeleton, such as bony or cartilaginous in skeleton of vertebrates

lichen

An organism resulting from the symbiotic association of a fungus (mycobiont) and either a cyanobacterium or a unicellular alga (a photobiont)

What are the characteristics of deuterostomes?

Ancestral characters of Bilateria: - Triploblasty (ecto-, endo-, meso-) - Bilateral symmetry - Complete, 1-way gut Synapomorphies: - Blastopore becomes anus - Enterocoely - Radial, regulative cleavage

What are cell junctions?

Animal cells that are at cell-to-cell junctions which serve as support structures and facilitate cell-to-cell communication.

opistokonts

Animals, fungi, choanoflagellates

Rag Worm

Annelid predator complete 1 way gut bilateral traits: paired setae, segmented body, eversible jaw

What are polychaetes?

Annelids that are dioecious, do external fertilization, and have trochophore larva

What are Clitellata?

Annelids that are monoecious, internal fertilization, direct development (no trochophore)

overtopping growth

Apical meristem divides asymmetrically, such as there is a main stem and side branches Allows taller growth and enhanced competition for sunlight Allows elaboration of novel organs

How did jaws evolve

Anterior gill arches became modified as bony jaws

Major clades of Cnidaria

Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens), Hydrozoa (hydrozoans), Scyphozoa (sea jellies), Cubozoa (cube or box jellies); all Cnidarian are aquatic (mostly marine)

cnidaria

Anthozoa, Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, carnivorous, extracellular and intracellular

fungi and animals

Antifungal drugs can affect humans. Most agents that are toxic to fungi are also toxic to the host More side effects=more closely related

Deuterostomes

Anus forms first, mouth second; Chordates, Echinodermata, Hemichordata

3 types of symmetry

Asymmetry Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

Alternative hypothesis for ctenophore phylogeny

As sister to all other metazoa

What are the key defining features of the two largest groups of fungi, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota?

Ascomycota and Basidiomycota are both under the Dikaryon clade (have a dikaryotic life cycle). Ascomycota have an ascus and Basidiomycota have a basidium

Sponge reproduction

Asexual: budding or fragmentaion Sexual: since most sponges are hermaphroditic they produce gametes at different times so they dont self fertilize. then will mass release sperm into enviroment "smoking sponges" then the sperm must be captured by other sponges choanocyte, lose its collar and flagellum, and act as a ameboid cell through mesophyl to reach egg. Non specific dispersal means choanocytes consume A LOT of different sperm, but only recognize their own

Sponge reproduction

Asexual: through budding or fragmentation Sexual: hermaphrodites but not self-fertilizing

How do sponges reproduce

Asexually through budding and Sexually

What are the different modes of reproduction in sponges? Asexually through fragment and reforming: take out parts of the body and reform into another sponge. The part that fragments is the gemmule Sexually: Choanocyte differentiate into sperm and are shot out of the osculum

Asexually through fragment and reforming: take out parts of the body and reform into another sponge. The part that fragments is the gemmule Sexually: Choanocyte differentiate into sperm and are shot out of the osculum

Explain multicellularity vs individuality. What makes 2 things the same or different individuals?

Individuality is when one cell is an individual. On the other hand, multicellularity is a group of cell is the individual.

Gastrulation of cnidaria occurs where?

Before planula larva stage

When does gastrulation occur during the Cnidaria life cycle?

Between medusa and planula

What does it mean to be a bilaterian?

Bilateral symmetry

What characteristics tend to be associated with bilateral symmetry? What are some animal examples that violate this association? Why?

Bilateral symmetry is a single plane divided the body into a left and right halves, they are associated with being triploblastic. Typically associated with cephalization. Bivalves violate this association bc lacks a "head". Echinoderms violate this because they are triploblastic but they develop into a pentaradial symmetrical.

define cephalization

Bilateral symmetry is correlated with having a well-defined head with a concentration of sense organ

Cephalization

Bilateral symmetry is correlated with having a well-defined head with a concentration of sense organs.

Keystone species

One that has a disproportionately large effect on the ecosystem dynamics

How have people used fungi in industry?

Biofuels, soy sauce, medicines, etc

Describe the morphological and ecological diversity in molluscs? Think in terms of body morphology and feeding strategies.

Bivalve (filter feeding) vs. snail (grazer) vs. squid (predator) Bivalves have siphon to filter the water Snails, chitons, etc have radula to graze the rocks or any surface they're attached to Squids have tentacles to help them capture prey and bring it to the beak

Modifications to generalized molluscan body plan for others

Bivalves (burrowing foot) and cephalopods (arms/tentacles and siphon for propulsion)

What are bivalves?

Bivalvia: Bivalves (mollusca) • Two shells with strong adductor muscles • No radula, uncephalized • Marine or freshwater, filter feeders

What are the synapomorphies of Metazoa? What evidence supports the unique evolution of multicellularity in metazoans?

Blastula, unique cell junctions, extracellular matrix (collagen) animals are all diplontic, multicellularity, and determinate growth Evidence = tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes

Why are sponges sometimes called the vacuum cleaners of the sea? What principle allows this

Individuals can filter more than 1,500 liters of water per day. Uses the principle of continuity.

What are the two ways cnidaria asexually reproduce?

Budding can detach and become free-living, or stay attached to form colonies. • Fission produce two free living halves.

What are the differences in plasmodial slime molds and cellular slime molds in terms of their life cycles? How do plasmodial slime molds show evidence of problem solving? How do cellular slime molds meet our definition of multicellularity?

Cellular slime mold are from haploid amoeboid cells (haplontic life cycle). Plasmodial slime molds are from diploid amoeboid cells (diplontic life cycle). Cellular molds meet the definition of multicellularity by producing fruiting bodies to help w spore dispersal.

What characteristics tend to be associated with bilateral symmetry? What are some animals examples that violate this association? Why?

Cephalization is often associated with bilateral symmetry. Bivalves, however, do not exhibit cephalization because of the sessile lives they live. They do not have a head. They are also filter feeders.

What are cephalopoda (mollusca)?

Cephalopoda: squid, octopus, nautilus, cuttlefish • Shell external or internal • Foot modified into tentacles • Closed circulatory system • Active predators with well-developed nervous system and eyes • Excellent camouflage, complex communication, internal fertilization

What are examples of returning in the sea in chordata?

Cetaceans and pinnipeds are classic examples of a return to an aquatic lifestyle in vertebrates.

independent

Character evolution and species are two processes are largely _________, but the characters of living species provide evidence that we use to estimate phylogeny.

Lancelets (cephalochordates)

Chordata; Deuterostomes; triploblastic; bilaterally symmetrical; Amphioxus?; small filter-feeding marine animals; chordate features present in adults; segmented body muscles

Amniotes

Chordata; bilaterally symmetric; deuterostomes; triploblastic; reptiles and mammals; Key innovations to exploit terrestrial environment: impermeable skin, efficient kidneys, amniote egg (with shell and membranes that resist desiccation)

Prototherians (echidna, duck-billed platypus)

Chordata; deuterostomes; bilateral symmetry; dioecious; triploblastic; egg-laying mammals

Lamprey

Chordata; deuterostomes; triploblastic; bilateral symmetry; bloodsucking parasite of fish; no bone; no jaw; sucker-like mouth and rasping teeth; larvae are mud-dwelling filter feeders

Hagfishes

Chordata; scavenges on dead animal carcasses; no bone; no jaws; tongue with rasping teeth; can tie themselves in knot for greater leverage when tearing food from prey; produce copious amounts of slime

What are hemiptera?

Cicadas, Stink bugs, Aphids, Assassin Bugs, Lice, Bed bugs, etc. • Herbivores, predators, parasites, incomplete metamorphosis • Some are important vectors of disease (plants and humans)

Endostyle

Ciliated groove on the ventral surface of the pharynx (secretes mucus to gather food particles); found in lancelets and tunicates and in larvae of lamprey (metamorphoses into the thyroid gland in adults, and is regarded as being homologous to the thyroid gland in vertebrates)

alveolates

Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates

What is cleavage in metazoans? Compare and contrast cleavage types in protostomes and deuterostomes.

Cleavage is way in which the cells stack there can be two kinds either radial or spiral. It is the division of cells in the zygote post fertilization Radial ; are a characteristic of deuterostomes and are stacked in appearance and determined by proximity to other cells, anus is formed first and the mouth, The spiral characteristic of protostomes unequal division fate is determines very early, mouth then anus is formed.

What is cleavage in metazoans? Compare and contrast cleavage types in protostomes and deuterostomes.

Cleavage refers to the division of cells in the zygote past fertilization. Considerable variation exists but there are two general patterns: radial and spiral. Radial: characteristic of deuterostomes. Equal division of cells, stacked appearance, cell determined by proximity to other cells and late in development. Spiral: characteristic of protostomes. Unequal division of cells, embryo has distinct top and bottom, cell fate determined very early. Sponges and cnidaria have irregular cleavage Taken from lecture 27 Radial cleavage goes along with regulative Regulative→ Cell fate is determined by chemical gradient produced by the cell Spiral cleavage goes along with mosaic Mosaic→ distribution of mRNAs controls the fate of each

Give examples of two animal symbioses learned in lecture. What is being contributed by each symbiont?

Clown fish live with cnidarians anemones and they do not get stung by them because they have a protective coating that prevents the nematocyst from firing. Cnidarians benefit by clownfish luring other fish towards the anemone as a source of food. Also we see in termites and the protists, the termites provide protection and the food source will the protist digest the food (cellulose) and then provide the nutrients to the termite for it to have a nutritional benefit.

How do Cnidarians capture their prey?

Cnida-laden tentacles and conveyed into the gastrovascular cavity.

Hydrozoa

Cnidaria; incomplete gut; diploblastic; radial symmetry; colonial hydroids (Physalia, the Portuguese man-of-war) form large polymorphic floating colonies comprised of various types of polyps and attached medusa

What are some innovations of cnidarians? (Name all that were used in class)

Cnidocytes

What is a coelom? What are the three types of coela that we discussed in lecture? What are the differences between coelom formation in protostomes and deuterostomes?

Coelom = fluid-filled body cavity associated with mesoderm in triploblastic metazoans Acoelomate = no coelom - thin, don't move very fast - flatworms Pseudocoelomate = part of the endoderm still lines the coelom - kinda sloshy on the inside - roundworm/nematode Coelomate = coelom completely lined by mesoderm - all internal organs are well suspended, so they are capable of most active movements - earthworm Protostomes = schizocoely (splitting) - acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate Deuterostomes = enterocoely (pinching) - coelomate only

schizocoely

Coelom is formed by splitting of early mesoderm cell. Characteristic of protostomes.

Other trends in insect evolution

Coevolution with flowering plants; social insects

Evidence that choanoflagellates are sister group of Metazoa

Collar cells (choanocytes; shared between choanoflagellates and sponges), structure of mitchondria, DNA sequence data, choanoflagellates have homologue of metazoan cell signaling and adhesion genes

What characters define Choanoflagellates + Animals?

Collar cells, cell signaling and adhesion genes.

Name some of its major innovations.

Complete digestive tract, triploblasty + coelom, cephalization, increased sensory & locomotion, organ systems, body complexity

Holometabolous metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis; Four life stages= egg--->larva--->pupa--->adult; major reorganization at pupal stage

Spongin

Complex network of collagen (some sponges only have this and no spicules and are harvested as bath sponges)

Exoskeleton

Composed of chitin and cuticle in proteins; for protection

Calcareous endoskeleton

Composed of plates or ossicles, often with spines and pincer-like sturctures (pedicellariae); skeletal plates (ossicles) are connected by a form of collagen which can be stiff or flexible---> neuronal control body "tone" without muscle action

What does circular muscles do in annelid movement?

Contracts the muscle, causing the segment to get skinny

How is LGT different from convergent evolution?

Convergent evolution is when two distantly related groups evolve the same adaptation independently; LGT is different because the adaptation is physically transferred between the two groups.

zooxanthellae

Coral dinoflagellate symbiosis, leak carbon products to the coral

What are the general characteristics of Malacostraca

Crabs, shrimp, lobsters • 50,000 species • Marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats • Scavengers, filter feeders, and predators

Explain the evolution of vertebrae, jaws, and bone using examples from the chordate phylogeny from lecture.

Cranium(Hagfish) → Vertebrae(cartilaginous in Lampreys) → Bone(ostracoderms) → Jaws(placoderms) Vertebrae evolve from ends of segmented muscle blocks where calcium phosphate is secreted with only remnants of notochord With jaws came the form of "teeth" from bony plates; jaws are derived from anterior gill arches and pharyngeal slits

Major groups of Echinidermata

Crinoidea (sea lilies, feather stars), Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins), Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)

How do the different hypotheses for the phylogenetic placement of ctenophores affect our understanding of animal evolution? Think specifically about neurons and muscles as discussed in lecture.

Ctenophores have a nervous system w/a brain, muscles (developed from the mesoderm), a complete, one-way gut, mostly acellular mesoglea(the jelly like stuff), and sometimes they use cilia as teeth. Due to their complexity, the traditional phylogeny puts ctenophora as sister group to bilaterians(rest of animals except sponges), to easily explain important features that stand out (e.g brains/muscles). This relationship is termed acrosomata. This view is however directional, and assumes that evolution only goes from simple to complex. Another view involves coelenterata, which group cnidaria and ctenophora as sisters, but this is also a biased hypothesis Because they look alike? Yes! The most modern interpretation puts ctenophora as sisters to all other animals. This implies that the nervous system evolved twice, independently: once in ctenophores, and once in the MRCA of cnidaria and bilateria. It also implies that humans are closer to sponges than to ctenophores. Humans have a skewed view of animals, but many traits have been gained and lost, and many "simple" traits are actually result of reduction (e.g. sponges), so we as scientists have to expect lots of homoplasy.

What feature of cubozoan cnidarians is unusual in the context of cnidarian evolution? What other examples of homoplasy in animals have we discussed in lecture?

Cubozoan evolution is interesting because they are also called boxed jellies with toxic stings, but have very well-developed eyes. We have discussed the wings of different animals and the way the have all morphed for different purposes.

gymnosperms

Cycads, Ginkgos, Gnetophytes, Conifers

What is the ping-pong sponge?

Deep oceanic trenches, hooked spicules.

dorsal hollow nerve cord

Derived from the folding of the ectoderm. Main component of the central nervous system.

Challenges faced by plants in adapting to life on land

Desiccation, water transport, structural support against gravity, intense UV radiation, and dispersal of gametes and progeny

What are Chordates?

Deuterostomes with [notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, postanal tail, pharayngeal slits]=at least in embryo;

Evolution of lung

Digestive tract developed air pocket → air pocket evolved into either lung or swim bladder

belladonna poisoning

Dilated pupils, Sensitivity to light,, blurred vision, Tachycardia, Loss of, balance, Rash, Dry mouth and throat, Confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and convulsions

What do we mean by 'dimorphic' in the context of the cnidarian life cycle? Why is this not alternation of generations?

Dimorphic life cycle means that there are two different kinds of forms the medusa and polyp. They start has a polyp asexual stage where they develop the they move to become medusas and free form for sexual reproduction.

Reproduction of Arthropoda

Diocious Internal fert Often larval stage Some have metamorphosis

Ctenophores (comb jellies)

Diploblastic; radial symmetry; enigmatic group of uncertain position; radial symmetry, diploblastic development, complete gut, nervous system (nerve net), simple musculature; plankton feeders (some eat other ctenophores)

Cleavage

Early stages of cell division after zygote formation, resulting in multiple cells (blastomeres) and establishment of a longitudinal axis (animal-vegetal axis)

Coelomate

Earthworm

Oligochaetes

Earthworms and related freshwater species; classic deposit feeders; cross-fertilizing hermaphrodites held together during mating with mucus secreted by clitellum; eggs and sperm placed in protective cocoon from which small worms emerge

What groups comprise Ecdysozoa (as learned in lecture)? What is ecdysis? Specifically, what is being shed?

Ecdysozoa include the protostomes Nematoda and Arthropoda. Ecdysis is when the chitinous exoskeleton is shed, due to growth or morphological change.

advantages of seeds

Efficient dispersal of next sporophyte generation Protection of developing sporophyte plant Dormancy Embryo can rest for long time Development resume when conditions favorable Seed is provisioned w/ nutrients to help establish plant Integument often modified to facilitate seed dispersal

Feeding in fishes

Efficient; unidirectional flow. Water goes in mouth and out the pharyngeal slits

What are the two types of spicules in porifera?

Either made of Silica or Calcium. Has a variety of shapes

Coral and sea anemone reproduction

Either monoecious or dioecious

How does a virus penetrate a host's cell membrane?

Endocytosis (tricking the cell), mechanical penetration (trauma, vector), or they inject their genome with some bacterial viruses (insects?)

4th domain, separate origin, from within other groups

Explain how DNA analysis could be used in microbial forensic studies. What are different models for the origin of viruses?

Trilobites

Extinct group of marine arthropods; abundant and diverse 250-500 mya; bottom dwellers and probably scavengers

What are ostracoderms and why are they important

Extinct jawless fish in which bone likely developed

Unique characteristics of metazoans

Extracellular digestion in gut Zygote-blastula-gastrula

What is a biofilm?

Extracellular polysaccharide matrix Surface attachment Solid surfaces Soft tissue in living organisms Liquid-air interface Structural heterogeneity Genetic diversity- bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi, algae Embedded in the extracellular matrix; can attach to a variety of things; not uniform (structural heterogeneity)

Do Cnidarians have intracellular or extracellular digestion?

Extracellular; occurs in the gastrovascular cavity; digestion is later completed intracellularly by phagocytosis into nutritive cells ( of the gastrodermis)

halophily vs. thermophily

Extreme halophiles in 1 monophyletic group in 1 phylum of archea Hundreds of thermophiles scattered, can't make into monophyletic group

Communication in cephalopods

Largely visual; movements (of tentacles, fins, etc) and body color changes; chromatophores (cells with pigment): change shape---->changes color

nonvascular

Liverworts, Hornworts, Mosses, gametophyte dominant

angiosperms

Mature diploid embryo Nutritive triploid tissue (endosperm to nourish embryo) Protective seed coat Angiosperm seed is enclosed by the ovary wall of the carpel that gives rise to fruit

Why are sponges important to humans? Filtering Activities of sponges are important to marine ecosystems Marine Sponges are one of the most productive areas to prospect for new bio-active compounds

Filtering Activities of sponges are important to marine ecosystems Marine Sponges are one of the most productive areas to prospect for new bio-active compounds

Sea lilies, feather stars (Crinoidea)

Flower-shaped body; oral surface facing up; sea lilies attached to stalk; feather stars more mobile

advantages of flowers

Flowers attract animal for efficient pollination by offering pollinator rewards or deceiving animal pollinators. Plants and their pollinators have coevolved. (Gymnosperms use wind pollination)

Coelom

Fluid-filled body cavity surrounded by mesoderm; animals who have this are triploblastic

Hydrostatic skeleton

Fluid-filled cavity surrounded by muscles. Fluid is essentially incompressible, so action by antagonistic muscles changes shape of the cavity, causing movement; or maintains body support under hydrostatic pressure

Mantle

Fold of tissue along the dorsal surface that covers the visceral mass and enclosed the mantle cavity. Secretes the shell when present

Gastrulation

Formation of cell layers by invagination (in-pocketing) of blastula to form gastrula

Coelomate

Found in protostomes (schizocoelous plan) and deuterostomes (enterocoelous plan). Mesoderm covers ectoderm and endoderm

What is the evidence that some mammals returned to the sea in mammals?

Four pieces of evidence: 1) pelvic bones, 2) bone structure, 3) ear bones, 4) movement

medusa

Free-living, made asexually but function is sexual reproduction, cannot form colonies; oral end is down; not present in anthozoans

Alternation between an asexual polyp and sexual medusa

Free-swimming medusa release sperm and eggs, zygote develops into a ciliated larva (planula), larva settles and develops into a polyp, polyp buds asexually producing a colony of polyps, some polyps later produce (and release) medusae asexually

What are amphibia?

Frogs, Salamanders, Caecilians (chordata) • 7,000 described species; mostly frogs • Life cycle involves metamorphosis from tadpole larva (gills) to an adult (lungs) • Skin is used for respiration, lungs lost in some groups.

absorptive heterotrophy

Fungi digest food outside body by secreting digestive enzymes into the environment to break down large food molecules, then absorb breakdown products

Ectomycorrhizae

Fungus wraps around the plant roots.

What is an example of convergence in mammals?

Given Australia's long isolation (~40 million years) nearly identical body morphology evolved among marsupials and eutherians.

3 types of sponges discussed in class? Glass sponges: silicaceous spicules Demosponges: silicaceous spicules, also tough fibers of protein Calcareous sponges: calcium carbonate spicules

Glass sponges: silicaceous spicules Demosponges: silicaceous spicules, also tough fibers of protein Calcareous sponges: calcium carbonate spicules

General life cycle of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

HAPLOID (n): Mating type +(fusing of hyphae)=>Mycelium (n)+Mating type -=>Plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm)=>DIKARYOTIC (n+n): Dikaryotic mycelium (n+n)=>Fertilization=>DIPLOID (2n): Karyogamy (fusion of nuclei; often delayed step)=>zygote (2n)=>Meiosis=>HAPLOID (n): Spore-producing structure (n)=> (meiospores) Spores (n)=>Mitosis=> Mating type +

What are coral reefs?

Habitat types produced by cnidarians

The presence of bone in which of the following groups best supports the idea that cartilaginous fish (sharks, skates, and rays) secondarily lost bone? -Ostracoderms and placoderms -Tunicates -Ray-finned fishes -Hagfish and lampreys -Ampibians and Reptiles

Hagfish and lampreys

Innovations of Mammals (4)

Hair Sweat glands Mammary glands: the milk-producing gland of female mammals 4-chambered heart

Where does asexual reproduction fit into the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota life cycle?

Happens during the haploid stage, after the spores have gone through mitosis, using conidiophores

LGT, sexual recombination, interactions w/ other organisms

How can organisms acquire functions from external sources?

once

How many times did the symbioses for chloroplasts and mitochondria evolve?

Schizocoely:

How protostomes produce coelom A hollow cavity forms in the mesoderm as mesoderm cells separate from each other

How did the swim bladder evolve?

In actinopterygiians, this primitive lung was modified into a swim bladder for controlling buoyancy

Mesoderm

In bilateria, gastrulation is complete and a mesoderm forms, mesoderm differentiates into muscles & major organ systems

How the mesoderm forms

In protostomes: schizocoely In deuterostomes: enterocoely

Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

Include free-living flatworms (Planaria), flukes, and tapeworms

Hemimetabolous metamorphosis

Incomplete metamorphosis; Three stages= egg--->nymph (similar in structure to adult but with wing pads only)---->adult

Benefits of life on land for plants

Increased access to sunlight for photosynthesis, increased access to gasses, and decreased competition initially

What are trend in vertebrate evolution

Increased cephalization Increased agility of movement New feeding modes such as predation! "Physiological upgrading"

Trends of vertebrate evolution

Increased cephalization, increased agility of movement, new feeding modes (especially predation), "physiological upgrading"

Important innovations that arose within chordates

Internal skeleton with vertebrae, jaws, two pairs of walking limbs

What is a virus (2)?

Intracellular parasites with nucleic acids that are capable of directing their own replication and are not cells

Solar-powered sea slugs

Kleptoplasty --> the stealing of plastids for use of photosynthetic machines

Archea phylums

Krarchaeota, Nanoarchaeota, Creoarcheota, Euryarcheota

Chordates

Lancelets (Amphioxus), sea squirts, jawless fish, jawed fish, tetrapods; Internal skeleton with vertebrate, jaws, two pair of walking limbs

What groups make up chordates?

Lancelets, sea squirts, jawed fishes tetrapods: amphibians, reptiles, mammals

mian features of vertebrates

Large brains Anterior skull Ventral heart Vertebral column

Ratites

Large flightless birds confined to the southern hemisphere; Kiwis, emus/cassowaries, ostriches/rhea (REVIEW PHYLOGENETIC TREE ON SLIDES)

Foot in mollusks

Large ventral muscle mass (modified ventral body wall), chiefly for locomotion, modified for burrowing in bivalves and as arms/tentacles and siphon in cephalopods

Foot

Large, ventral muscle mass. Used for locomotion, burrowing, and feeding, Modified as siphon (bivalves) or tentacles (cephalopods)

Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)

Largest clade of bony fish; very diverse feeding habits

What are free-swimming Larvacean Tunicates?

Larvacean tunicates do not undergo the metamorphosis and retain all of the chordate features.

Echinoderm symmetry

Larvae are bilateral → adults pentaradial (with exceptions)

secondary growth

Late in the Devonian, thickened woody stems of xyl, not in monocots, seed plants

What are some advantages to being multicellular?

Leads to regional specialization of the body & an increase in overall performance

Diagnostic features of seed plants

Leaves (megaphyll), roots (complex), overtopping growth, heterospory, seed

Know the diagnostic features of Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes)

Leaves because of the need for water and photosynthesis. It also needs vascular tissue for the transportation of water and nutrients as well as structural support. The vascular tissue includes the xylem moves water and minerals to aerial parts of the plant, and phloem

Amniotes include 3 groups

Lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes, tuataras) Birds Mammals

Major extant clades within reptiles

Lepidosaurs (snakes and lizards), turtles, crocodiles, dinosaurs

Cnidaria Reproduction

Life cycle typically involves alternation of generation between asexual polyp stage and a sexual medusa stage; they are sexually variable

Endophytic fungi:

Living within aboveground parts of plants

What are the difference between lizards and snakes?

Lizards have eyelids and ears.

What are Lepidosaurs?

Lizards, Snakes, Tuataras • Snakes and lizards (Squamata) • Tutataras (Sphenodonta) - chordata

Relevance of coelacanths to tetrapods

Lobed fins developed after ray finned fishes, before coelacanths

Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea)

Long slender arms (multi-branched in basket stars), locomotion by arm movement, abundant but secretive (light-avoiding)

1.Flatworms

Lophotrochozoans family aka Platyhelminthes with includes flukes and tapeworms - DONT have coelomate

Arthropoda

Lots of diversity; bilaterally symmetrical coelomate protostomes, segmented body with structures repeated in each segment, paired jointed appendage, tagmosis, exoskeleton organized into articulating plates, growth by ecdysis, paired compound eyes composed of many photoreceptive units (ommatidia), reduced coelom and open circulatory system (hemocoel), complete gut with regional specialization, well developed nervous system, complex but variable excretory and respiratory systems

Describe mating in spiders. What parts of the male spider are modified for sperm transfer?How do spiders use silk?

Male pedipalps are modified for sperm transfer. Internal fertilization takes place, but the females have both internal and external reproductive organs. Complex mating rituals take place. Spinnerets are at the backside of the abdomen of a spider which produce silk → webbing → capturing prey/protection/ egg cases/ molting

Describe spider reproduction

Males have modified pedipalps for sperm delivery; female genitalia is mostly internal; elaborate courtship and rituals; eggs are deposited into an egg sac

What are the groups in amniotes?

Mammals, Lepidosaurs, Turtles, birds, crocodilians

Significance of nematodes

Many species of medical/agricultural importance

Nudibranchs (sea slugs)

Marine gastropods without a shell; have warning colors because many species are toxic

Ascomycetes

Marine, freshwater, terrestrial, septate, asci with ascospores, penecillin, dutch elm, truffle, conidiophores (spore stalks), throughout

Army Ants

Mass foraging, nomadic ants with specialized queens, colonies contain up to 20 million workers, prey upon invertebrates and occasionally small vertebrates; keystone species=because of intensity of predation and a diverse fauna of dependent organisms

pollen

Microgametophyte consists of 4-8 haploid cells. 2 are male gametes/sperm, rest form protective coating/sporopollenin (protect pollen from desiccation, can be elaborated to enhance dispersal) Efficient transfer of sperm to megagametophyte--fertilization can occur w/o water, sperm can travel further by wind or animal pollinator

extracellular matrix

Mixture of non-living stuff that most cells need to survive. Holds cells together. Made primarily of collagen.

Bivalves

Mollusca; clams, mussels, scallops, oysters; shell in two parts, hinged dorsally; mostly sedentary filter feeders (using gills); no radula; food and water brought in through siphon; foot modified for burrowing

Chitons (Polyplacophora)

Molluscs (Lophotrochozoans); bilaterally symmetric; protostomes; triploblastic; dorsoventrally flattened, multiple shell plates, multiple gills

What are the types of reproduction possible in molluscs? Which groups have internal/ external fertilization?

Molluscs are mostly dioecious(sexual). Some such as chitons and bivalves have external fertilization while others gastropods and cephalopods have internal fertilization.

Ecdysis

Molting of chitinous exoskeleton

What are the differences between monoblast, diploblastic, and triploblastic? Give specific animal examples for each of these body plans.

Monoblast: 1 tissue layer. Only contains ectoderm Ex: Sponges. Diploblastic: 2 tissue layers, ectoderm and endoderm. Ex: Cubazoa (Cnidarian) Triploblastic: 3 tissue layers, ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Ex: Horseshoe crab (Arthropod)

What are the differences between monoblastly, diploblasty, and triploblasty? Give specific animal examples for each of these body plans.

Monoblastic means that there is a single layer of cells. Diploblasty refers to the lining of having both an ectoderm and an endoderm. Triploblasty is having all three ecto, endo and mesoderm placozoa have a monoblastic layer, they are simple singular organisms. Diploblastic jellyfish, sea anemones etc, while a triploblastic includes humans and roundworms to name a few.

Land Snail reproduction

Monoecious (hermaphrodites)=they exchange sperm. Pierce with "love darts"

great plate count anomaly

More organisms observed than can be cultured. rRNA sequencing from environmental samples. Metagenomics: study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples improves phylogenetic resolution

stomata

Mosses & Hornworts have _______ to regulate gas exchange

What are jointed appendages in arthropods and explain its diversity?

Muscles that are attached to inside of skeleton that move the joints jointed appendages are specialized for different functions and different appendages specialize for different functions

What are pedipalps?

Most anterior pair of legs. They are variously specialized as pincers in scorpions, sensory organs in spiders, and locomotory organs in horseshoe crabs.

Reproduction of molluscs

Mostly dioecious, some hermaphrodites Fertilization mostly external in chitons/bivalves, internal in gastropods and cephalopods Often goes: trocophore larva-veliger larva-adult

What are the types of reproduction possible in molluscs? Which groups have internal/external fertilization?

Mostly dioecious, some hermaphrodites; external fertilization(chitons and bivalves) internal fertilization(gastropods and cephalopods)

Molluscan Reproduction

Mostly dioecious, some hermaphrodites; fertilization mostly external in chitons and bivalves, internal in gastropods and cephalopods; OFTEN: trochophore larva---->veliger larva---->adult; direct development in some molluscs

How do sponges feed

Mostly filter feeders, have intracellular digestion

Medusa

Motile form of Cnidaria

Protostomes

Mouth forms first; Arrow worms, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca

What is a Metazoa?

Multicellular animals, eukaryotic heterotrophs that are usually capable of movement.

Metazoa

Multicellular organisms with cell specialization, communication (nutrient exchange) and interdependency; heterotrophs; food ingested, usually followed by extracellular digestion in a gut (intracellular digestion in sponges); diplontic life cycle; distinctive male gametes: spermatozoa; distinctive development: zygote-> blastula -> gastrula (latter not in sponges); motility, at least in certain stages of life cycle; distinctive cell junctions (septate junctions) unique to metazoans; collagen (fibrous protein) in the extracellular matrix; animal specific miRNA

Synapomorphies of animals (4)

Multicellularity Unique junctions between cells Extracellular matrix Blastula

Synapomorphies of metazoans

Multicellularity Diplontic life cycle Zygote-blastula

How many times has multicellularity evolved on the tree of life? What feature is key in meeting the definition of multicellularity, but is not required for coloniality? Given that multicellularity has evolved so many times, what are its main advantages?

Multicellularity has evolved multiple times on the tree of life (36 times to be exact) A key feature for defining multicellularity is the need for specialization in that some cells give up reproduction while others are used exclusively to produce only gametes 'which is not the case in coloniality Some advantages include increased size (safety from predation, efficient feeding), division of labor (specialization, increased complexity) dispersal (specialization of cells devoted to producing gametes, gametes likely to travel further).

. How many times has multicellularity evolved on the tree of life? What feature is key in meeting the definition of multicellularity, but is not required for coloniality? Given that multicellularity has evolved so many times, what are its main advantages?

Multicellularity has evolved multiple times ~36 time. Key features for the definition of multicellularity is the ability for specialization and the expansion of reproduction. Some advantages include an increase in size, division of labor, dispersal of gametes.

What are the synapomorphies of Metazoa? What evidence supports the unique evolution of multicellularity in metazoans?

Multicellularity, unique cell to cell junctions, extracellular matrix, diplontic life cycle, blastula stage in development, determinant of growth

Do all protosomes have coelom?

NO, some do have complete coelom, like earthworms. however some have a pseudocoelom like roundworms or are completely lacking one like flatworms which just have a gut cavity. If there is one, it is formed by mesoderm arising near the lip of the blastopore and splitting

denitrifiers

NO3- to NO2

Synapomorphies of Metazoans

NON UNIQUE 1. Mutlicellularity (in Fungi too) 2. Diplontic life cycle UNIQUE SNAPOMORPHIES 1. spermatozoa 2. collagen 3. septate junctions 4. blastula

Cephalopods

Nautiluses, squids, octopuses, cuttlefish, etc; wholly marine; actively mobile predators; largest and smallest invertebrates; foot modified as tentacles and a siphon; nautilus with shell, in others shell is internal (squid, cuttlefish) or lost (octopus); locomotion by jet propulsion: siphon expels water from mantle cavity; capable of learning and memory tasks; can learn by observation of others (octopus)

Where does mesoderm form for protostomes

Near lip of blastopore Coelom formed by splitting of mesoderm

Arthropoda reproduction

Nearly all are dioecious, fertilization usually internal, development often involves larval stage (some taxa have direct development), complex metamorphosis in some insects and crustaceans

Pseudocoelomate

Nematoda; protostome; triploblastic; Roundworm

What is the significance of Nematoda in terms of diversity, medicine, and agriculture? Give at least one example of nematodes that impact human society.

Nematodes are widely distributed in animals and are abundant in some environments, they are present has internal parasites.

The alternative hypothesis for ctenophore phylogeny suggests

Nerves and muscles evolved two times

Sea urchins (Echinoidea)

No arms, but usually long spines; ossicles (skeletal plates) fit together into a test; omnivores, important as grazers of algae

Synapomorphies of chordata

Notochord Dorsal hollow nerve cord Post-anal tail

chordate

Notochord, Dorsal tubular hollow nerve cord, Post-anal tail, Pharyngeal slits, endostyle/thyroid

Chordate features

Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, postanal tail, pharyngeal slits (openings between the pharynx and the exterior, associated with filter feeding or respiration

Pogonophorans (beard worms)

Now recognized as annelids; bizarre gutless worms, live in chitnious tubes often at great depths; species inhabiting hydrothermal vents have symbiotic bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide as energy source to fix carbon (chemoautotrophs)

What are the main components of a virus?

Nucleic acid, capsid (protein coat), envelope (lipid membrane=not all)

Clitellata

Oligochaetes and leeches; freshwater and terrestrial; lack parapodia and tentacles; clitellum; clade

principle of parsimony,

One approach for inferring phylogeny from character data based on the _________ that uses Occam's razor.

How do earthworms reproduce?

One worm exchanges sperm with another worm, and then both worms fertilize their eggs with donated sperm. The egg and sperm fuse in a mucus cocoon secreted by the clitellum

Acoelomate

Only found in protostomes

Is segmentation homologous?

Opinions vary, but they form from different embryonic tissue layers. Annelid segments form from ectoderm. Chordate segments form from mesoderm (and they aren't fully divided). Arthropod segments form from ectoderm

Difficulty with sponge clade?

Originally sponges were thought to be a paraphyletic group ( with 1. glass sponge 2. demosponge 3. calcareous sponges) suggesting sponges features represented the MRCA of ALL animals. However, now it is believed that sponges are monophyletic so that all their features are just synapomorphies of sponge lineages.

Know the diagnostic features of Euphyllophytes

Overtopping growth Megaphyll leaves Complex roots

the diagnostic features of Euphyllophytes (3)

Overtopping growth Megaphyll leaves Complex roots

Diagnostic features of euphyllophytes (true-leaved plants)

Overtopping growth (with a dominant axis and side branches), megaphyll leaves (larger, "true" leaves with more complex vascularization derived from side branches), complex roots (branching root hairs derived from dermis)

Evidence of return to sea (in whales) (4)

Pelvic bone Bone structure Ear bones Movement

Synapomorphies of echinoderms (3)

Pentaradial symmetry as adults Endoskeleton of calcareous plates Water vascular system

Synapomorphies of echinoderms

Pentaradial symmetry as adults Endoskeleton of calcareous plates Water vascular system

Ecdysis

Periodic molting of exoskeleton

Eutherians

Placental animals; convergence between marsupials and eutherians

Eutherians

Placental mammals

When did jaws evolve?

Placoderms

Why are plant-feeding insects more species-rich than sister taxa that do not feed on plants?

Plant-feeding insects can specialize more than predators and scavangers aka more available niches

Know the diagnostic features of plants (Plantae)

Plants have chloroplasts from a unique primary endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria and chlorophyll a. THIS IS FOR ALL PLANTS

Think about the different types of larvae that we have discussed. What is interesting about the trochophore larva of molluscs? How about the planula larva of cnidarians or the bipinnaria larvae of echinoderms?

Planula larva of cnidarians is a motile, bilateral ciliate that becomes a sessile polyp Trochophore larva of molluscs is specialized and free swimming with a mouth, stomach, intestine, and anus Bipinnaria larvae of echinoderms are all bilateral while the adults tend to be pentaradial (with exception of sand dollars and sea cucumbers; secondarily bilateral)

Leeches

Predators and blood-sucking ectoparasites; lack setae; have anterior and posterior suckers for attaching to prey; blood-feeders produce anesthetics (pain-killers), an anticoagulant, and a vasodilator

catch collagen

Present in echinoderms. Can change viscosity or consistency (can make their bodies hard or soft) without using muscles, so they never get tired. Controlled by the nervous system.

Scyphozoa:

Primarily medusae, NEVER colonial. (Jellyfish)

diagnostic features of Plants (Plantae) (3)

Primary endosymbiosis of chloroplast Cellulose cell wall Chlorophyll a

Major differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic: Lack membrane bound organelles, lack a nuclues, divide by binary fission not mitosis, have peptidoglycan in cell wall Eukaryotes: Have membrane bound organelles, have a membrane enclosed nucleus, divide by mitosis, do not have peptidoglycan in cell wall

Radula

Rasping organ for feeding found in mollusca

Radula

Rasping organ used for feeding

define radula (mollusca)

Rasping organ used for feeding (lost in filter feeders

Annelid reproduction: asexual

Regeneration from body fragments

Describe feeding in sea stars. What are the functions of the water vascular system and catch collagen in their feeding behavior?

Sea stars use their catch collagen, which can change viscosity and consistency, as well as their water vascular system, to pull apart the adductor muscles of bivalves, and then they evert their stomachs into the organism and eat it. Controlled by nervous system

Nematoda (Nematodes)

Roundworms; include Caenorhabditis elegans; many species of medical and agricultural importance

Polychaeta

Sand worms, tube worms, clam worms, etc; mostly marine worms, well develop head with tentacles and other sensory structures; well developed parapodia and setae; diverse feeding habits: predators, suspension, deposit

Polychaeta characteristics

Sand worms, tube worms, etc Mostly marine worms Well developed parapodia and setae Diverse feeding habits

distribution of chloroplasts

Scattered distribution. Primary endosymbiosis in the common ancestor plantae, secondary symbiosis in other lineages.

Cnidaria

Sea anemones, corals, seal jellies, cube jellies, hydrozoans

Anthozoa

Sea anemones, sea fans, corals, etc; No medusa stage; both solitary and colonial species

Echinodermata

Sea lilies, sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers; bottom-dwelling marine organisms; predators, grazers, particle feeders; calcareous endoskeleton; pentaradial symmetry around oral/aboral axis; no head; larvae are bilaterally symmetrical; complex water vascular system derived from coelom (functions in gas exchange, locomotion, and feeding); complete gut; diffuse nervous system, no brain; respiration and excretion by diffusion across epidermis

Tunicates (urochordates)

Sea squirts (ascidians) and relatives; sea squirts are bag-like, with enlarged perforated pharynx for filter-feeding

What is a tunicate

Sea squirts and relatives, have enlarged perforated pharynx for filter feeding

If sperm enter the water and enter another sponge, why don't they get eaten?

Specialized choanocytes transport conspecific sperm to archaeocytes.

Cephalopod eye

Single lens eye convergent with that of vertebrates; excellent visual activity; some common genes involved in the two groups (protostomes and deuterostomes); concept of "deep homology"

Incomplete gut

Single opening (serving as mouth and anus) leads to gastrovascular cavity

Spicules

Skeletal elements in Porifera

early vascular plants

Small Relatively simple organisms (lacked leaves, roots, tracheids) Dichotomously branching sporophyte with apical sporangia *Increased spore production relative to branched counterparts *Facilitated evolution of novel organ types

What factors have contributed to the success of insects? Be able to describe this in terms of terms of their morphology, development, feeding, ecology, etc.

Some of the factors include the ability for complete metamorphosis which means that the larval and adult stage do not eat the same things, which allows for them to coexist without having to fight for the food supply since each has their own. They are also have specialized feeding capabilities.

Cnidocytes

Specialized cells with unique stinging or adhesive structure called a cnida; coiled cnia is discharged suddenly by hydrostatic pressure, penetrating prey and injecting poison

Give examples of two animal symbioses learned in lecture. What is being contributed by each symbiont?

Sponges have mutualistic algae or cyanobacteria. Some have commensal organisms that use them for shelter. I.e shrimp that is obligate inhabitant of glass sponge. Shrimp as small larva or juvenile swim in between spaces and eat. As they grow too big to get out, they end up in the sponge for life. Beard worms are chemolithoautotrophs that live in deep ocean environment, w/ no gut and are in obligate symbiosis with bacteria. The bacteria help break down lipids and bone. Zooxanthellae in corals are able to do photosynthesis and provide the coral with carbon while the coral serves as protection, nitrogen and phosphorus giving to the Zooxanthellae

Describe the body plan of sponges. What is the principle of continuity and how does this relate to feeding in sponges?

Sponges: asymmetrical; filter feeders (lined with choanocytes for intracellular digestion) Principle of continuity: (Area-in)(velocity-in) = (Area-out)(velocity-out); smaller exit means higher velocity Water is the slowest inside the sponge so nutrients can be absorbed Sessile adults Motile larvae Totipotency = sponge cells can change into other cells Choanocytes = synapomorphy Spicules = supportive/ defensive = synapomorphy Have taxanomic value Asexual and sexual reproduction

sori

Sporangia on undersides of leaves

Describe the general life cycle of the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. What stages of the life cycle are primarily haploid, diploid, or a dikaryon? Where does asexual reproduction fit in the lifecycle?

Spores (haploid/n) go through mitosis to form hyphae (haploid/n). Then it goes through a stage in the sexual reproduction call plasmogamy in which the cytoplasm of the two hyphae fuses together and form a dikaryon (n+n). This state is then followed by karyogamy, where the nuclei fuses together (2n) and then undergo meiosis to produce spores.

Two cleavages for invertabrates

Sprial and radial

Notochord

Stiff, flexible rod of collagen that serves as a point of support and muscle attachment. Derived from mesoderm, replaced by vertebrate in vertebrates. The combination of postanal tail, notochord , and muscles provides propulsion.

Current research directions on microbial communities on humans

Studies in obesity, autism, Crohn's diesease

Differentiated cell types in Porifera

Such as choanocytes, pinacocytes, and amoebocytes, but no true tissues or organs

Amphibian decline

Suffered declines due to pathogenic chytrid fungus

Consequences of an exoskeleton

Support for walking on land, protection against predators, chitin reduces water loss, constraints on growth

Compare and contrast the evolution of the swim bladder and lungs.

Swim bladder Primitive lungs were basically "air pockets" which were modified into a swim bladder for buoyancy Lungs Pharyngeal slits are an ancestral feature of lungs Lungs are defined as gas filled organs and evolved early Can be viewed as the same thing because they can't both exists at once CAN have gills and lungs CAN have gills and swim bladder CAN'T have lungs and swim bladder Pharyngeal slits → lungs →(many fish but not all) → swim bladder

What is radial symmetry?

Symmetry about a central axis.

What are the synapomorphies of Chordata? How is each feature used by chordates?

Synapomorphies (at least in the embryo) include: a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and a post anal tail. The notochord is used for support and muscle attachment. Dorsal hollow nerve cord develops to form the central nervous system in vertebrates,

Chordates Features

Synapomorphies : 1. Notocord- dorsal supporting rod that develops in embryo and is replaced by vertebrate 2. Dorsal hollow nerve 3. post anal tail Other features 1. pharyngeal slits- openings between the pharynx and the exterior. used for respiration/ filter feeding ( also in hemichordates >>not a synapomorphy)

What are the synapomorphies of echinoderms? Describe how the body plan of echinoderms has been modified in the major groups discussed in class.

Synapomorphies are the pentaradial symmetry as adults, the endoskeleton of calcareous plates and the water vascular system.. They also have spines or pedicellariae for movement, they have no head or brain. And are able to reproduce. You see that they have evolved from water lilies to starfish, to sand dollar and sea cucumbers.

What are the synapomorphies of Chordata? How is each feature used by chordates?

Synapomorphies of chordata: Notochord: stiff, flexible rod of collagen that serves as a point of support and muscle attachment. Dorsal hollow nerve chord: forms the central nervous system in vertebrates Post anal tail Some other common features include pharyngeal slits (muscular organ for feeding and respiration), closed circulatory system, and segmentation. The combination of postanal tail, notochord, and muscles provides propulsion.

What are the in panarthropoda?

Tardigrades, Onychophorans, Arthropods

Major eusocial insects

Termites, ants, some bees, some wasps

Glomeromycetes

Terrestrial, arbuscular mycorrhizae, coenocytic, Use glucose from plant as energy, Only asexual reproduction

Functional capabilities of the human microbiome

The ability to digest different kinds of carbs, synthesize vitamins, break down toxins, etc

What is an amniotic egg

The amniotic egg protects the embryo from desiccation • Amniotes lack a metamorphic larval stage as in amphibians - homologous to placenta

What innovations of amniotes have enabled them to successfully adapt to a land-based existence.

The amniotic egg that allowed for the protection for the embryo and prevented desiccation allowed for its coexistence on land. Amniotes lack a metamorphic larval stage as amphibians have. Also have impermeable skin & efficient kidneys.

What is a blastula? What is a gastrula? How do these relate to gut types in animals?

The blastula is a ball of cells that is developed during the embryo stage, it is hollow if you cut a sections from it. The gastrula is a cup looking thing in that forms from the blastula. These relate to the type guts of animals because this is where it is determined whether it is a complete or incomplete gut, and if it is complete it also determines whether the mouth or anus is developed first.

Use the morphology of fruiting bodies to illustrate examples of homoplasy in fungi.

The example from lecture was the subterranean fruiting body, called a truffle. These convergently evolved in ascomycota and basidiomycota in response to drying conditions. Enclosed fruiting bodies (truffles, puffballs) have evolved multiple times within Basiomycota and Ascomycota; beneficial to survive from dry conditions

aortic arches (earthworm)

The heart like pumping organs of earthworms.

Blastopore:

The opening in the gastrula that develops into the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes

. Describe movement in an earthworm. What are the roles of segmentation, paired setae, septa, circular muscles, and longitudinal muscles in earthworm movement?

The paired setae are present and serve as anchoring points for movement. The segmentation can change shape and use it for its locomotion, longitudinal segment get fat and circular contract to make it smaller and skinnier and allow for movement.

Describe mating in spiders. What parts of the male spider are modified for sperm transfer? How do spiders use silk?

The pedipalps are the modified as sperm delivery organs which are considered sensory organs but produce and deliver the sperm. Spiders use their silk to climb, make bundles, not all spiders produce webs, the silk come from their openings called spinnerets

Lateral Gene Transfer

The transfer of genetic material to unrelated organisms. Transformation,Conjugation, and Transduction

What is muscular hydrostat function?

The tentacle must have a constant volume. So when there is a change in one dimension, there must be a change in another in order to maintain constant volume

Endosymbiosis

The theory that the eukaryotic cell evolved via the engulfing of on prokaryotic cell by another

What are the three sponge body plans? Given your understanding of these plans, which sponges do you think are smallest? How about largest?

The three sponge body types are asconoid have choanocytes and lined channels are the smallest, syconoid, and leuconoid these are the larges and have choanocytes lined chambers.

How do sponges undergo sexual reproduction

They are hemaphrodites but not self-fertilizing, release gametes at different times

How are coelacanths relevant to the evolution of tetrapods?

They are relevant because they are among the first sigh with some kind of bones or rays in their fins. This allowed for later development of limbs.

What characteristics of fungi make them useful for industrial or medical purposes?

They have secondary metabolites that fight off other bacteria and fungi and they use absorptive nutrition instead of phagocytosis so it makes fermentation easier

Describe the body plan of sponges. What is the principle of continuity and how does this relate to feeding in sponges?

They have spicules that serve as supportive and defensive structures . The principle of infinity says whatever succeeds for the finite also succeeds for the infinite. It also states that X are in times the velocity in = x are out times the velocity. If the are in is large and the are out is smaller than the velocity will be greater out to deal with the .pressure. Principle of continuity: all changes are gradual and natural, i.e. the organic world is recognized as constantly changing and the parts of life are all connected in some way

What do we mean by 'dimorphic' in the context of the cnidarian life cycle? Why is this not alternation of generations?

This is not alternation of generations, because there is no multicellular haploid stage. It is a diplontic life cycle.

Triploblastic

Three cell layers formed in gastrulation: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm

Triploblastic animals

Three cell layers formed, ectoderm, endoderm, and mesderm; Bilaterians (Arrow Worms, Lophotrochozoans, Ecdysozoans, Echinodermata, Hemichordates, Chordates)

Triploblastic

Three tissue layers form 1. Ectoderm 2. Endoderm 3. Mesoderm

Why are tunicates chordates?

Urochordate larvae show alllll chordate characters

Explain tissue and organs. Tissue: group of similar cells organized into a functional unit qa Organs: A body part composed of different tissue organized to perform a distinct function Organ system: An interrelated & integrated group of tissues & organs that work together in a physiological system

Tissue: group of similar cells organized into a functional unit qa Organs: A body part composed of different tissue organized to perform a distinct function Organ system: An interrelated & integrated group of tissues & organs that work together in a physiological system

What are the mechanics of suction feeding? How do fish use reversible jaws and gills to feed underwater?

Unidirectional flow, water goes in the mouth and out the pharyngeal slits (lecture 32) Fish use their reversible jaws by extending them out as they draw water in through their mouth and out through their gills

Major features of Bilateria

Triploblastic construction, bilateral symmetry, anterior/posterior axis, cephalization

Think about the different types of larvae that we have discussed. What is interesting about the trochophore larva of molluscs? How about the planula larva of cnidarians or the bipinnaria larva of echinoderms?

Trochophore larva of molluscs have large ciliated lobes and are small, spherical shaped, and translucent. Planula larva of cnidarians are flat, ciliated and bilat symmetry. Bipinnaria larva of echinoderms are covered in cilia and typically form arms (usually this is the larva of sea stars).

Torsion

Twisting of posterior end of body 180 degrees so that the anus and mantle cavity lie above the head-----> potential fouling problems

Diploblastic

Two cell layers formed in gastrulation = ectoderm and endoderm

Diploblastic animals

Two cell layers formed, ectoderm and endoderm; Cnidaria and Placozoans

Diploblastic

Two cell layers separated by gel-like mesoglea; Placozoa, Coelenterata (Ctenophores and Cnidara)

Diploblastic

Two tissue layers form 1. Ectoderm 2. Endoderm

How many body forms of Cnidaria are there?

Two; polyp and medusa; many alternate between the two body forms

soft

Uncertainty in the phylogeny (in which case we call it a ________ 'polytomy')

ON THE FINAL: Where are the species that were missing?

Unexplored areas, obligate symbionts, species that are morphologically similar but are actually different species (cryptic species), organisms that can't be cultured

What is the colonial theory?

Unicellular organism form colonies, eventually evolving different roles for cells in the colony

Rhizaria

Unicellular, aquatic, long thin pseudopodia, cercozoans, foraminiferans, radiolarians

Water vascular system

Water enters via an opening (madreporite) and it circulates through a system of canals that culminate in a series of tube feet (with suckers); antagonistic muscle action on the tube feet can alternately extend and retract them

Aquiferous system in Porifera

Water flows continuously into numerous incurrent pores (ostia), traverses internal chambers, and exits out of one or more excurrent pores (oscula); propelled by movement of flagella of many choanocytes; varies in complexity among different kinds of sponges

additional

We cannot distinguish between these two types of polytomies from the tree alone: the interpretation of a polytomy as soft or hard requires _______ information

dichotomous

We typically assume that the underlying phylogeny is ________: i.e., that every speciation event gives rise to only two descendant species

ether linkage

What are some features found in most/all archaea but not in bacteria or eukaryotes?

peptidoglycan

What are some features found in most/all bacteria but not in archaea or eukaryotes?

No operons Plasmids rare 3 DNA polymerases 80S polymerase

What are some features found in most/all eukaryotes but not in bacteria or archaea?

rRNA

What did Carl Woese use to infer the Three Domain Tree of Life

Universal common traits/homologies

What evidence would be needed to determine if life on another planet was related to life on earth?

archaea

What kinds of organisms are not known to be pathogens and parasites?

Where are the species? -will be a question on the final-

Where are all these species hiding that we have not discovered yet? 1. unexplored habitats ( dirt, ocean, extreme environments, tropics) 2. obligate symbiosis (symbionts, parasites etc, there hidden in other organisms) 3. cryptic species ( morphologically identical but phylogenetically distict) 4. unculturable microbes: bacteria, archae, fungi, etc : ex. metagenomics

Trochophore

a ciliate, free-swimming larva common to several groups of invertebrates, as many mollusks and rotifers

What are Neoptera?

Winged insects (hexapoda) whose wings fold horizontally

What are paleoptera?

Winged insects (hexapoda) whose wings fold vertically

What is spongin

a collagen based protein that provides structure and flexibility found in sponges.

What is the principle of continuity?

X-area in • velocity in = X-area out • velocity out

What groups comprise Chelicerata?

Xiphosura (horseshoe crab) and Arachnida (Mites and ticks, scorpions, spiders)

What is xylella and how does it get around to other plants?

Xylella is the bacteria responsible for pierce's disease and it gets around through an intermediate such as the glassy winged sharpshooter

Is flight homologous in insects?

Yes, however, wings have been lost multiple times within insects

Coral/zooxanthellae relationship

Zooxanthellae --> coral: photosynthetic products (glycerol, glucose) Coral ----> zooxanthellae: metabolic wastes (nitrogen, phosphorous)

Animal Development

Zygote ----> Blastula ----> Gastrula

Diagnostic features of land plants (embryophytes)

[Sporic (alternation-of-generations) life cycle=>sporophyte=>sporangia=>air-borne spores=>sporopollenin], cuticle, rhizoids, microrrhizae, antheridia, archegonia, protected embryo

holometabolous

a change of state during the life cycle of an organism in which the body is almost completely rebuilt to produce an individual with a very different body form (butterflies, moths, beetles, ants, wasps, flies)

data matrix

a chart of characters and character states that is quantified with numbers

stramenopiles

gliding motility, one nucleus, fission, plant pathogens

What is the blastopore?

the opening of the central cavity of an embryo in the early stage of development.

blastopore:

the opening of the central cavity of an embryo in the early stage of development. Becomes mouth in protostome Becomes anus in deuterostome

Complete gut:

the organism has two holes and the food only goes one way through the digestive system

Cephalothorax:

the part of the chelicerata on which the legs, chelicerae, and pedipalps are attached

pharyngeal slits

the pharynx is a muscular organ that brings water in through the mouth (via cilia) which then passes through a series of openings to the outside (slits). Used both in feeding and respiration

What is an example of a predatory sponge?

'Harp' sponges have evolved a predatory lifestyle, with hooked spicules.

Know which plants exhibit the haplontic life cycle

("algal"lineages)

Holometabolous:

(90% of all insects) single, radical metamorphosis with a pupal. (caterpillar to pupa to butterfly)

What are euarthropoda? What organisms are included in it?

(Eu)Arthropoda are a lineage within Panarthropoda. It includes 75- 80% of all known animal species. 1. Hexapoda (Insects) 2. Chelicerata (Arachnida, etc) 3. Malacostraca (Crabs, Shrimp) 4. Myriapoda (Millipedes, Centipedes)

Know which plants exhibit the sporic life cycle

(Land Plants)

dikaryon

(N + N); formed through plasmogamy; has two genetically-distinct but allelically-compatible nuclei

Know which plants exhibit the heterosporic life cycle

(Seed Plants, Lepto. Ferns, spike moss)

Know which traits evolved independently in Lycophytes and Seed plants

(heterospory and secondary growth)

Understand what we mean when we say that something is a "diagnostic feature"of a group

(i.e., it is a trait that is inferred to have evolved in the MRCA of the group, which is equivalent to saying that it is a synapomorphy of the group).

Know which traits evolved independently in Lycophytes and Euphyllophytes

(leaves and roots)

Know the first cell of the haploid gametophyte generation of Land Plants

(spore)

Understand the function of an outgroup and how it is selected.

(to root an unrooted tree) (based on independent evidence)

Know the first cell of the diploid sporophyte of Land Plants

(zygote)

The 3 types of coelom

*Acoelomate*: lack a coelom (do not have a true body cavity.) -It is usually filled with cells. *Pseudocoelomate*: mesoderm covers half of coelomate *Coelomate*: mesoderm completely encases coelom

adaptive value of vascular system

*Efficient transport of water & nutrients allows plants to colonize more fully terrestrial environments *Rigid structural support allows plants to grow taller and to compete more effectively for sunlight and to enhance spore dispersal

lophotrochozoan

*Lophophore*: horseshoe shaped feeding organ covered in tentacles *Trochophore*: a specialized, free-swimming larval stage -Ciliated -Complete gut -Means the organism is aquatic

Body plan of molluscs

*Mantle*: fold of tissue along the dorsal surface that covers the visceral mass and encloses the mantle cavity -Secretes the shell of the organism when shell is present *Foot*: large, ventral muscle mass -Used for moving, burrowing, feeding -Modified into siphon (valves) or tentacles *Visceral mass*: central mass that encloses the digestive, circulatory, excretory, and reproductive systems *Radula*: rasping organ used for feeding (lost in filter feeders) -Comes out of body to scrape food off of surfaces

which traits evolved independently in Lycophytes and Euphyllophytes

*leaves* Megaphylls in euphyllophytes Microphylls in Lychophytes *roots* Complex roots in euphyllophytes simple roots in lychophytes

virus gene

+ sense ssRNA, - sense ssRNA, dsRNA, dsDNA, ssDNA

Protostomes

- "mouth first" - blastopore develops into mouth - mesoderm forms near the lip of blastopore - coelom formed by splitting of mesoderm

Deuterostomes

- "mouth second" - blastopore develops into anus - mesoderm and coelom form from out pocketing of gut wall

What are Scorpiones?

- Arachnida (scorpions) Telson with a sting and venom gland • Give birth to live young, maternal care • Some medical significance (Buthidae)

What are synapomorphies of deuterostomes?

- Blastopore becomes anus - Enterocoely - Radial, regulative cleavage

What is something that only occur in multicellularity in comparison to colonial organisms?

- Division of labor - Some give up reproduction

What are oligochaetes?

- Earthworms (clitellata) • Includes terrestrial and aquatic species. • Predators, deposit feeders, and detritivores. • Cross- fertilizing hermaphrodites, held together during mating with mucus secreted by clitellum.

2. Anthropods

- HYPERDIVERSE group - 3/4 of all described animal species "bilaterally symmetrical coelomate protosomes" with... -"jointed foot" - found in all habitats - segmented body -paired jointed appendages ( internal muscle attachments) - tagmosis -exoskeleton -periodic molting -paired, compound eyes -open circulatory system -complete gut (like Mollusc) -CNS (like annelida) a. Chelicerata (spiders) b. Myriapoda (millipede) c. Crustacea(crab) d. Hexapoda (insect)

What are Hirudinoidea?

- Leaches (Clitellata) • Mostly blood-feeding ectoparasites, but some are active predators. • Lack paired setae, have anterior and posterior suckers for attaching to prey. • Produce a combination of anesthetics, anticoagulants, and vasodilators during feeding

What are similarities between colonial and multicellularity?

- Multiple cells - Secrete an extracellular matrix (ECM) - Cells attach to each other of the ECM - Cell to cell communication

What are the synapomorphies of echinodermata?

- Pentaradial symmetry (as adults) - Endoskeleton of calcareous plates - Water vascular system

Chitins

- Polyplacophora - dorsoventrally flattened - multiple shell plates - multiple gills

What are Araneae?

- Spiders • Two tagmata (cephalothorax, abdomen) • Spinnerets produce silk • Pedipalps modified as sperm delivery organs • Some medical significance

What are Acari?

- arachnida (arthropoda) - mites and ticks • Dominant arthropods in many ecosystems • Few body segments, chelicerae highly modified • Predators, herbivores, parasites • Some medically significant (Lyme's disease)

What are Trilobita?

- arthropoda • Extinct lineage (500-250 mya) of early marine animals. • Segmented, cephalized, many with well-developed eyes. • Several species used as indicator taxa.

What are chelicerata?

- arthropoda • Two tagmata (cephalothorax, abdomen) • Chelicerae • Four pairs of walking legs and pedipalps • Predators, herbivores, parasites • Some medically significant • Arachnida is the most diverse

What are cirripedia?

- barnacles (pancrustacea) • Sessile, filter feeders, some parasitic • Entirely marine, typically encrust in shallow water • Sequential hermaphrodites with internal AND external fertilization

What are hymenoptera?

- bees, wasps, ants (hexapoda) • 130,000 species • Two pairs of wings connected by hooks; hamuli • Females with ovipositor modified into a sting • Important pollinators in agriculture, many beneficial species

What are coleoptera?

- beetles (hexapoda) - The most diverse insect lineage • One pair of wings modified into protective coverings; elytra

What are the key features of bilateria?

- bilateral symmetry - cephalization - segmentation

Pogonophorans (beard worms)

- bizarre gutless worms - live in chitinous tubes often at great depths - species inhabiting hydrothermal vents have symbiotic bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide as an energy source to fix carbon (chemoautotroph)

3. Vertebrates

- evolved an enlarged brain, crainal skeleton, and vertebral column of bone/ cartilage - very diverse in environment Over view of clades goes a. hagfish b. lampreys c. chondrichthyans d. ray fined fish( bony fish) e. tetrapods

Keystone species

- ex. army ants - ex. sea otters - species with disproportionately large effect on ecosystem dynamics

Trilobites

- extinct group of marine anthropods - bottom dwellers, probably scavengers

Platyhelminthes

- flatworms - planaria - flukes - tapeworms

What are holometabola?

- hexapoda - 85% of all described insect species (~850,000 species) • Diverse ecology (herbivores, predators, parasatoids) • Important as pollinators and pests • Medical significance

What are entognatha?

- hexapoda • Small, wingless insects that usually occur in moist environments. • Reduced respiratory system, many are blind, internal mouthparts. • Likely a paraphyletic group.

What are Lepidoptera?

- holometabola - Butterflies and Moths • 175,000 described species • Highly specialized and diverse lifestyles • Important pests and pollinators, plant coevolution • Many species sequester defensive chemicals from host plants

Anthropoda

- hyper diverse groups - "jointed foot" - bilaterally symmetrical, coelomate, protostome - segmented body with structures repeated in each segment - paired jointed appendages - tagmosis --> division of body into functional subunits - chitinous exoskeleton in multiple articulating plates - growth by periodic molting - paired compound eyes - reduced coelom and open circulatory system - complete gut with regional specialization - well developed nervous system - complete but variable execratory and respiratory system

What are cephalochordata?

- lancelets (chordata) • Filter feeders using pharynx and slits; no siphons • Segmented body muscles

Anthozoa

- large, diverse group - no medusa stage - both solitary and colonial species - corals --> intracellular photosynthetic protists called zooxanthellae

Cephalopod communication

- largely visual - movements and body color changes - chromatophores --> cells with no pigments; changes in shape = changes in color

d. ray- finned fish

- largest clade of bony fish - includes the all important cichlid fish radiation in Africa that every Bio class feels the need to talk about - has efficient undirectional flow

Freshwater Clams

- life cycle includes a larval stage parasitic on fish - mantle edge of clam mimics a small minnow

What are the characteristics of coconut crabs?

- malacostraca • Largest terrestrial arthropod species, 1m in length up to 9lbs! • Mostly scavengers, but will climb palms for coconuts

Ants

- most diverse and abundant group of social insects - have colonized almost all terrestrial habitats - some ant queens have ben recorded to live for 25 years

Hexapods (insects)

- most diverse subgroup - three body tagmata: 1. cephalization 2. thorax 3. abdomen - one pair of antennae - three pairs of legs - respiration by tracheae - originally --> mouth parts with mandibles - wings evolved once within insects

Echinoderm reproduction

- mostly dioecious with external fertilization - asexual --> regeneration of body parts

Polycheata

- mostly marine worms - well developed head with tentacles and other sensory structures - well developed parapodia and setea

What are chilopoda?

- myriopoda (arthropoda), centipedes • One pair of legs per segment • First pair of appendages modified into poison claw (forcipules) • Small to large (2mm- 30cm), often with bright warning colors • All are predaceous

Anthropoda Reproduction

- nearly all anthropods are dioecious - fertilization usually internal - development often involves larval stage - complex metamorphosis in some insects and crustaceans

What are orthoptera

- neoptera -Grasshoppers, Crickets, Mole crickets, Katydids • ~20,000 species, mouthparts modified for chewing • Stridulation

Echinoidea (sea urchins)

- no arms but usually long spines - ossicles fit together into a test - omnivores, important as grazers of algae

Sponge Anatomy

- oculum = opening on top of sponge - pores = place that good goes in - spongocoel = cavity in sponges

Clitellata

- oligochaetes and leeches - freshwater and terrestrial - lack parapodia and tentacles - clitellum --> thickened band in middle of the body that secretes a cocoon for protection of young

What are odonata?

- paleoptera - Dragonflies and Damselflies • Extensive fossil record, some of the largest flying insects (71cm). • Predaceous lifestyle, important part of stream ecology. • Life cycle similar to mayflies, but adults are longer lived.

What are characteristics of cestoda?

- platyhelminthes - tapeworms • No gut or cephalization, no mouth, no respiratory system, etc. • Exclusively internal parasites of animals

Annelida reproduction

- polychaete --> usually dioecious with external fertilization and trochopore larva - others --> monoecious with internal fertilization and direct development

Leeches

- predators and blood sucking ectoparasites - lack setae, have anterior and posterior suckers for attaching to prey - blood-feeders produce anesthetics, anticoagulates, and a vasodilator

Army ants

- rapacious predators - mass foraging, nomadic ants with specialized queens - colonies contain up to 20 million workers - prey upon invertebrates and small vertebrates - keystone species 1. intensity of predation 2. a diverse fauna of dependent organisms

Amphibians

- require moist environments - lose water rapidly through skin - early stages often require H2O - three extant clades 1. Caelilians (limbless) 2. frogs and toads (tailless) 3. Salamanders (tailed)

Nematoda (nematods)

- roundworms - includes model organism Caenorhabditis elegans - many species of medical and agricultural importance

Hagfishes

- scavengers on dead animals - no bone, no jaws - tongue with rasping teeth - can tie themselves in a knot for greater leverage when tearing food away from prey - produce copious amounts of slime

What are holothuroidea?

- sea cucumbers (echinodermata) • 1,200 described species, scavengers and filter feeders • Soft-bodied, secondary bilateral symmetry • Catch collagen allows them squeeze into tight places • Unique defense (evisceration), some are toxic

Echinodermata

- sea lilies, sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers - bottom dwelling marine organisms, predators, grazers, particle feeders -calcareous endoskeleton --> composed of plates or ossicles - pentaradial symmetry, no head - complex water vascular system derived from coelom - complete gut with regional specialization - diffuse nervous system, no brain - respiration and excretion by diffusion across epidermis

2. Tunicate

- sea squirts - bag like with enlarged pharynx for filter feeding - chordates becuase the larvae show all the correct features -has endostyle

What are Asteroidea?

- sea stars (echinodermata) • 1500 described species, both shallow and deep habitats • Mostly predaceous with an evertable stomach • Remarkable capacity for regeneration

What are echinoidea?

- sea urchins and sand dollars • 950 described species • Slow moving, grazers on algae (Aristrotle's lantern) • Protected by spines (urchins) and a calcareous test

Bivalves

- shell in two parts, hinged dorsally - mostly sedentary filter feeders, no radula - food and water brought in by siphon

Cephalopod eye

- single lens, convergent with invertebrates - excellent visual acuity

What are amoebozoans a sister group to? Also know two examples mentioned in class.

- sister group of opisthokonts - include the plasmodial and cellular slime molds.

Crustaceans

- three body tagmata 1. cephalization 2. abdomen 3. thorax - appendages specialized for sensing, locomotion, respiration, etc. - dorsal carapace (hard upper shell) - diverse feeding habits

What are Urochordata?

- tunicates (chordata) • Body surrounded by a tunic; a thick cellulose covering • Mostly sessile, one lineage free-swimming • Feeding through incurrent and excurrent siphons

Ants

- type of social insect -most diverse and abundant - ARMY ANTS - mass foraging with specialized queens. - can have around 20 million workers - predatory - "KEYSTONE SPECIES" because their intensity of predation and diverse organisms are dependent upon them ( ie ant birds)

Tunicates

- urochordates - sea squirts --> bag-like enlarged perforated pharynx for filter-feeding

Cephalopods

- wholly marine, actively mobile predators - largest and smartest invertebrates - foot modified as tentacles and siphon - shell --> nactilus internal shell --> squid, cutlefish lost --> octopus - locomotion by jet propulsion --> siphon expels water from mantle cavity - capable of learning and memory task; can learn through observation

1. Anthozoa

-Cnidarian family >>information for corals below<< - sessile and colonial animals with calcarious exoskeleton ( formed when CaCO3 is secreted at base of polyp with accumulate to form coral reefs) -have intracellular photosynthetic protists called ZOOXANTHELLAE

Hydrostatic skeleton

-Fluid-filled cavity surrounded by muscles - fluid is essentially incompressible - actions by antagonistic muscles changes shape of cavity causing movement or maintains body support under hydrostatic pressure 1. contraction of circular muscles --> elongation of body segments 2. contraction of longitudinal muscles --> shortening of body segments

Know the diagnostic features of Plants (Plantae)

-Primary endosymbiosis of chloroplast -Cellulose cell wall -Chlorophyll a

Explain how are coral reefs formed and where they occur. Islands are formed by volcanic activity

-Rain begins to fall and erodes it slowly and flattens it -Shoreline has lots of hard substrate, this hard substrate is a key limiting resource -larval coral settles here -Becomes a fringing reef -The island sinks and reef constantly is growing up the surface -The reef eventually becomes a donut-like shape which is called an atoll

Spicules

-Synapomorphy of sponges -Serve as support and defensive structures -Calcium or glass

Sponge lineage

-all aquatic -7/8 are demosponges -sessile adults with motile larvae -filter feed on microscopic particles using microvilli and digested intercellulary -can reproduce asexually or sexually

porifera -aquatic or terrestrial -______ at adulthood -_______ larvae -_____ feeders -symmetry? -gut? -Lack ______ stage -how many tissue layers -have ___________ to aid in feeding

-aquatic -sessile at adulthood -motile larvae -filter feeders -Asymmetrical -No gut -Lack gastrula stage -1 tissue layer -choanocytes

Cleavage

-early stages of cell division after zygote formation, resulting in multiple cells (aka blastomeres) and a longitudinal axis -pattern of cleavage vary and function in how much yolk (stored nutrient) is in the egg - can be: radial or spiral

What are some major innovations in vertebrates? (Name all that were discussed in class)

-endothermic -powered flight -lung/air bladder -paired limbs -amniotic egg (allows development of egg on land without the risk of desiccation)

What can we conclude about characters in ctenophora?

-humans are more closely related to sponges than ctenophores -nervous system evolved twice

Bilateria family

-includes Protosomes and Deuterosomes 1. Triploblastic 2. Bilateral symmetry

Trend of Coevolution with flowering plants

-insects evolved before angiosperms so flowers didn't effect origin of clades but the Diversity within them. - plant feeding insects are more-species- rich than those who arent (ie predators/scavengers)

Name some of arthropods major groups.

-mandibulates -hexapoda (insects) -crustacea (crabs, shrimp, lobster) -myriapoda (centipedes, millipedes) -chelicerata -spiders, scorpions, tick, horeseshoe crab -trilobita completely extinct

d. Cephalopods

-marine, mobile predators -largest & smartest invertebrates - tentacles + siphon from modified foot - locomotion by jet propulsion by siphoning water into mantle cavity - capable of memory & learning by observation -convergently evolved the same eyes as vertebrates = supports " deep homology" concept -communication is largely visual ( by changing movement/body shape/ body color)

cnidaria -medusa produces _______ -polyp produces ______

-medusa produces gametes (sexually) -polyp produces medusa (asexually)

Which statement about them below is FALSE? -nematodes are known from every habitat on earth including Antarctica and deep oceanic trenches -nematodes are important agricultural pests -nematodes form mutualisms with fungi -nematodes are important parasites of plants and animals

-nematodes form mutualisms with fungi

What distinguishes an echinoderms? water vascular system with tube feet

-pentaradial symmetry (except in sea cucumbers- bilateral symmetry) -hard calcareous endoskeleton of internal plates with epidermal covering -pentaradial symmetry in adults and bilateral symmetry in larvae larvae are ciliated -loss of pharyngeal slits

how do sponges defend themsleves? (3)

-spicules -chemicals -antimicrobials

After much research what is the "Amino Acid synthesizing machine" called? What else can you tell us about this?

-the xylella produces necessary amino acids that are missing in the host diet -The bacteria in the aphid gut are the synthesizing machine

What three things must viruses be able to do if they are to survive in the real world?

1) Get into the susceptible host 2) Replicate and make more virus 3) Have some mechanism to move the newly made virus to new susceptible hosts

What are the main steps in quorum sensing?

1) Signal producing proteins are produced and released from the bacteria 2) Signal proteins attach to signal receptors on each individual bacteria and they can identify if the receptor is from their own species or from another species

What are three ways sponges defend themselves?

1) Spicules- physical deterrent 2) Biotoxins- biochemical defense 3) Antimicrobials- prevent infection

Four major clades of Cnidaria

1. Anthozoa: sea anenomes, corals, sea pens 2. Hyrozoa: hydrozoans 3. Scyphozoa: sea jellies, have extensive mesoglea 4. Cubozoa (cube or box jellies) very toxic!

Sponge features

1. Asymmetrical 2. Gut-less 3. Aquiferous system 4. Differentiated cell types but no true tissues/ organs 5. cells arranged in gelatinous matrix (mesohyl) with collage and sometimes spicules (skeletal elements)

Sponge features

1. Asymmetrical and gutless 2. Aquiferous system 3. Differentiated cell types but no true tissues or organs 4. Cells arranged in gelatinous matrix with collagen and usually spicules

Features of Porifera (sponges)

1. Asymmetrical gutless animals 2. Aquiferous system: branched water canals 3. Differentiated cell types but no true tissues or organs 4. Cells arranged in gelatinous matrix (mesohyl) with collagen and usually spicules (skeletal elements)

4 Major Anthropod Clades

1. Chelicerata --> arachnids, horseshoe crab 2. Myriapoda --> centipedes, millipedes 3. Crustacea --> crabs, shrimp, lobster, barnacles 4. Hexapoda --> insects, allies

Major Mollusca clades

1. Chitons --> shell plates and repeated gills 2. Gastropods --> torsion 3. Bivalves --> burrowing foot 4. Cephalopods --> arms/tentacles and siphon for propulsion

What specific evidence supports choanoflagellates as the sister group of Metazoa?

1. Collar cells (choanocytes) also seen in sponges. 2. DNA sequence data. 3. Homologous cell signaling and adhesion genes (shh).

Evidence that Choanoflagellates are sister group to Metazoa

1. Collar cells (shared with sponges) 2. Structure of mitochondria 3. DNA sequence data 4. Posses homologues of Metazoan cell signaling and adhesion genes

Why are choanaflagellates considered the sister group of animals?

1. Collar cells are shared between choanoflagellates and sponges 2. Choanoflagellates have homologues of metazoan cell signaling and adhesion genes 3. DNA sequence data

What are the three clades in porifera?

1. Demospongiae* 2. Calcarea 3. Hexactinellida

Chordates main features

1. Deuterostomes 2. Notochord 3. Dorsal hollow nerve cord 4. Postanal tail 5. Pharyngeal slits - all present in embryo

In bilaterally symmetrical animals:

1. Distinct anterior and posterior 2. Cephalization 3.Segmentation

Bilaterally symmetrical animals have..

1. Distinct anterior and posterior ends 2. Cephalization: differentiation of anterior end into a head with concentration of sensory organs 3. Segmentation: serial repetition of body parts in well-defined segments

What are 2 theories about sponges?

1. Early diverging animals 2. Highly derived b/c they lost a lot of features

What are the three types of embryonic layers?

1. Ectoderm = outside layer 2. Mesoderm = middle layer 3. Endoderm = inner layer

What needed to develop before vertebrata?

1. Enlarged brain 2. Cranial skeleton 3. Vertebral column of bone or cartilage

Three examples of convergence in tetrapods

1. Evolution of snake-like reptiles 2.Ratite birds:flightlessness has evolved many times 3. Marsupial/eutherian convergence in mammals

Reproduction

1. External --> chitons and bivalves 2. Internal --> gastropods and cephalopods

(general) Mollusca Body form

1. FOOT: large muscle mass mainly for locomotion that can be modified for burrowing( ex bivalves) or tentacles (ex. cephalopods) squishy large part 2. MANTLE: fold of tissue that covers the visceral mass and mantle cavity. Secretes the shell 3. VISCERAL MASS: proper body with digestive, circulatory, excretory and reproductive organs

Clitellata characteristics

1. Freshwater and terrestrial 2.Lack of parapodia and tentacles 3.Clitellum 4.Deposit feeders 5. Cross-fertilizing hermaphrodites

What are the three synapomorphies of chordates

1. dorsal hollow nerve 2. notochord 3. postanal tail

Characteristic features of Metazoa

1. Multicellular organism with specialization, communication, and interdependency 2. Heterotrophs 3. Food ingested 4. Diplontic life cycle 5. Distinctive male gametes: spermatoza 6. Distinctive development: zygote --> blastula --> gastrula 7. Motility 8. Distinctive cell junctions unique to metazoans 9. Collagen in the extracellular matrix

Characteristic features of metazoans

1. Multicellularity 2. Heterotrophy 3. Extracellular digestion in gut 4. Diplontic life cycle 5. Zygote-blastula-gastrula

Non-unique synapomorphies

1. Multicellularity 2. Diplontic life cycle

4 Characteristics of chordates

1. Notochord 2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord 3.Postanal tail 4.Pharyngeal slits

Extinct species

1. Ostracoderms --> heavily armored jawless fishes 2. Placoderms --> amor-plated predators with jaws and teeth like structures - first jawed vertebrates

Major groups of Annelids

1. Polychaeta: paraphyletic 2. Clitellata: loss of parapodia

Annelida clades

1. Polychaete 2. Clitellata

Difference between polyp and medusa in cnidaria

1. Polyp is sessile and medusa are mobile. 2. Polyp has anus/mouth on the top while medusa has on the bottom. 3. Polyp asexually reproduce while medusa create gametes and are used for sexual reproduction.

Diagnostic features of all plants

1. Possession of a chloroplast arose via primary endosymbiosis of a cyanobacteria 2. The photo pigment chlorophyll a 3. Cell walls with cellulose

3 major clades of mammals

1. Prototherians 2. Marsupials 3. Eutherians

What are the three groups in mammals?

1. Prototherians - Lay eggs, but provide milk, No nipples 2. Marsupials - Have a placenta, young are undeveloped 3. Eutherians - Young are born developed

Types of body symmetry:

1. RADIAL: form of cylinder 2. BILATERAL : wil have distinct anterior and posterior, will be cephalized and segmented

Characteristics of ctenophores

1. Radial symmetry 2. Diploblastic development 3. Complete gut 4. Nerve net as nervous system 5. Simple musculature

Characteristics of cnidaria

1. Radial symmetry with oral/open end 2.Incomplete gut with single opening that is mouth/anus the leads to gastrovascular cavity 3.Diploblastic: two cell layers separated by mesoglea ectoderm and endoderm

Unique synapomorphies

1. Spermatozoa 2. Blastula 3. Septate junctions 4. Collagen

Why are sponges dominant organisms but experience limited predation

1. Spicules=physical deterrent 2. Biotoxins 3. Use antimicrobial agents to prevent infection by microbes 4.Use chemical repellants when competing for space

Major lineages of metazoans

1. Sponges 2. Diploblastic 3. Triploblastic or Bilaterians ( Protosomes and Deuterostomes)

Diagnostic features of vascular plants (tracheophytes)

1. The sporophyte is nutritionally independent of the gametophyte at maturity 2. Tracheid cells with lignified cell walls that provide structural support

What are 3 examples of nematode-caused diseases?

1. Trichinosis (caused by undercooked pork) 2. Elephantiasis (nematode targets the lymph nodes) 3. Root-knot (form galls on the root system of plants)

Major features of Bilateria

1. Triploblastic Blastula-gastrula-complete gut 2. Bilateral symmetry 3. Anterior/posterior axis 4.Cephalization

Myriapoda characteristics

1. Two body tagmata: head and trunk 2. Segments with either one or two pairs of legs 3. Centipedes: carnivorous with poison fangs 4. Millipedes: Scavengers-some secrete cyanide in defense

Trend of wing evolution

1. Wingless (in MRCA ex silverfish) 2. no wing folding ( ex dragon fly) 3. Orthopteroids ( weak, clumsy fliers like grasshopers & roaches) 4. Hemipteroids (functional, but still stupid wings. "true" bugs like beetles, some are completely lost like aphids tho 5. Lastly, insects with complete, well working wings like flies, wasps etc.)

What 4 groups are in Chelicerata? What are some defining features?

1. Xiphosura (horseshoe crabs) 2. Acari (mites and ticks) 3. Scorpiones (scorpions) 4. Aracheae (spiders) -2 tagmata (cephalothroax and abdomen); chelicereae; 4 pairs of walking legs and pedipalps

What are the 3 sponge body plans?

1. asconoid 2. syconoid (choanocyte lined canals) 3. leuconoid (choanocyte lined chambers; most efficient)

Reason choanoflagellates are sister to Metazoa?

1. collar cells (same on sponges and choano..) 2. structure of mitochondria 3. DNA sequence 4. Choanoflagellates have homologues of metazoan cell signaling and adhesion genes (aka the Hedgehog Gene that is not found in any other nonmetazoan taza)

Mollusca key features

1. complete gut 2. reduced coelom 3. open circulatory system (hemocoel) 4. mantle, visceral mass, and foot 5. mouth with radula

tissues of the angiosperm seed (3)

1. diploid embryo 2. triploid endosperm 3. diploid integument (seed coat) from parent sporophyte

Three examples of convergence in amniotes

1. evolution of snake form: there are limbless lizards that look completely the same except the lizards will have vestigial limbs and eyelids 2. ratite birds: are large flightless birds in S. hemisphere like kiwis, emu and ostrich. possibly evolved three independent times in each one of clades mentioned above 3. marsupial convergence: marsupials were isolated in Australia but still convergently evolved similarly to eutherians( placental animals) occupy similar niches

3 examples of convergence

1. evolution of snake-like reptiles 2. case of ratite birds --> large flightless birds confined to the southern hemisphere 3. marsupial/eutherian convergence in mammals

Unique to Metazoans:

1. extracellular digestion in gut 2. zygote>blastula>gastrula

Synapomorphies of Eumetazoa

1. gastrulation 2. diploblasty 3. nervous system 4. musculature

Evolution of jaws

1. gill arches: cartilaginous gill supports 2. anterior gill arches modified as bony jaws 3. additional gill arches added, teeth acquired

Trend of Metamorphosis

1. hemimetabolous life cycle with three stages egg>>nymp>>adult developed to the last subgroup with: 2. homometabolous life cycle with four stages egg>>larva>>pupa>>adult that has MAJOR reorganization at pupal stage like butterflies -every morph can specialize for their specific function

Key innovations to exploit terrestrial environment

1. impermeable skin 2. efficient kidneys 3. amniote egg (with shell and membranes that resist desiccation)

What are 3 innovations of amniotes?

1. impermeable skin 2. efficient kidneys (conserve water) 3. amniotic egg (protects embryo from desiccation; lack metamorphic larval stage)

Trends in Vertebrates

1. increased cephalization 2. increased agile movements 3. new feeding modes 4. " physiological upgrading"

Trends in vertebrate evolution

1. increased cephalization 2. increased agility of movement 3. new feeding modes, especially predators 4. physiological upgrading

five major groups of echinodermata

1. sea lilies, feather stars 2. sea stars 3. brittle stars 4. sea urchins 5. sea cucumbers

How do they stay dominant?

1. spicules provide physical determent 2. have potent biochemical defenses 3. they us antimicrobial agents to prevent infections by microbes 4. they employ chemical warfare against organisms that compete for space with them

Why are sponges dominant and experience limited predaion?

1. spicules provide physical deterrent 2. potent biotoxins 3. antimicrobial agents to prevent infection 4. chemical warfare against organisms that compete for space with them

Consequences of an exoskeleton

1. support for walking on land 2. protection again predators 3. chitin reduces water loss

Major eusocial insects

1. termites 2. ants 3. some bees 4. some wasps

What are three types of cell junctions?

1. tight junctions 2. desmosomes 3. gap junctions

Bilateria features

1. triploblastic 2. bilateral symmetry 3. anterior/posterior axis 4. cephalization

Cnidarian body forms

1. tube shaped polyp; usually sessile with oral end up 2. bell shaped medusa; motile, oral end facing downward - most cnidarians alternate between these two body forms during their life cycle

What are some innovations that mark the transition of life onto land (of metazoans)?

1. use of lungs 2. modification of jointed fins into limbs 3. skin modification (can't be too permeable) 4. internal fertilization 5. evolution of shelled eggs

Colonization of land involved..

1. use of lungs --> modified from the swim bladder 2. modification of jointed fins to become limbs

2 types of novel cell junctions?

1.Adhesive cell junctions, which are molecular devices that hold the cells together 2.Gap cell junctions-serves as a tunnel between 2 cells and allows for the communication between the cells

What are the three sponge body plans? Given your understanding of these plans, which sponges do you think are smallest? How about largest?

1.Asconoid- simple pores, 1 big opening 2.Syconoid- folded the outside membrane to increase SA, have choanocyte-lined canals 3.Leuconoid- efficient in terms of H20 filtration ability, have choanocyte-lined chambers Leuconoid would be largest because it has the most surface area and is able to absorb more nutrients. Most likely to have evolved multiple times. Asconoid is the smallest.

What are the 2 bacteria found are called and what do each make?

1.Baumannia: makes vitamins and cofactors 2.Sulcia: makes essential amino acids

Four major clades of molluscs

1.Chitons 2.Gastropods 3.Bivalves 4.Cephalopods

Name all of the major evolutionary innovation of metazoans and describe what each of them are.

1.Collagen: fibrous protein, resides in ECM -- prevent tissues from being pulled apart; major ingredient in leather i.e. the skin of eels and cows 2.Novel cell junctions: adhering (bind cells together) & gap (form intercellular channels for communication). Formed by specialized proteins that are partly in the cell membrane 3.Multicellularity?

Traits associated with bilateral symmetry

1.Segmentation 2. Increased sensory and locomotor ability

Characteristics of arthropodia

1.Segmented body 2. Paired jointed appendages with internal muscle attachments 3. Strong tendency towards TAGMOSIS 4. Chitinous exoskeleton in multiple articulating plates 5.Ecdysis: molting of exoskeleton 6.Paired compound eyes with ommatidia 7. Reduced coelom and open circulatory system 8.Complete gut 9. Well developed nervous system 10. Complex/variable excretory and respiratory systems

Characteristic features of annelids

1.Segmented body 2. each segment paired with bundles of CHITINOUS SETAE 3.Parapodia: each segment with paired appendages 4. Body wall with inner longitudinal and outer circular muscles 5.Differentiated posterior and anterior 6.Closed circulatory; cutaneous respiration 7. Complete gut 8. Well developed excretory and CNS

Mutalisms with coral

1.ZOOXANTHELLAE zooxanthellae give coral photosyntheic produces (ie glucose and glycerol) and receive metabolic wastes (ie N and P) from coral. 2. CLOWNFISH fishes mucus contains chemicals that deter firing of nemacysts (industrially useful) so they have a place to live

e. tetrapods

== terrestrial vertebrates had to evolve: lungs, and jointed fins became limbs e1. amphibians e2. reptiles e3. mammals

Mutualism

A type of interaction between species that benefits both species (Ex: Rhizobium and plants)

Commensalism

A type of interaction in which species in which one participant benefits while the other is unaffected (Ex: clown fish and sea anemones)

What are ctenophores the sister group to?

All other animals

pure cultures

Allows one to connect processes and properties to single type of organism, enhances ability to do experiments, provides possibility of large volumes of uniform material for study, can supplement appearance based classification with other types of data.

Reproduction in Cnidaria

Alternation between an asexual polyp stage and a sexual medusa stage Medusa release sperm and eggs Zygote develops into ciliated larva Larva settles and develops into polyp Polyp buds asexually into colony of polyps Some polyps later produce and release medusae asexually

Basic virus "life cycle"

Attachment to host cell membrane, penetration of host cell membrane, uncoating, replication, self-assembly of virus particles, and release from the cell

Leaf cutter ants

Attine ants; cut leaves, feeds to fungus at nest, then eats the fungus (hyphae). fungus=nutrition source for larvae. Fungus gets food and ants get food for larvae

What is a blastula? What is a gastrula? How do these relate to gut types in animals?

Blastula: a hollow ball of cells that forms when the zygote grows into a juvenile larva Sponges only have blastocoel (no gut) Blastula stage usually has a single cell layer around a central fluid-filled cavity Gastrula: an embryo at the stage following the blastula, when it is a hollow cup-shaped structure having 3 layers of cells. If the Gastrula remains "cup shape" it is an incomplete two-way gut If the Gastrula creates two equal halves of ecto- & endo-derm then it is a complete, one-way gut

What is bleaching and what causes it?

Bleaching is when the symbiodinium (photosynthetic algae that have a symbiosis with corals) is expelled the color is lost Causes: temperature, exposure to air, sedimentation, freshwater run-off, nutrient loads, senobioties

Describe the nervous system of earthworms?

Brain on one end

Sponges move water to feed, using choanocytes. Medusae move water to swim, using what structures? A. Nematocysts B. Sticky tentacles C. Muscle D. Nerve cells E. Polyps

C. Muscle

Corals

Cnidaria (Anthozoa);incomplete gut; diploblastic; sessile and colonial, with calcareous exoskeleton; the calcium carbonate deposits secreted at the base of each polyp accumulate and form coral reefs; corals have intracellular photosynthetic protists (cryptomonads and dinoflagellates) called zooxanthellae

Scyphozoa

Cnidaria; incomplete gut; diploblastic; radial symmetry;true "jellyfish" (sea jellies), named for extensive mesoglea

Cubozoa

Cnidaria; radial symmetry; diploblastic; dieoscious; cube or box jellies (sea wasps), small group, sting is very toxic

2. Hydrozoa

Cnidarian clade containing useful lab animal : Hydra and huge crazy Portugese man-of-war

cephalization:

Concentration of sensory organs on an animal. Commonly associated with bilateria, except for bivalves.Major trend in Metazoan. Lost in some groups depending on feeding strategy/ ecology.

What does longitudinal muscles do in annelid movement?

Contract the muscle which cause the segment to get 'fat'

What are the distinguishing features of crustaceans? How do these compare to the features of insects (hexapods)? How would you best describe the relationships of insects to crustaceans?

Crustacean Features: 3 tagmata 2 pairs of antennae Nauplius larval stage Appendages modified for variety of functions Hexapoda Features: 3 tagmata 1 pair of antennae 3 pairs of legs Respiration by tracheae Mandibles Basically, Insects = terrestrial crustaceans

What are the distinguishing features of crustaceans? How do these compare to the features of insects (hexapods)? How would you best describe the relationships of insects to crustaceans?

Crustaceans have three tagmata the head, thorax, and abdomen, two pairs of antennae, dorsal carapace that covers the thorax and head, and a nauplius larval stage. Hexapods also have three tagmata same has crustaceans, one pair of antennae, three pairs of legs, respiration by trachea and mouthparts with mandibles.

Diffusion seems to be a major limitation on the size of cells. Which of the following changes to a spherical cell would increase its capacity to deliver oxygen to the inside of the cell? A) Make it larger B) Make it smaller C) Change the shape to that of an M&M (an ellipsoid) D) Make the cell membrane thicker E) Both B & C

E) Both B & C

mandibles

Feeding part of insects; four different parts 1) biting-chewing part 2) Piercing-sucking part 3) siphoning part in butterflies and moths 4) Sponging part in flies • mantle: Fold of tissue along the dorsal surface that covers visceral mass and

gymnosperms

Fleshy megasporangium (2n) protected by integument Megaspore grows into multicellular haploid female gametophyte (n) A pollen grain (n) enters through the micropyle and develops a pollen tube (germinates) The germinated pollen grain releases a sperm nucleus, fertilizing the egg nucleus and initiating seed formation Mature diploid embryo (baby plant) Nutritive haploid tissue (to help support establishing plant) Protective seed coat (from previous sporophyte)

Amphibians include (3)

Frogs, salamanders, caecilians

How do Cnidarians get additions nutritional benefits?

From symbiotic photosynthetic protists

Chloroplasts: cyanobacterium Mitocondria: proteobacterium

From what lineage on the Tree of Life did chloroplasts and mitochondria evolve?

Why do we consider arthropods as hyperdiverse? Which groups contain the largest number of species and why do you think this is so?

Hexapoda (insects → different lecture slides says this group is most diverse with beetles); three orders of insects comprise more than 50% of described animal species (lecture 30); its diversity is supported by the fresh-water and terrestrial species that are a part of it Chelicerata (arachnids are the most diverse group within chelicerata) Crustacea (crabs, shrimp) Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes)

4 main groups of anthropoda

Hexapoda (insects) Chelicerata (arachnida) Malacostraca (crabs, shrimp) Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes)

Bivalves

Hinged two part shell Sedentary filter feeders Siphon

different nucleotide bases in DNA

If life on Earth had multiple origins, what might one see if one compared features of organisms from the separate origins to each other?

swim bladder

In many fish, this primitive lung was modified into a swim bladder for controlling buoyancy.

What is the relationship of LGT to phylogeny reconstruction?

It complicates phylogenetic analysis because many different genes can be passed between different species. Makes it hard to tell what is convergent evolution, derived, ancestral, or if it was LGT

How do the different hypotheses for the phylogenetic placement of ctenophores affect our understanding of animal evolution? Think specifically about neurons and muscles as discussed in lecture.

It is difficult to place them because they have independently developed many different characteristics by themselves including a complete gut, mesoderm and a nervous system, things that are share with later species.

Why is quorum sensing important?

It's important because it explains how bacteria know when to start attacking a host (send a chemical signal to say they have enough bacteria to take over) and they can identify each other and other bacteria in their midst. Allows for communication between bacteria

Synapomorphy of arthropodia

Jointed appendages

Two common examples of fungal symbioses typically described as mutualisms are lichens and mycorrhizae. Define and describe the ecology of these interactions. What are the benefits that each partner gets out of the symbiosis?

Lichens = symbiotic relationship b/w a fungus and green algae, cyanobacteria, or both. When first discovered, they were believed to be primitive plants bc of the presence of chlorophyll Mycobiont = fungal component of a lichen Photobiont = algal and bacterial component of a lichen Fungus receives carbs from photobiont's photosynthetic capabilities; If cyanobacteria is part of symbiosis, fungus also receives nitrogen bc cyanobacteria = capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen to nitrate and ammonium Photobiot receives water and minerals from fungus. Also receives protection from environment Mycorrhizae symbiosis: fungus gets sugar while the plants get minerals and protection from root pathogens

vessels

Low resistance, Bubble block flow

Compare and contrast the evolution of the swim bladder and lungs.

Lungs are gas filled organs that allows for the function of respiration, the MCRCA of bony fish did not have much oxygen so it evolved an air pocket in the digestive tract that became the swim bladder, controlled buoyancy.

Diagnostic features of flowering plants

Megagametophyte is highly reduced (embryo sac is 7 cells with 8 nuclei and the megagametophyte lacks an archegonium), double fertilization, ovary walls become fruit, flowers

Where does mesoderm form for dueterostomes

Mesoderm and coelom form from outpocketing of gut wall

enterocoely

Mesoderm begins to form as two "pockets" of tissue, then begin to grow larger, and extend towards each other. When the two "pockets" of cells meet, the mesoderm is formed - a complete layer of tissue right in between the endoderm and ectoderm layers, leads to the formation of a coelom

Reasons Triploblastic is significant:

Mesoderm is the source of most organs and coelom makes it possible to have a hydrostatic skeleton 1. Complete Gut 2. COELOM: fluid-filled body cavity within mesoderm (thats between endo/ectoderm)

Porifera (sponges)

Monophyletic group; asymmetrical gutless animals; Aquiferous system: branched water canals; Differentiated cell types but no true tissues or organs; cells arranged in gelatinous matrix (mesohyl) with collagen and usually spicules (skeletal elements)

Sponges relationship with others

Mutualism with cyanobacteria or algae living in mesohyl area Commensalism with other organisms using them as shelter (Nemo) ex. shrimp that is an obligate inhabitant of glass sponges because they are physically trapped in sponge once couple is pregnant bc too fat to leave

Symbioses of sponges

Mutualism with cyanobacteria or algae living in sponge mesophyl, exchanging nutrients Commensalism with other marine organisms inhabiting sponges for shelter ie shrimp as obligate inhabitant of glass sponge

Types of symbiosis

Mutualism, commensalism, parasitism

Can protostomes have monozygotic twins?

No; cells are fated too early so the offspring would lose important mRNA

Oomycetes

Non-photosynthetic, absorptive heterotrophs

Exoskeleton significance

PRO -support for walking on land - protection from predators - chitin reduces water loss CON - constraints growth so it must be molted off == ECDYSIS

. Describe movement in an earthworm. What are the roles of segmentation, paired setae,septa, circular muscles, and longitudinal muscles in earthworm movement?

Paired setae serve as anchoring points for movement. Segments divide coelom into separate fluid filled compartment and divisions are called septa. Each segment of earthworm can change shape for locomotion. The circular muscles when it contract causes segment to get 'skinny'/lengthen while longitudinal muscles contract causes the segment to get 'fat'/shorten.

What are the differences in plasmodial slime molds and cellular slime molds in terms of their life cycles? How do plasmodial slime molds show evidence of problem solving? How do cellular slime molds meet our definition of multicellularity?

Plasmodial Slime Molds are coenocytic, feed by scavenging, and have an unusual life cycle. As conditions change, spores on stalked fruiting bodies develop. Cellular Slime Molds are individual motile cells that aggregate into a multicellular fruiting body. Some give up their ability to reproduce when they form a fruiting body, which makes them multicellular.

Know the diagnostic features of Seed plants

Pollen, no outside layer of the seed 'naked seed', does not produce flowers or fruit, pollinated by wind

Whale Fall Worms (Zombie worms)

Polychaete (Annelida) • Chemolithoautotrophs related to beard worms with similar features (no gut). • Live on 'whale falls' the decaying remains of whales. • Bacteria are able to metabolize bone and lipid

Feather Duster Worms

Polychaete (Annelida) • Filter feeders that live inside tubes made of sand or bits of shell.

Spaghetti Worms

Polychaete (Annelida) • Sediment feeders with long, ciliated tentacles that reach out and capture settling detritus

Annelida

Polychaetes, earthworms, leeches, etc; bilaterally symmetrical coelomate protostomes with segmented (metameric) body, with segments marked externally and internally; body structures repeated in each segment (modular units); each segment with paired bundles of chitinous setae (absent in leeches); each segment with paired appendages (parapodia) (present in polychaetes only); inner longitudinal and outer circular muscles; presegmental head and postsegmental terminal part (pygidium); well developed excretory system and central nervous system

List all of the types of symmetry across animals and give examples for each one.

Radial symmetry: Can be divided multiple times (sea anemone) Bilaterial symmetry: can be divided one time (frogs) Pentaradial symmetry: divided into 5? (Echinodermata) Symmetry: plane where animal divide in similar halves

radial, regulative cleavage

Radial: cells divide in stacked formation Regulative: cells do not have a specific purpose early on, so if removed other cells can compensate -deuterostomes

Amphibians

Require moist environments; lose water rapidly through skin; early stages often require water;

Segmentation

Some bilaterians are characterized by having repeated segments segments. Some of these segments are fused into tagma for specialized functions.

spiral, mosaic cleavage

Spiral: cells divide in spiral structure Mosaic: cell fate is determined early, so if they are removed, the embryo will die -protostomes

Bacteria

Spirochotes, Chlamydias, High GC gram +, Cyanobacteria, Lw GC gram +, Proteobacteria,

Characteristic features of Metazoa

Synapomorphies: Multicellularity, diplontic life cycle, zygote-> blastula Unique: Extracellular digestion in gut, zygote-> blastula-> gastrula, zygote-> blastula Heterotrophy is neither a synapomorphy or unique to Metazoa

What are the synapomorphies of echinoderms? Describe how the body plan of echinoderms has been modified in the major groups discussed in class.

Synapomorphies: water vascular system, calcite endoskeleton, tube feet, pentaradial symmetry

What is the difference between protostomes and deuterostomes?

The formation of the blastopore into the "mouth first" is indicative of protostomes, and the formation of the blastopore into the "anus first" is indicative of the deuterostomes.

How are coelacanths relevant to the evolution of tetrapods?

The limbs of tetrapods were derived from the fins of lobe-finned fish such as coelacanths. These limbs are easily homologized with the tetrapod limb. Coelacanths are apart of Sarcopterygii (lobe finned fish) and its bones are easily homologized with tetrapods probably because the fins are joined to the body only by a single bone

Symbiosis

The living together of two or more species in a prolonged and intimate relationship

Kleptoplasty

The stealing of plastids for use as photosynthetic machines

sister species

The two descendants of a speciation event are called ______ (or sister groups), and are each other's closest relatives.

What is missing from vertebrate phylogeny?

The two extinct lineages that fit between lampreys and sharks a. ostracoderms " heavily armored, jawless, with BONES b. placoderms " armor- plated predators with JAWS and 'teeth'" were the first jaws vertebrates and are scary af looking ( were also huge)

What are the mechanics of suction feeding? How do fish use eversible jaws and gills to feed underwater?

There is an undirected flow, where water grows in the mouth and then out of the pharyngeal slits, this is efficient feeding via suction, where the food stays within the mouth cavity. The water exits through the gills.

Key points about the human microbiome

There is quite a bit of variation from person to person, but one's own microbiome is fairly stable over time; The microbiomes of various body sites are similar to everyone (thus your skin microbiome is more similar to other people's skin microbiomes than to your gut microbiome); When microbiomes are classified by the bacterial species they contain, they look very different from person to person; If microbiomes are classified by the presence of various functional capabilities, they look more similar from person to person

What groups comprise Chelicerata? How are they distinguished from other arthropods?

These are four pairs of walking legs and pedipalps, they are medically significant they include scorpions, mites and ticks, spiders and horseshoe crabs. They are distinguished because of their two tagmata and chelicerae which are the appendages by its mouth that become specialized depending on the organism.

Why are cnidarians considered dimorphic?

They have two distinct body forms: medusa (free-living "sea-jelly," oral side down) and polyp (sessile "anemone," oral end up) -medusa produced asexually by the polyp -polyp produced sexually by the medusa

choanoflagellates

They help us understand the development of multicellularity in animals They are colonial Morphology is similar to cells in sponges Basically choanoflagellates show what the MRCA of the animals most likely looked like due to the similarities in choanocytes in sponges and in animal cells as well Presence of a collar and flagella in these cells

Why do tunicates appear to contradict the synapomorphies of chordates? What evidence supports their placement in Chordata?

They lack a dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, and postanal tail, which are all the synapomorphies of chordates, during their adult life. They are placed within chordata because all of the synapomorphies are present during their larval form. (They undergo metamorphosis to form the adult stage).

Know the diagnostic features of Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes)

Tracheids Independent sporophyte

the diagnostic features of Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes) (2)

Tracheids Independent sporophyte

Similarities of LGT and Sexual Reproduction

Transfer of genetic information, variety of genes, selection takes place, requires two organisms, recombination occurs, both create new genetic combinations

T/F Bilaterians all share three embryonic tissue layers.

True

T/F: Tracheids and vessel elements conduct water and minerals, but not sugars.

True

Gastropods

Univalve, usually coiled Torsion Mostly herbivores, some carnivores

evidence all life on earth shares common descent

Use of ACTG in DNA, ACUG in RNA, 3 letter genetic code, central dogma, 20 core amino acids, ribosome for translation, RNA polymerase proteins

What did the colonization of land involve

Use of lungs modified from the swim bladder Modification of lobed fins to become limbs

Explain the role of PCR and phylogenetic analysis rRNA genes in figuring out the mystery of glassy winged sharpshooter.

Used PCR to analyze DNA in order to figure out what type of symbiosis the xylella had with the glassy winged sharpshooter

Homoplasy:

a feature is shared among organisms but was not present in their MRCA

choanocytes

a flagellated cell with a collar of protoplasm at the base of the flagellum, numbers of which line the internal chambers of sponges.

choanocytes

a flagellated cell with a collar of protoplasm at the base of the flagellum, numbers of which line the internal chambers of sponges. (synapomorphy of Porifera).

What is a hydrostatic skeleton?

a fluid-filled internal cavity surrounded by muscle tissue

phylogeny

a graphical description of the evolutionary relationships between taxa(on) and phyla

exoskeleton

a hard covering on the outside of the body to which muscles are attached (usually made of chitin?)

Vertebrate phylogeny

a major transition from water to land and back again

What is the tracheal system?

a network of air tubes that branch throughout the body

What is mesoglea?

a non-cellular jellylike material in cnidarians that helps support organisms

clitellum

a raised band encircling the body of oligochaete worms and some leeches, made up of reproductive segments.

ingroup

a set of species that is helpful in estimating evolutionary relationships

Choanocytes

a synapomorphy for Porifera a flagellated cell with a collar of protoplasm at the base of the flagellum, numbers of which line the internal chambers of sponges. Transport conspecific sperm to archaeocytes.

Character

a trait that can be quantified and put on a data matrix (ability to fly, presence of a post anal tail etc. )

What is cartilage?

a type of flexible connective tisssue

trochophore larva

a type of free-swimming planktonic marine larvae with several bands of cilia

mutualism

a type of symbiosis between species that benefits both species; lots of fungal associations with plant roots fit this classification

What is Echinodermata?

a weird group with no head, radial symmetry, and highly modified body form

invasiveness

ability to multiply in host

How many times has multicellularity evolved in the tree of life?

about 30

choanoflagellate derived traits

absorptive heterotrophy, chitin cell walls

fungi

absorptive nutrition, chitin, chitridiomycota, zygomycota, glomeromycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota

mesoglea:

acellular/non-living layer in cnidaria that aids with structure and oxygen diffusion in cnidaria

Gap junctions

allow communication

spiracles

allow open circulatory system to contact air

sporic

alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid generations (land plants) Gametophyte: multicellular haploid organism that makes gametes Gametangia: the multicellular sex organs of the gametophyte that produce the gametes via mitosis Archegonia: produce female gametes (eggs) Antheridia: produce male gametes (sperm) Gametes fuse at fertilization to produce single cell diploid zygote that gives rise to multicellular diploid sporophyte

endemic

always in community, but low frequency

nagleria

ameboid (feed), flagellate (move)

What is the blastula?

an animal embryo at the early stage of development when it is a hollow ball of cells.

blastula

an early stage of animal embryos; often a hollow sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity (the blastocoel)

Nonvascular land plants never evolved to the size of vascular plants, most likely because they lack:

an efficient system for conducting water and minerals

What is the gastrula?

an embryo at the stage following the blastula, when it is a hollow cup-shaped structure having three layers of cells.

gastrula

an embryo at the stage following the blastula, when it is a hollow cup-shaped structure having three layers of cells.

Gastrula

an embryo stage following the blastula when it is a hollow cup structure with three layer of cells

postanal tail:

an extension of the body after the anus Synapomorphy of chordates

spiracle

an external respiratory opening; found in cartilaginous fish and some insects

lungs

an internal organ specialized for respiratory gas exchange with the air

gooseneck barnacle

arthropod suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

Explain the evolution of vertebrate feeding. from water to land and back to water

ancestral - suction feeding & pharyngeal slits retained unidirectional flow derived - teeth and behavior as specialization re-derived - never re-evolve pharyndeal slits & bidirectional flow

polarity

ancestral or derived

Coelom

and the internal organs are surrounded by mesoderm.

stamen

androecium (filaments and anthers)

Which of the following groups does not have motile sperm? Hornworts Conifers Lycophytes Ferns Angiosperms

angiosperms

what organisms display diplontic life cycle

animals

opisthikont

animals, fungi, choanoflagellates, single posterior flagella

which plants exhibit the diplontic life cycle

animals, humans

spaghetti worms

annelid deposit complete 1-way gut bilateral traits: paired setae, segmented bodies, tentacles

feather duster worm

annelid filter complete 1 way gut bilateral traits: paired setae, segmented bodies, feathery feeding images

indications of LGT

anomalous phylogenetic distribution, incongruent phylogenetic trees, abnormal sequence similarity, atypical composition of a gene

examples of LGT

antibiotic resistance, virulence attributes, metabolic properties

deuterostomes

anus formed first, cell fate determined by proximity late in development; mesoderm pouches so can only be coelomate, radial and regulative cleavage; enterocoely

Deuterostomes

anus is formed first, then the mouth, the coelom forms from mesodermal pouches.

nauplius

aquatic crusteacean larvae stage with 3 pairs of appendages

Chytrids

aquatic, flagella, swimming spores

Turtles are now sister to

archosaurs, so they are equally related to crocodiles and birds

natural evolutionary groups

are completely consistent with the phylogeny Natural groups are monophyletic groups, which includes all of the descendants of a given common ancestor

Placoderms

armor-plated, predators, jaws, teeth, extinct

porcelain crab

arthopod suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

tarantula

arthropod predator complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

scorpion

arthropod predator complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata, fluorescence under UV light

millipede

arthropod predator/grazers complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

crab

arthropod predator/scavenger complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

horseshoe crab

arthropod predator/scavenger complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

shrimp

arthropod predator/scavengers complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

cockroach

arthropod scavenger complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendages, exoskelton composed of chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

hermit crab

arthropod scavenger/predator complete one way gut bilateral traits:jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

acorn barnacle

arthropod suspension feeder complete one way gut bilateral traits: jointed appendage, exoskeleton composed on chitin, segmented body divided into tagmata

angiosperms

basal angiosperms, monocots, eudicots

What is pierces disease?

bacterium: Xylella fastodiosa

b. clitellata

branch of annelids - terrestrial & freshwater - NO tentacles or parapodia - have CLITELLUM ( thickened band in middle of body that is gross and secretes a cocoon for protection of young) 1. Oligochaetes (what we commonly think of as worms) 2. Leeches (horrible creaters that lack setae, and have suckers at both ends that attach to prey to suck blood) they actually produce pain-killers (anesthetics), anticoagulant( blood thinner), and vasodilators ( widens blood vessles)

3. Aquiferous system

branched water canals in sponges where water flows continuosly into numerous pores, goes through internal chambers and finally exists our of other pores (aka Osculum) -process is propelled by movement of flagella of many choanocytes -highly varied in complexity ( how folded/ many pores are there?

Radial Cleavage

cells divide parallel to longitutinal axis and accumulate in even, symmetrical layers

spiral cleavage:

cells form in spiral structure, instead of stacked characteristic of protostomes

fused sepals

calyx

cartilage

can be a type of connective tissue or in some animals they make up the whole skeleton --> characteristic of chondrichtheyes (sharks/skates/rays) which lost bone

regulative

can be split

autotrophy

carbon source= inorganic

heterotrophy

carbon source= organic

condrichthyans

cartilaginous fish - sharks, skates, rays

Radial Cleavage

cell accumulate in even, symmetrical layers

hedgehog gene

cell signaling, in coanoflagellates and metazoans

Colonial:

cells are attached but there is no division of labor

What is totipotency?

cells can change into other cells.

Radial cleavage

cells divid parallel or 90 degrees to symmetrical layers

Spiral Cleavage

cells divide at an oblique angle to the a-v axis and new cells lie in furrows between existing ones

Spiral Cleavage

cells divide in oblique angles and new cells furrow between existing ones

2 deuterostomes

echinodermata chordata

Nuidibranch= coolest gastropods

cnidarian family that: - are brightly colored to warn of toxicity - may have originally evolved by altrusic behavior for kinship. - PLUMED SEA SLUGS are super amazing and actually feed off of sea anenomes/hydroids then inject the undigesting nematocysts, and use them as defense on their back spikes( called cerata) -there are also solar powered sea slugs that feed on algae, and preserve undigested chloroplasts that continue to function (aka kleptoplasty) literally the stealing of photosynthetic machines: works because of LGT between eukaryotes!!!! crazy cool

shapes

coccus (gut), bacillus (E.coli), helical

Coelomates (earthworms)

coelom and internal organs are lined and surrounded with mesoderm

coelomate

coelom and internal organs are surrounded by mesoderm

enterocoely

coelom is formed by pinching of early mesoderm cells

plasmodial slime mold

coenocytic (lots of cytoplasm and nuclei connected); feed by scavenging; no cytokinesis in their life cycle

trends in insect evolution

coevolution with flowering plants and social insects

What is the extracellular matrix in metazoa

collagen (nonliving)

Multicellular:

collection of many attached cells that differentiate and divide labor and reproductive capabilities

extracellular matrix

collection of molecules secreted to support surrounding cells biochemically

define Colonial

collections of many attached cells (usually of the same genotype); no differentiation or division of labor or reproduction capabilities

ctenophores

comb jellies, enigmatic group, radial symmetry, diploblastic development, complete gut, body is propelled by cilia in rows called ctenes or comb rows.

holometabolous metamorphosis

complete metamorphosis 4 stage: egg-larva-pupa-adult

Holometabolous:

complete metamorphosis in most insects

Why are holometabolous insects so diverse compare to other hexapods?

complete metamorphosis permits specialization of stages for feeding (larva) and reproduction and dispersal (adult)

Holometabolous

complete metamorphosis where a pupa stage is included example are butterflies, beetles, moths and flies

eukaryotes

complex cytoskeleton, Loss of a cell wall, Phagocytosis, nuclear membrane

Spongin

complex network of collagen WITHOUT spicules. found in demosponges what is harvested as bath sponges (replaced by luffa) because they arent as rough as spicules (coral)

chitin

compound found in cell walls (in fungi) or exoskeletons (in arthropods)

cephalization

concentration of sense organs (generally forming a well-defined head); tends to be correlated with bilateral symmetry

phloem

conducts products of photosynthesis throughout the plant. Comprised of sieve tube cells that are alive at functional maturity. Many cell components lost at functional maturity (incl. nucleus). Nurtured by companion cells. Nutrients transported actively via the pressure flow model, moved from sites of production to sites of storage.

xylem

conducts water and minerals from soil to aerial parts of the plant. Secondary thickening of cell walls (lignin) provides structural support. Tracheid cells are the principal water conducting element of the xylem and are dead at functional maturity. Transpiration-cohesion-tension system. Passive transport. Tracheids occur in the xylem of all vascular plants.

conifers

cones, drought resistant

unnatural evolutionary groups

conflict with the phylogeny (evolutionary relationships) There are two kinds of unnatural groups: Paraphyletic groups exclude some of the descendants of a given common ancestor (e.g., the original definition of Reptilia) Polyphyletic groups exclude the most recent common ancestor of the included species (e.g., the proposed grouping of mammals and birds in the group "Homeothermia" based on their of possession of convergent traits)

Explain the mechanisms that allow tentacle extension. (Use all the examples that were used in class)

contraction of internal muscles cause the tentacle to elongate because the tentacle is a muscular hydrostat (constant volume), to elongate, the skin that is full of collagen fibers wraps around the muscle. Muscle fibers are constructed in a radial way so when they contract it makes that section of the tentacle skinnier, but they also have longitudinal muscle fibers which help the tentacle revert back to it's short position. (All in Animals 6, slide 21-26)

Similarities observed between myriapods and hexapods represent

convergent adaptations to life on land

anomalous phylogenetic distribution

convergent traits

corals have (medusa/nematocytes) but not (medusa/nematocytes)

corals have nematocytes but dont have medusa

fused petals

corolla

carapace

covers head and abdomen in some crustaceans

What developed after tunicates but before jawless fishes

cranium

The new view phylogeny based on DNA sequence data shows that insects (hexapods) are more closely related to...

crustaceans

Only solely dioecious cnidarian

cube jellies

tube feet

echinoderms; part of the water vascular system which functions in gas exchange, locomotion, and feeding; hydraulic power

disease examples

dinoflagellates (red tide) alveolates (chromoalveolates) eating clams from the area. they have concentrated dinoflagelates which cause paralysis, numbness and maybe death Giardia lamblia (Giardiasis) Diplomonads (excavates) get from water with feces, diarrhea, upset intestines Leishmania major (leishmaniasis) Kinetoplastids (excavates) eats skin to make lesions, loss of cartilage Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas' disease) Apicomplexans (Alveolates) (Chromoalveolates) nervous system, heart and digestion affected. eyelids swell

Cube jelly reproduciton

dioecious (some "copulate")

sporophyte

diploid

What are septa?

divisions of segments that divide coelom into separate fluid

Acoelomate

do not have enclosed body cavities (ex: flatworms and other "thin animals")

silent

doesn't change amino acid

3rd codon

doesn't change...more likely tree

Cleavage

early stages of cell division after zygote formation

Cleavage

early stages of cell division after zygote formation, resulting in multiple cells (blastomeres) and establishment of a longitudinal axis (animal-vegetal axis)

What organisms do Clitellata include?

earthworms and leeches

what evolved on branch leading to ecdysozoa (1)

ecdysis

green brittle star

echinoderm scavenger incomplete two way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet may be present, spines may be present, locomotion with movement of arm appendages

sand dollar

echinoderm suspension/deposit feeder complete one way gut pentaradial traits: no head or brain, water vascular system, tube feet, spines, locomotion with movement of spines and tube feet

choanocytes

flagella to move water and food

eukaryote motion

flagellate, ciliate, amoeboid (naked or testate)

a. Chitons

flattened with multiple shell plates and multiple gills

Platyhelminthes

flatworms, lophotrochozoans, incomplete gut, planaria, flukes, tapeworms

tube feet:

flexible, hollow sacs on the bottom of echinoderms that are controlled by the water vascular system and aid in locomotion

perfect flowers

flowers that have stamens and carpels

imperfect flowers

flowers that have stamens or carpels

Hydrostatic Skeleton

fluid filed cavity surrounded by muscles. since fluid is imcompressible movement can maintain the body shape and provide suport -what allows worms to move because they can contract their circular muscles to elongate, or their longitudinal muscles to shorten segments

Coelom

fluid-filled body cavity surrounded by mesoderm

Mantle:

fold of tissue along the dorsal surface that covers the visceral mass and encloses the mantle cavity Secretes the shell of the organism when shell is present

Cephalopods

foot modified as tentacles and a siphon nautilus with shell, in others shell is internal (squid/cuttlefish) or lost locomotion by jet propulsion:siphon expels water from mantle cavity

Gastrulation

formation of cell layers by invagination (in-pocketing) of blastula to form gastrula

Gastrulation

formation of cell layers by invagination of blastula to form gastrula

common to 3 domains

glycolysis, DNA conservative rep, peptides and same genetic code, plasma membrane, ribosomes

spirochotes

gram -, motile, chemoheterotrophs, axial filaments rotate, pathogenic, lyme disease, syphilus

sepals

green under petals

monophyletic

group including MRCA and all decedents

tagmata

group of segments that are fused; has a specialized function

polyphyletic

group that excludes MRCA

outgroup

group that is used in comparison to the ingroup, used to root unrooted trees

paraphyletic

group with MRCA and not all decendents

pseudocelomate

gut and mesoderm separated by cavity, round

carpel

gynoecium (stigma, style, ovary)

gametophyte

haplid

Exoskeleton:

hard covering of an organism that provides structure and protection

exoskeleton

hard covering on the outside of the body, to which muscles are attached; Nematodes and arthropods

What are characteristics that arthropods have?

hard cuticle, jointed appendages, and compound eyes.

golden rice

has carotenoids

Explain how sea stars feed

have an evertable stomach that they extend when feeding by pushing it through small openings; use their water vascular system to slowly pull apart the muscles of their prey (catch collagen helps keep them rigid)

chloroplast bacteria

have host membrane and one bacterial membrane

What are some major features of cnidarians? (Name all that were used in class) have nematocysts irregular cleavage radial symmetry diploblastic

have nematocysts irregular cleavage radial symmetry diploblastic

Hemimetabolous

having no pupal stage in the transition from larva to adult

How can worms move through earth?

head first into the soil, use longitudinal and circular muscle to burrow,each body segment moves individually

Ostracoderms

heavily armored, extinct, jawless, bony plates in the skin and around the gills

which traits evolved independently in Lycophytes and Seed plants (2)

heterospory secondary growth

What is the most diverse subgroup of arthropods

hexapods

the majority of animals are ___________ (clade) the 3 groups responsible for this are

hexapods coleoptera (beetles) lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants)

mandibles

hexapods; mouthparts with mandibles (used for biting and chewing)

pathogen defense

hide, change, inactive

archea eukarya

histones like, TATA box based promoter, related to RNA POLII, homology of genes

chloroplasts in plantae are an example of (homology/homoplasy)?

homology

bird and bat wings

homoplasious

bird heat to human heart

homoplasious

rhizomes

horizontal "roots"

define Lophophore

horseshoe shaped feeding organ covered with hollow tentacles

cell fate

how the cell specializes

Molluscan diversity

hugely diverse group in terms of: - SIZE (micro to giant squid) - HABITAT (aquatic and terrestrial) -FEEDING (herb, carn,detritivores, filter feeders, and parasitic) -REPRODUCTION (mostly dioecious, but some hermaphoditic)

water vascular system

hydraulic system used to control: locomotion via tube feet, feeding, respiration, and waste transportation; water enters through a pore (madreporite) and circulates through canals that lead to tube feet w/ suckers

dioecious

imperfect flowers on different plants

monoecious

imperfect male and female flowers on the same individual plant

Swim bladder:

important for controlling buoyancy Not used in respiration

pupa

in certain insects (the Holometabola), the encased developmental stage between the larva and the adult

Pedipalps:

in chelicerata, attached to Cephalothorax and help move food around

Describe the morphological and ecological diversity in molluscs? Think in terms of body morphology and feeding strategies. There are different morphological characteristics that we use that are able to distinguish

in the diversity of molluscs. SOme molluscs have shell while others don't this protective feature determines their ability to protect themselves. Some nudibranchs do not have shells but they have nematocyst that are used for their defense instead of a shell. While also there are solar powered that steal algae and incorporates them into themselves to have chloroplast to create their own food supply. Use of radula present (some molluscs do not have radula).

endoderm

innermost of the embryonic tissue, becomes the gut and associated structures

Ecdysozoans

innovations: exoskeleton molting and regulated by ecdysone 1. Nematodes 2. Anthropods

Lophotrochozoans

innovations: trochophore larva and spiral cleavage includes 1. flatworms 2. mollusks 3. annelids

insect life cycles trend towards

more complex metamorphosis

Are animal traits unique to animals? muscle tissue (but not all animals) hox gene (might only be in bilaterians) combinations of multicellularity, eukaryotic, heterotroph, motile, muscle tissue, and hox genes are what defines animals but not all are unique to animals.

muscle tissue (but not all animals) hox gene (might only be in bilaterians) combinations of multicellularity, eukaryotic, heterotroph, motile, muscle tissue, and hox genes are what defines animals but not all are unique to animals.

Mycorrhizae

mutualism between fungi and plant root; mycorrhizae gets nutrients; =GROWTH ENHANCEMENT -evolved many times -used in ag to establish exotic plantations, restoration benefits to plants: 1) protection from root pathogens 2)increased root longevity 3) protection from soil heavy metals 4) communication through mycorrhizae in different plants? -fun fact: they can turn parasitic as well if the fields have sufficient Nitrogen

vegetative fungi body

mycelium made up of filaments (hyphae)

cellular slime mold

myxamoebas, haploid, make slugs when starved

Placenta

nutritive tissue in mammals that allow embryo to take nutrition from its mother, it also provides oxygen and removes waste from the baby's blood.

trait

observable features of an organism can be discrete (e.g. wings present or not present) or continuous (e.g. plant height). All traits novelties when first arise (by mutation in a single individual). For phylogeny estimation, we are concerned w/ traits that are heritable, discrete, fixed within species, potentially variable between species. Trait evolution occurs over branches of tree.

stigmarian roots

of lycophytes: simple dichotomously branching root system derived from rhizomes. Spirally arranged rootlets derived from microphyllous leaves

spiral

offset cells

how many times did wings evolve within insects

once

Snakes evolved...

once from lizard-like ancestor

Simple fruits

one carpel

define Unicellular

one cell does everything

Unicellularity:

one cell does everything

plantae chloroplasts

one incidence of endosymbiosis

dorsal hollow nerve cord

one of the synapomorphies of chordates; formed from rolled ectoderm; turns into the spinal cord in humans

double fertilization

one sperm gives rise to diploid zygote, one sperm gives rise to triploid endosperm Initially the pollen tube consists of 2 haploid cells, the generative cell and the tube cell. The generative cell divides mitotically, producing 2 haploid sperm cells. One synergid cell degenerates when the pollen arrives. The sperm cells are released from the pollen tube. One sperm cell fertilizes egg, one fertilizes the two polar nuclei

Keystone species

one that has a disproportionately large effect on the ecosystem dynamics

peptidoglycan

only bacteria

Psudocoelomate

only found in protostomes

All living gymnosperms except gnetophytes

only tracheids

micropyle

opening in integument

Blastopore

opening in the gastrula, fate depends on which group

blastopore

opening of the blastula; will eventually become the mouth or the anus

Pharyngeal slits

openings between pharynx and exterior, associated with filter feeding or respiration

paramecium

oral groove/gullet

Explain the Echinoderm body plan

oral side (mouth) and aboral side; complete gut w/ regional specialization; no head or brain (diffuse neural net); respiration by diffusion

placenta

organ in female mammals that provides for the nourishment of the fetus and elimination of the fetal waste products; Marsupials and Eutherians

Radula:

organ in molluscs for scraping surfaces

Deuterostomes:

organisms in which the anus forms first from the gastrula, and then the mouth Have radial, regulative cleavage Cell fate is determined late in embryo stage

What are spinnerets?

organs that contain silk glands

What is pancrustacea? What is an alternative hypothesis?

pancrustacea: monophyletic group within arthropods that contains hexapods and crustaceans other hypothesis: hexapods were in their own group, and crustaceans were paraphyletic

3. Annelids

part of Lophotrophozoan family==worms - segmented body (marked internally and externally) -repeated body structures -bundles of chitinous setae -paired appendages - has outer (circular) and inner (longitudinal) muscles -hydrostatic skeleton -presegmental head&tail -closed circulatory system - complete gut - well developed excretory & CN system a. Polychaeta b. Clitellata

2. Mollusca

part of lophotrophozoan family ==shell+squid - complete gut -reduced coelom -open circulatory system (hemocoel) -mouth with radula -body includes: mantle, visceral mass, and foot -well developed nervous system -excretory system a. Chitons b. Gastropods c. Bivalves d. Cephalopods

euglena

photosynthesize, flagella

Lichens

photosynthetic organisms, photobiont and mycobiont, 98% ascomycota, harsh environments, sensitive to toxins

land plants and green algae

photosynthetic, chlorophyll a and b, starch as storage, cellulose in cell walls

Schizocoely

process by which animals embryos develop, it occurs when a coelom is formed from the splitting of the mesodermal embryonic tissue

ecdysis

process where the animal slowly emerges from its old chitinous exoskeleton and remains vulnerable until it hardens; animal grows every time it molts (arthropods and nematodes)

Invaginations of the cuticle

produce joints and tracheae

Evaginations of the cuticle

produce wings and appendages

sporopollenin

protected pllen from dehydration and chemical damage

collagen

protein base support structures; makes up the extracellular matrix; most abundant protein in any animal; provides strength and elasticity

mammal clades

prototherians-echidna, duck-billed platypus- Monotremes lay eggs, skin secretes milk, marsupials-have a placenta but young are born undeveloped have to travel from birth canal to pouch for nipples, eutherians-are born well developed

Pseudocoelomate

pseudocoel is lined with mesoderm (no mesoderm around internal organs)

amoeba

pseudopodia, phagocytosis

monilophytes

psilotum, ferns, horsetails

in holometabolous metamorphosis major reorganization occurs at what stage?

pupal

transversions

purine to prymadine

transitions

purine to purine

gram-positive

purple, thick peptidoglycan cell wall

deuterostome traits

radial cleavage blastopore to anus enterocoely

echinoderm synapomorphies

radial symmetry ad adults, calcified internal plates, loss of pharyngeal slits

cleavage in deuterostomes -what kind -late/early? -how is it determined

radial, regulative late by cellular gradient

what evolved on branch leading to deuterostomes (2)

radial, regulative cleavage enterocoely

Amniotes include

reptiles and mammals

amniotes

reptiles and mammals

Tracheae

respiration by tracheae

clitellum

secretes a cocoon for protection of young

seed tissue

seed coat (2n) from sporophyte, gametophyte (n) tissue as nutrients, embryo (2n)

synapomorphies of lophotrochozoans

spiral cleavage trochopohore larva

cleavage in protostomes -what kind -late/early? -how is it determined

spiral, mosaic early by mRNAs

what evolved on branch leading to protostomes (2)

spiral, mosaic cleavage schizocoely

schizocoely

splitting of mesoderm leading to coelom

4. Differentiated cell types

sponge feature -they have different cells like choanocytes, pinacocytes and amoebocytes but they lack true tissues and organs

porifera

sponges monoblastic irregular cleavage asymmetric no gut filer feeder synap:choanocytes and spicules

What is the Syconoid body type?

sponges have choanocyte- lined canals.

What is the Leuconoid body type?

sponges have choanocyte- lined chambers

5. Spicules

sponges skeletal elements that are either 1. siliceous spicules (silica) like glass sponges and demosponges 3. calcareous (calcium carbonate)

first cell of the haploid gametophyte generation is the ________

spore

fungus life cycle

spore (N) --> mitosis --> hyphae (N) --> plasmogamy (fuse) --> dikaryon (N+N) --> karyogamy --> basidiomycota (2N) or ascomycota (2N) --> meiosis --> basidium (N) or ascus (N) --> mitosis --> spore

ascospore

spores produced in the ascus of ascomycota

after ferns

sporophyte dominant

malarial cycle

sporozoite in salivary gland of mosquito. go to human liver, become trophoooites and feed, undergo schizogony to become merozoites. burrow in blood cells, rupture cells, eat hemoglobin as trophozoites, some merozoites become gametocytes in blood and are picked up. become gametes and fuse in mosquito gut. undergo meiosis and schizogony and become sporozoites

Desmosomes

spot welds

Class Cephalopoda

squids, octopus, cuttlefishes (head foot), arms/tentacles + siphon for propulsion

Bipinnaria larva

starfish larvae; bilateral; free-swimming; cilliate; deuterostome

methionine

start codon

Notochord:

stiff, flexible rod of collagen that serve as a point of support and muscle attachment -Derived from mesoderm -Replaced by vertebrae in vertebrates -Combination of post-anal tail, notochord, and dorsal hollow cord -Present in both vertebrates and invertebrates

What is a nematocyst?

stinging organ that contains the toxins.

nonsense

stop codon

tryptophan

stop codon

Worm systems and reproduction

they have excretory organs in each segment they have a CNS with brain, ganglia, and nerve cord Asexual Repro: regeneration of body fragments Sexual: varied (mono/die, direct/indirect)

Clitellum:

thick band of tissue in middle of the body that secretes a cocoon for young present in clitellata (earthworms and leeches)

What are clitellum

thick band of tissue in the middle of the body that secretes a cocoon for young.

What is the plant response to sap feeders?

thorns,wax coating to make it harder to penetrate,some plants have removed certain nutrients in their phloem in order to stop animals

Triploblastic

three cell layers: ectoderm & endoderm & mesoderm - innovation occurs before protostomes&deuterostomes ( after cnidarians)

chronogram

time

homoplasy

trait not inherited by a common ancestor; independent evolution of a trait

max likelyhood

transitions/transversions, codon position

Triploblasty

triploblastic animals have one of three different types of internal, fluid filled body cavities: Acoelomates: do not have enclosed body cavities. Pseudocoelomate: is lined with mesoderm, but no mesoderm surrounds the internal organs.

triploid endosperm

triploid tissue that nourishes developing embryo. Highly reduced female megagametophyte: embryo sac w/ 7 cells and 8 nuclei In ovule, meiosis produces 4 haploid megaspores, all but one undergo apoptosis. Surviving megaspore undergoes 2 mitotic divisions pollen grain microgametophyte 2 cells: tube cell and generative cell

mycobacterium tuberculosis

tuberculosis

Diploblastic

two cell layers: ectoderm & endoderm which is seperated by the blastocoel - innovation occurs after sponges, before ctenophores

starfish

two stomachs, predators, diodecious, external fertilization, regeneration, Asteroidea

spiral (mosaic) cleavage

typical of protostomes (synapomorphy of lophotrochozoans; lost in arthropods); unequal division of cells; embryo has distinct top and bottom; cell fate determined very early by mRNA

schizocoely

typically found in protostomes and some deuterostomes; mesoderm cells begin forming on the inside; the mesoderm forms as a solid mass of migrated cells from the single layer of the gastrula, the new mesoderm then splits, creating the pocket-like cavity of the coelom

polytomy

uncertainty in the estimated phylogeny. We generally assume the underlying tree is dichotomous (each speciation event involves 2 immediate descendant species)

yeast

unicellular fungi (although some alternate between unicellular and multicellular depending on the environment); lots of uses like beer, wine, and baking

Kinetoplastids

unicellular parasites, two flagella, single mitochondrion, Trypanosomes

Echinoidea

urchins, sand dollars

Porifera function

use lots and lots of little pores with one big pore in order to filter 1500+L of water a day (DO NOT use muscles, tissues, or organs)

Cephalization:

when an organism has a centralized region of nerves and/or a head

medicines

willow bark headaches (salicylic acid). Cinchona bark fevers, ephedra antihistamine

Explain the evolution of flight and 2 of its hypothesis for wings.

wings evolved for powered flight wings and flight evolved at the same time (not likely) wings evolved for the purpose of thermoregulation or as "parachute" and were co-opted for flight linear relationship between the size of the wings and wing function

Neoptera:

wings fold horizontally

Paleoptera:

wings fold vertically

white rot

wood decay caused by fungi; breaks down lignin and cellulose

Homeotic mutations

wrong organ in the wrong place

What is xylem and phloem sap?

xylem sap - water and mineral from roots to rest of plants phloem sap - products of photosynthesis from leaves to sites of storage or to use

What are Ophiuroidea?

• 1,900 described species • Long, slender arms often with spines; fast moving • Secretive predators, some are bioluminescent - echinodermata, brittle stars and basket stars

What are the general characteristics of nematoda?

• 80,000 species • Diverse lifestyles (predators, parasites) • Found in all habitats on earth; mountains to oceanic trenches • Reduced musculature and digestive system (pseudocoelomate) • Significant in agriculture (both as pests and beneficials) and medicine (many human parasites) - roundworms

What is the water vascular system?

• A hydraulic system used to control locomotion (via tube feet), feeding, waste transportation, and respiration. • Water enters through a pore (madreporite) and circulates through canals that lead to tube feet with suckers

What is catch collagen?

• A special type of connective tissue that changes the rigidity of the body very quickly. • Not under muscular control; controlled by the nervous system. - found in echinodermata

What are important components of multicellularity?

• Adhesion: cells must stay/stick together • Communications: cells must be able to communicate with each other • Dependence: cells generally must dependent on each other • Differentiation: cells specialize at different

What is holometabolous?

• Adults have wings and develop in distinct stages • Egg-> larva-> pupa-> adult

How do cnidaria feed?

• All Cnidarians are carnivorous, many form symbioses. • Prey are captured on tentacles with cnidae then moved into the gastrovascular cavity. • Digestion is extracellular, but digestion is incomplete. • Products are taken into nutritive cells and digestion is completed intracellularly.

What are the characteristics of porifera?

• Aquatic, mostly marine (some freshwater). • Sessile as adults with motile larvae. • Mostly filter feeders with intracellular digestion.

How do Porifera reproduce?

• Asexual or sexual • No specialized gonads • Sperm swim and enter egg-containing sponges • Embryo retained in parent and eventually released as ciliated larvae.

What are the characteristics of porifera morphology?

• Asymmetrical • No gut (mono • Intracellular digestion • No tissues or organs • Only a few types of cells (~15) • Totipotency

What is beneficial of multicellularity?

• Avoiding predation •Buffering against environmental changes •Increased swimming speed • Decreased motility/increased drag (multicellular organisms tend to be larger than unicellular/colonial organism)

What are anthozoans?

• Polyps only, no medusae. • Polyps may reproduce asexually or produce gametes. • Polyps may be independent or form colonies (corals). - cnidaria • Corals contain symbiotic dinoflagellates (algae) called zooxanthelle which can photosynthesize and provide the coral with carbon.

What are spicules?

• Serve as supportive and defensive structures. • Structure and chemistry are different between sponge clades. • A synapomorphy for Porifera.

What kind of eyes do cephalopoda (mollusca) have?

• Single lens eye • Uses opsins, similar to vertebrates

What are the characteristics of the phylum Placozoa?

• Small (2-3mm), diploblastic, marine animals. • 1 species, asymmetrical • No tissues, few specialized cells • Cilia for locomotion - lost some characteristics on phylogenetic tree

define segmentation

• Some bilaterians are characterized by having repeated segments. • Some of these segments are fused into tagma for specialized functions.

How can nematocysts be stolen by nudibranchs? Why is it beneficial?

• Some gastropods (mollusca) feed on cnidarians, including nematocysts. • Undischarged nematocysts are incorporated for defense.

What are solar- powered sea slugs?

• Steals chloroplasts from algae, incorporates them where they continue to function. • Evidence that some chloroplast genes may be transferred (LGT).

What is a notochord?

• Stiff, flexible rod of collagen that serves as a point of support and muscle attachment • Derived from mesoderm, replaced by vertebrae in vertebrates • The combination of postanal tail, notochord, and muscles provides propulsion

What is torsion (gastropods)?

• Synapomorphy of gastropods • Twisting of visceral mass, reorients the body • Anus over head and gills

How did limbs evolve?

• The bones in ray finned fish are not easily homologized with the tetrapod limb. • Lobe finned fish have bones that are easily homologized with the bones in the tetrapod limb (i.e. humerus, radius, ulna, etc.)

What is the medusae (body form for cnidaria)?

• The medusa form is made asexually, but their function is sexual reproduction. • Unable to form colonies, free-swimming.

What are pharyngeal slits?

• The pharynx is a muscular organ that brings water in through the mouth (via cilia) which then passes through a series of openings to the outside (slits). • Used in both feeding and respiration

What is a planula larva?

• The planula larva of cnidarians is bilaterally symmetrical and ciliate. • It is the result of sexual reproduction and develops into a polyp.

What is the polyp (body form for cnidaria)?

• The polyp form is usually sessile and produce medusae asexually. • Most are small, but may reach sizes of 1m in diameter. • They may form colonies.

What is the body plan of hexapoda?

• Three tagmata (head, thorax, abdomen) • One pair of antennae • Three pairs of legs - mandibles that are modified for specific functions - tracheal system

What is the body plan of Malacostraca?

• Three tagmata (head, thorax, abdomen) • Two pairs of antennae • Thorax & head covered by a carapace

What are Platyhelminthes?

• Triploblastic, acoelomate (secondary), little to no cephalization. • Free-living and parasitic • Incomplete gut or absent

How does feeding occur in ray-finned fish?

• Unidirectional flow, water goes in the mouth and out the pharyngeal slits; efficient feeding via suction.

What are parasatoids and what are they usually used for?

• Unlike parasites, parasatoids kill their hosts • Parasatoids are generally host specific • They are routinely used in biocontrol

What are the features of the great white shark?

• Up to 20ft and 5,000 lbs; apex predator • Feeds on marine mammals, fish, and seabirds • Global distribution; migratory behavior (12,000 miles/ 9 months) • Electroreceptors (Ampullae of Lorenzini) allow detection of electric fields.

What are evertable stomach?

• When feeding, sea stars can extend their stomach pushing it through very small openings • The water vascular system is used to slowly pull muscles apart along with specialized catch collagen - found in echinodermata

General characteristics of Annelida

• ~ 17,000 species, marine and terrestrial • Segmentation • Paired setae • Well developed organ systems • Coelom as hydrostatic skeleton

What are the main characteristics of cnidaria?

• ~11,000 species, all aquatic, mostly marine. • Radial symmetry, diploblastic, incomplete gut, non-centralized nervous system, acellular (mostly) mesoglea. • Dimorphic life cycle (polyp, medusa). • Cnidae; specialized collection of cells (prey capture, defense)

Main characteristics of Ctenophora?

• ~200 species, all marine, many undescribed. • Radial (rotational) symmetry, diploblastic, neurons, muscles. • Complete gut, no regional specialization

Overview of phylum mollusca

• ~90,000 species, both aquatic and terrestrial. • Extensive fossil record ~70,000 species. • Commercially important to humans (food, pearls) but with some medical significance (poisoning, venom, parasite hosts). • Ecologically and morphologically diverse.