Book Chapter 7 & 8

Randall Law (2016, pp. 158-161) writes that the second third of the 20th century ushered in an

"era of state terror." In the Soviet Union Josef Stalin emerged as premier and instituted the "Great Terror," designed to eliminate the "wreckers, saboteurs, double-dealers, and terrorists" who conspired with the country's inter-national enemies to undermine Stalin's plans to create a Communist paradise. Stalin established a quota in July 1937 for the security police to arrest 268,950 individuals—of whom 75,950 were to be executed. Between 1934 and 1953, Stalin executed more than 786,000 individuals for counterrevolutionary crimes. Roughly 680,000 of these individuals were executed at the height of the terror between 1937 and 1938. An estimated 17 million individuals were incarcerated, many of whom were interned in the Siberian Gulag where they were subjected to forced labor and to near starvation.

There are several definitions of state terrorism. Richard Jackson and his colleagues define state terrorism as the

"intentional use or threat of violence by state agents or their proxies against individuals or groups for the purpose of intimidating or frightening a broader audience."

The United States in Vietnam combated guerilla warfare using a

"scorched earth" policy. By the end of 1969, American pilots had dropped "seventy tons of bombs for every square mile of North and South Vietnam; and five hundred pounds of bombs had been dropped for every resident of Vietnam"

Although states may commit significant acts of violence, Louise Richardson argues that it is important to define terrorism as

"sub-national violence" so as to ensure "analytical clarity" and to focus time and attention on the phenomena that we need to understand, combat, and deter.

The state department's report identifies 13 terrorist safe havens around the world, where

"terrorists are able to organize, plan, raise funds, communicate, recruit, train, transit and operate" These safe havens are located isolated regions in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and South America. There are also 58 "Foreign Terrorist Organizations" listed, including the Islamic State, al Qaeda, and their affiliates and branches.

Lone Wolves

(Simi & Bubolz, 2017). These attacks include neo-Nazi James von Brunn's armed attack in 2009 at the Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C., which killed a secu-rity guard; and Wade Michael Page's 2012 shooting rampage at a Sikh Temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin, in which six died and four were wounded. Two years later during Passover, Frazier Glen Miller killed a 14-year-old boy, his grandfather, and a woman outside a Jewish retirement community. After being apprehended, Miller shouted "heil Hitler." In June 2014, Jerad and Amanda Miller shot and killed two Las Vegas police officers and covered their bodies with a far-right terrorist symbol. Following this attack, Eric Frein killed one police officer and wounded another in an attack on a police barracks in Blooming Grove, Pennsylvania. Frein was found in possession of firearms and pipe bombs. In January 2017, White supremacist Jeremy Joseph Christian attacked two Muslim women on a commuter train in Portland, Oregon, and killed two individuals who were attempting to subdue him

David Claridge argues that state terrorism is comprised of the following elements:

1. The threat or commission of organized violence. 2. A political (rather than personal) motivation. 3. The violence is committed by individuals affiliated with the state or by individuals acting on behalf of the state who are supplied and/or directed by the state. 4. The violence is carried out to eliminate the targets of the attack, as well as to create fear in the general population. 5. The purpose is to target the immediate victim as well as the wider audience of potential targets. 6. At the time of the attack, the victims are not armed or organized for aggression at the time they are targeted. As suggested in the above elements of state terrorism, states rely on terrorism to: eliminate, punish, or deter individuals or regimes that states view as posing an actual or potential security threat. In other instances, opponents or critics of the government are targeted to allow the government to carry out policies at home or abroad free from criticism.

A third wave of state-sponsored terrorism took place in the

1950s, when European countries used force in an unsuccessful effort to maintain control over their colonies. In 1953 the British declared a state of emergency in Kenya in response to the Mau Mau Uprising. In a 10-year struggle for independence, nearly 80,000 individuals were subjected to detention, beatings, torture, starvation, and rape

A fourth wave of state-sponsored terrorism against a domestic population took place in the

1970s and 1980s, in Central and Latin America and in Communist Eastern Europe. In Argentina, a coup brought a military government to power which, between 1976 and 1983, waged a war against a guerilla threat that resulted in virtually unrestrained violence against leftists, students, intellectuals, and religious minorities. An Argentinian national commission estimated that more than 8,000 individuals were detained and disappeared, although human rights groups place this figure closer to 30,000. In this same period, authoritarian regimes in Uganda, Ethiopia, Haiti, and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) employed violence against domestic populations. Idi Amin in Uganda killed over 200,000 individuals in an effort to seize power and forced Asians to leave the country then confiscated their property. Somewhat earlier, in the mid-1960s, as many as half a million suspected Communists were killed by the Indonesian government.

Death squads in countries throughout the world have been responsible for the killing of as many as

300,000 individuals. Death squad activity was at its height during the 1970s and 1980s, when authoritarian regimes employed these types of units to eliminate dissidents and to intimidate the population into accepting the government. Death squads were most active in Central and South America in Argentina, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.

Domestic State Terrorism

A democratic government maintains power by attracting support from the majority of the population and tailors its policies to maintain that support. The hallmark of an effective democracy is the peaceful settlement of disputes in accordance with the law and the acceptance of the outcome of the dispute. A government that resorts to violence against a domestic population risks losing popular support and its governing majority. A democratic government, in addition to depending on popular support, is typically limited by the legislative branch and by the law as interpreted by the judiciary.

Ted Gurr lists a number of factors that determine whether a regime will resort to terrorism...

A government that lacks popular support that confronts a serious threat, and which has relied on force in the past to maintain power, is likely to resort to terrorism. A government composed of individuals from a different ethnic and economic background than the individuals who are viewed as posing the threat also is likely to resort to violence.

Post-9/11 Domestic Jihadist Attacks

A number of attacks have been committed by individuals who were legal residents of the United States and affiliated with jihadist groups. In 2003 Lyman Faisal was arrested as part of an al Qaeda plot to blow up the Brooklyn Bridge. In 2009 Najibullah Zazi, an American trained by al Qaeda, was arrested for plotting a suicide bombing attack on the New York subway. In 2009 Major Nidal Hasan shot and killed 13 individuals at Fort Hood, Texas, and wounded more than 30. 2010 Faisal Shahzad unsuccessfully ignited a car bomb in Times Square in New York City. In April 2013, two Chechen-American brothers, Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev, ignited two pressure-cooker bombs at the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing 3 people and injuring several hundred. The brothers fled the scene and killed a Massachusetts Institute of Technology police officer and severely wounded two other officers in a shootout. In May 2016 Syed Rizwan Farook (born in the United States) and his wife, Tashfeen Malik, a permanent resident of Pakistani descent, killed 14 people and wounded at least 22 in an attack on a San Bernardino, California, County Public Health training session and Christmas party. The terror group ISIS identified them as "soldiers of the caliphate." n June 2016 Omar Mateen entered the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Florida, and killed 49 individuals in a mass shooting at the club; 90% of the victims were LGBT. The Pulse shooting is discussed below.

External State-Sponsored Terrorism: Terrorist Groups

A state can achieve foreign policy goals with the support or encouragement of paramilitary groups operating in another country. This enables the sponsoring government to achieve foreign policy goals without direct involvement. The sponsoring government can deny involvement with the paramilitary group and claim that the regime being attacked has provoked the armed attack by its polices and can praise the insurgents as national liberation fighters.

American Flight 77

American Airlines Flight 77 departed from the Dulles air-port for Los Angles at 8:10 with 58 passengers. The terrorists used knives and box cutters to take control of the plane and to move passengers to the rear of the airplane. At 9:37 a.m. the plane, traveling at 530 miles per hour, crashed into the Pentagon killing all aboard the plane.

Anarchism

American anarchism was introduced and popularized by European immigrants who fled from repression in their own countries. They viewed the entire polit-ical and economic structure as corrupt and exploitative of the working class; according to these groups, violence was justified to liberate people from these tyrannical structures In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, anarchism found a fertile ground among the large immigrant population in the United States. German immigrant and anarchist Johann Most in the 1880s promoted anarchist ideas to working-class populations and advertised bomb kits in his self-published newspaper. Chicago factories subjected workers to appalling conditions, and labor resistance was met by harsh police reaction. On May 1, 1886, workers at the McCormick plant went on strike to demand an 8-hour day and to improve their working conditions. The police were called to the factory and shot and killed two strikers. Two days later the police intervened to break up a rally in support of the workers in Haymarket Square near the north side of the city. As the police opened fire on the crowd, someone threw a small bomb into the middle of the police squadron, killing seven officers and five protesters. Eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy and murder and were sentenced to life imprisonment. One defendant committed sui-cide; four were executed and three were pardoned (Miller, 2013). Keep in mind that the precise facts surrounding the Haymarket incident remain uncertain and the defendants' guilt is far from clear Industrialists contributed money to the Chicago police to support the campaign against the anarchists. In 1892 Alexander Berkman, the romantic partner of famed anarchist Emma Goldman, exacted revenge for Haymarket by seriously wounding Clay Frick, the head of the Carnegie Steel Corporation during a strike for higher wages at the Homestead, Pennsylvania, steel plant. Berkman was convicted and sentenced to 14 years in prison. In 1901 Leon Czolgosz, a self-proclaimed anarchist, assassinated President William McKinley. Czolgosz proclaimed at his execution that his purpose in killing McKinley was to liberate the American people from the yoke of political oppression. Anarchism, however, was far from dead. In 1914 three associates of Berkman were killed when a bomb exploded in their Harlem apartment. They had planned to use the bomb to assassinate prominent indus-trialist John D. Rockefeller in retribution for his suppression of a Colorado mine strike Labor resistance continued, and events culminated in October 1910 when a bomb damaged the Los Angeles Times building during a bitter labor strike, kill-ing 21 employees of the newspaper. Six years later a bomb exploded during a San Francisco parade that was sponsored by local business leaders The Russian Revolution in October 1917 was viewed as a threat to the United States, and government authorities began to use the Immigration Act of 1917 to deport politically suspicious immigrants. In April 1919, more than 30 bombs were sent by unknown individuals through the U.S. mail to federal law enforce-ment agents, industrialists, and members of Congress involved in passage of the Sedition Act of 1918 which prohibited subversive, antigovernmental speech. The Sedition Act was used to prosecute anarchists, socialists, and labor activists. Leftists responded by igniting bombs outside the homes of eight officials involved in the passage of the Sedition Act. Authorities subsequently traced the bombs to adherents of Luigi Galleani, a prominent anarchist who was spiritual leader of a "cult of dynamite" In 1920 a bomb attack on the J. P. Morgan Bank in New York City killed 38 indi-viduals, wounded more than 200, and resulted in $2 million in property damage. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer initiated the arrest of thousands of immigrant anarchists, Russian union activists, Wobblies, and other left-wing activists. More than 500 of these detainees were deported

Designation as a State Sponsor of Terrorism results in various penalties including a ban on

American arms-related exports and sales; controls over Americans exports of dual-use items that may have both civilian and military uses; prohibitions on economic assistance to the country; and various other financially related penalties.

Chapter 8 Intro

Americans historically have viewed the United States as an exceptional country blessed with freedom, natural resources, and a relatively stable, democratic political system. In the past, Americans seemingly shared common values and were able to solve their disagreements through the ballot box rather than on the battlefield. The United States, according to this narrative, was the "gold standard" that other countries sought to emulate and analysts celebrated what is termed American "exceptionalism." This narrative often fails to recognize that historically there have been individuals and groups in the United States who have believed that their grievances only could be effectively addressed through the use of terrorist violence (Gurr, 1989). Some commentators have gone so far as to view America as a country established through conflict—the use of violence against Native Americans, the enslavement of African Americans, and the exploitation of workers (Combs, 2013). William J. Crotty (1971) finds that for the 50-year period from 1918 to 1968, the United States ranked 13th out of 89 nations in terms of political assassinations and attempted assassinations. Another study found in the 2 decades immediately following World War II, the United States ranked fifth among 84 nations in terms of political assassinations. The only established democratic country that had a comparable number of high-ranking public figures assassinated was France. Timothy McVeigh (1968-2001) was responsible for the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, on April 19, 1995—an explosion which killed 168 and injured over 680. The victims included 19 children in a daycare center on the second floor of the building. The 4,800-pound ammonium nitrate and nitromethane bomb was packed into 55-gallon drums in a rental truck, and it decimated the building and damaged over 300 nearby structures. This was the deadliest domestic-terrorist assault in the United States prior to the 9/11 attacks. McVeigh was convicted of 11 federal felony charges and executed. His coconspirator Michael Fortier was sentenced to 12 years in prison, and coconspirator Terry Nichols was sentenced to 181 life terms. McVeigh was born in Lockport, New York. At age 20, McVeigh graduated from the U.S. Army Infantry School and while in the army, he maintained an avid interest in firearms and explosives—along with a commitment to White nationalism. He served in both the Persian Gulf War and Operation Desert Storm in the Middle East and earned several service medals. After failing to be admitted to the Special Forces, McVeigh was honorably discharged from the military in 1991. McVeigh found it difficult to adjust to life outside the military. He drifted from one dead-end job to another, grew frustrated over his inability to maintain a romantic relationship, complained about taxes and his mistreatment by the military, and accumulated significant gambling debts. In 1993 McVeigh drove to Waco, Texas, to support the Branch Davidians, a religious cult, suspected of federal weapons violations. He watched as 82 cult members—including 18 children—and four federal agents were killed during a 51-day federal siege of their compound. The bombing of the Murrah Federal Building took place on the 2-year anniversary of the federal action against the Branch Davidians. McVeigh found a purpose in his life when he began selling firearms and antigovernment literature on the gun show circuit. He met individuals who encouraged his view of the U.S. government as a threat to the liberty of the American people. McVeigh increasingly began to refer to the government as "tyrannical fascists" and to federal authorities as Nazi storm troopers. As McVeigh's fear of the government reached its height, he asked Nichols to teach him to construct a fertilizer bomb. On April 19, 1995, McVeigh drove a truck to the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building and ignited a fertilizer bomb that destroyed the northern half of the building. On June 2, 1997, McVeigh was found guilty on all 11 counts of his federal indictment (Bellew, 2018). McVeigh was not connected to a specific terrorist group, although he seemed to have been influenced by Christian Identity, a White nationalist ideology that dvocated the overthrow of the U.S. government. He rationalized that his actions were no more violent than those committed by the United States abroad. McVeigh proclaimed that he had acted in revenge for the attack on the Branch Davidians and a federal attack on Randy Weaver and his family at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, in 1992 (Bellew, 2018). The larger lesson of Timothy McVeigh is that homegrown American terrorism from the right wing as well as the left wing poses a threat that should be regarded as seriously as international terrorism.

Domestic State-Sponsored Terrorism

At times, regimes use death squads to conduct kidnappings, assassinations, and detention of individuals in secret locations. These secret squads are typically comprised of nonuniformed security forces and private paramilitary groups. Countries want to avoid being accused of carrying out a terrorist campaign against their own population. The government typically claims to have no knowledge of the fate of the individuals targeted by these squads and claims to respect human rights.

INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM IN THE UNITED STATES

Attacks by international terrorist groups in the American homeland aimed against the U.S. government before the 1990s were relatively infrequent as compared to Europe. The attacks that were initiated generally involved conflicts that origi-nated outside the United States. A tragic example was the Chilean secret service's assassination in 1976 of former Chilean foreign minister Orlando Letelier and his American assistant Ronni Moffet in Washington, D.C. Croatian terrorists engaged in sustained terror within the United States as part of their global struggle to obtain independence from former Yugoslavia. Croatian nationalists reportedly were responsible for 21 acts of terror in the United States between 1976 and 1980. These attacks included the bombing of the Yugoslav mis-sion to the United Nations, the hijacking of a commercial airliner, the bombing of a travel agency, and the death of a New York City police officer while he was attempting to defuse a bomb. Omega 7 was composed of Cuban exiles living in the United States and actively attacked Cuban interests in America. The first Omega 7 attack was the 1975 bomb-ing of the Venezuelan Consulate in New York City because of Venezuela's support for Fidel Castro. The next year a Soviet ship was bombed in Port Elizabeth, New Jersey, and a Cuban diplomat attached to the Cuban Mission to the United States was assassinated. In 1984 the leader of Omega 7, Eduardo Arocena, was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of a diplomat and for other crimes carried out by Omega 7. Three other members of Omega 7 pled guilty and were sentenced to 10 years in prison for conspiracy to murder a diplomat Sixteen members of the provisional wing of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) were criminally convicted for terrorist activity in the United States. Several men were also arrested for drug trafficking—the proceeds from which were used to purchase weapons and ammunition that was smuggled abroad to the IRA During the 1980s, terrorist groups affiliated with Libya and Syria as well as the Japanese Red Army and Lebanese Shia were active in planning violence within the United States and more recently, a number of individuals have been prosecuted for raising money in the United States to support foreign terrorist groups

African American Liberation Movements

By the mid-1960s, American society could celebrate at least some racial progress. Public facilities had been desegregated throughout the country, the right to vote was guaranteed and enforced by the Department of Justice, and schools through-out the South had been desegregated. However, a considerable gap remained in income between Whites and African Americans, and subtle forms of discrim-ination persisted in housing, employment, and education. The criminal justice system continued to single out African Americans for arrest, prosecution, and incarceration. The notion that civil rights had been achieved and that American could rest on its laurels was shaken in August 1965 when a violent protest erupted in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angles. By 1970 roughly 500 so-called urban rebellions had taken place in cities across the United States. The Kerner Commis-sion was appointed by President Lyndon Johnson to report on the causes of civil disorders. Their reports captured the reality that America was moving toward two separate and unequal societies, and that American society both maintained and condoned African American inequality

CHAPTER SUMMARY 8

Despite the fact that the United States is a functioning democracy, the country has experienced both right-wing and left-wing violence. Right-wing groups tend to endorse White supremacy and social conserva-tism, and they are strong proponents of the Second Amendment. They reject diversity, immigration, and globalism. The KKK is perhaps the most well-known domestic right-wing terrorist group because of the Klan's historic resistance to African American civil rights. Neo-Nazis, in contrast, have been a relatively insignificant group. Posse Comitatus is known for a strong commitment to local control and opposition to the federal government. This was extended by the sovereign cit-izens movement's refusal to recognize the force of state and federal law. The CI movement has proven a highly influential group, with a belief system based on Anglo-Israelism. Various Aryan Nations groups have embraced CI and endorse racial separation and violent opposition to the government. Armed paramilitary militia groups view themselves as the inheritors of the American revolutionary tradition and have focused on self-defense against the federal government, the New World Order, and the threat posed by immigration. Moralist movements like the Army of God have undertaken a series of attacks on abortion providers and clinics. Left-wing terrorist groups trace their roots to labor and anarchist violence in the 19th and early 20th century. Modern left-wing terrorist groups tend to embrace socialism, diversity, feminism, and internationalism. In contrast to right-wing groups, left-wing groups are organized on the basis of small cells rather than on the basis of strong hierarchical control. The Weather Underground was comprised of radical students disillusioned with the possibility of democratic change and committed to the resistance to what they viewed as American imperialism in Vietnam and in the developing world. The Black Panthers were a self-styled community defense organization that endorsed a program of social reform. The Panthers engaged in violent confrontations with law enforcement and were significantly weakened when most of the group's lead-ership was imprisoned or killed. The Panthers were succeeded by smaller, less influential African American groups such as the BLA and the RNA. A number of Puerto Rican terrorist groups supporting independence have carried out violent attacks both in Puerto Rico and in the United States. The SLA was a small revolutionary group best known for kidnapping newspa-per heiress Patty Hearst. Perhaps the most violent left-wing revolutionary group was the M19CO. ALF and ELF are two single-issue groups considered to pose a significant threat by law enforcement. The anthrax attack on the United States illustrates the country's vulnerability to an attack by a biological weapon. The United States has a history of international terrorist groups with griev-ances against foreign governments committing terrorist acts in the United States. Following the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, the United States experienced a number of jihadist attacks.

Bolded terms

Domestic state terrorism: Government attacks against unarmed civilians in a so-called "dirty war" against terrorism. Domestic state-sponsored terrorism: Supporting, encouraging, or condoning domestic, private paramilitary groups to target dissidents. External state terrorism: A state's direct use of force or the threat of force against civilians and unarmed individuals in another country. External state-sponsored terrorism: A state's support for a terrorist group that is fighting to disrupt or overthrow a foreign government and/or support for the new government's use of force against a domestic population. States rely on various methods of state terrorism at home and abroad against individuals perceived as posing a threat to the government. Capital punishment: The use of the criminal justice system on a systematic basis to convict and to execute opponents of the regime. Extrajudicial execution: The murder of regime opponents without trial. Torture: The infliction of severe pain and punishment on individuals. Disappearance.: The kidnapping and secret detention of individuals who are subjected to abuse. Sexual violence: The use of sexual violence against detainees. Internment: The mass imprisonment of opponents of the regime. Imposition of life-threatening conditions: The imposition of poor conditions that are calculated to eliminate individuals. This may entail starvation, along with an absence of basic hygiene, medical care, and adequate shelter Genocide: The mass extermination of a religious, national, ethnic, or racial group with the intent to exterminate the group is categorized as the international crime of genocide. War crimes: A state may engage in the commission of unlawful acts of war, such as the bombing of civilians or objects required for human survival.

American Airlines Flight 11.

Eighty-one passengers—including five terrorists—boarded American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston to Los Angeles. The plane took off at 8:14 a.m. Mohamed Atta and the other attackers gained control of the cockpit and using mace and pepper spray, they forced the passengers and flight attendants towards the rear of the plane and claimed to have a bomb. One first-class passenger had his throat slashed and two flight attendants were stabbed. At 8:46, Flight 11 crashed into the north tower of the WTC, instantly killing all aboard the plane.

Post-9/11 International Jihadist Attacks

Following the 9/11 attacks a number of other international terrorist attacks were launched against the American homeland. Below are some of the most lethal attacks. Zacarias Moussaoui, a French citizen, was sent by al Qaeda to the United States to serve as the "20th 9/11 hijacker." He was convicted of conspiracy to kill citizens of the United States. Jose Padilla, an American trained by al Qaeda, was arrested in 2002 at O'Hare Airport in Chicago. Padilla was attempting to enter the United States with the intent of exploiting natural gas leaks to destroy high-rise buildings. Ahmed Ressam, an Algerian member of al Qaeda and the so-called Millennium Plot bomber, was convicted of plotting to bomb Los Angeles International Airport in December 1999. Richard Reed, an English national, attempted to detonate a bomb in his shoe on a flight from Paris to Miami December 2001. Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, age 22, was convicted of attempting to ignite a bomb hidden in his underwear on a flight between Amsterdam and Detroit.

Lone Wolves: Biological Terrorism

Following the 9/11 attacks, shockwaves resonated throughout the United States when anthrax was sent through the mail, gravely threatening postal workers and recipients. When the envelope was opened, the powdery mixture was released into the air and absorbed into people's lungs. Once in the lungs, the spores released a deadly toxin and caused an infection. The perpetrator of the anthrax attacks eventually was identified as Dr. Bruce Ivins, a researcher at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), which engages in medical research to counter biological warfare threats. After arriving at USAMRIID, Ivins was assigned to research anthrax, which had become a high priority after an accidental release of the agent at a Soviet military facility killed 66 individuals. Ivins allegedly sent anthrax through the mail to create a crisis and to increase funding for the anthrax program, which he thought was going to lose budgetary support. Ivins committed suicide in 2008 when he realized that the FBI had traced the anthrax to his laboratory Ivins sent the anthrax through the mail to television anchor Tom Brokaw at NBC news and to the editor of the New York Post. A second round of letters was sent to members of the U.S. Senate and to a Florida newspaper. Five people died from inhaling anthrax spores, and 17 others were infected. Many more people had potentially been exposed to anthrax—10,000 people went through medical treatment following the incidents—and a number of postal facilities were closed for decontamination. The anthrax attack illustrates the difficulty of defending against a biological attack and locating the perpetrator. A federal investigative task force interviewed 10,000 witnesses on six continents, conducted 80 searches, and seized 6,000 items of evidence. More than 5,750 subpoenas were issued to individuals to appear before a grand jury, and 5,730 environmental samples were taken from 60 locations.

The modern origins of the concept of state terrorism, according to some historians, can be traced to the

French Revolution of 1792 and to the execution of Louis XVI: The Jacobins established a revolutionary dictatorship headed by Maximilien Robespierre. The Convention (the French legislative assembly) on September 5, 1794, proclaimed the country to be in a state of terror. On September 17, the Convention adopted the Law on Suspects which authorized the arrest of individuals who by their conduct, associates, words, or writings, demonstrated themselves to be enemies of the state. In a 10-month period beginning in September 1793, an estimated 16,000 people were killed, although the number easily could be double that figure. Individuals were rounded up by revolutionary mobs and brought before local committees. These committees conducted hurried hearings and condemned individuals to be executed by guillotine or by firing squad. Terror in the latter phases was used to ensure civic virtue and targeted individuals sus-pected of disloyalty to the homeland

Consider some of the death tolls from state terrorism listed below:

Guatemala (1965-1995) 200,000 El Salvador (1979-1992) 70,000 Iraq (1989-1990) 200,000 Algeria (1992) 100,000 (Former) Yugoslavia 110,000

Syria was designated as a State Sponsor of Terrorism in 1979. President Bashar Assad's Baathist regime is aligned with

Hezbollah in Lebanon and with Iran. The Assad government has a history of using chemical weapons against its population and has illegally stockpiled chemical weapons in violation of its responsibilities under the international Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). The Assad regime also has engaged in the systematic torture and mass extermination of opponents of the regime and has violently suppressed peaceful demonstrations, provoking the current civil war.

Christian Identity, Aryan Identity, and the Order

In 1946 in his California church, Wesley A. Swift established the foundation of the Christian Identity (CI) movement. He revived a 19th-century belief called Anglo-Israelism that views Christ as an Anglo-Saxon and believes Anglo-Sax-ons—rather than Jews—are the Lost Tribes of Israel. Anglo-Saxons, according to Anglo-Israelism, are God's chosen children and Jews are the product of an illicit relationship between Cain and Eve and are the sons and daughters of Satan. The CI doctrine is augmented by a heavy dose of racism and is combined with opposition to taxes, gun control, environmental regulation, and public education and a belief in one-world global conspiracy comprised of Jews, wealthy bankers, and the United Nations. Swift established the Christian Defense League as the military arm of the church CI ideology is incorporated into the belief systems of a broad range of right-wing groups. Smith's disciple William Potter Gale created the paramilitary California Rang-ers, which state officials characterized as a threat to public order. A competing CI church was established in Hayden Lake, Idaho, by aerospace worker Richard G. Butler. Butler organized an Aryan Nation Congress in 1983. Robert A. Miles of the Mountain Church of Cohoctah, Michigan, speaking at the Congress, advocated racial separation as the first step in creating an Aryan nation and demanded that the purported Zionist Occupied Government (ZOG) hand over the five states of the Pacific Northwest to White Aryan people. According to Miles, there was no obligation to pay taxes to or respect federal authorities because they were part of ZOG Aryan Nations is a broad movement that includes a number of groups that believe in White supremacy and anti-Semitism. Aryan Nations shares the CI view that the American government is a tool of an international Jewish-banker conspiracy and should be resisted by armed force. The Aryan Nations declaration of independence includes the Fourteen Words which reads as follows: "We must secure the existence of our people and a future for White children." The words typically are written or tattooed as 14. Groups identifying with Aryan Nations include the Order; the Silent Brotherhood; the Covenant, the Sword and the Arm; and the White Patriot Party The Order (Bruder Schweigen—German for silent brotherhood) was formed by younger Aryan activists. It engaged in a series of bank and armored car robberies that netted $4 million. Members of the order also created counterfeit currency and conspired to commit murder and bombed a synagogue in Boise, Idaho. The Order fragmented after federal agents killed the group's leader, Robert Jay Matthews, in December 1983. Twenty-three members of the Order, most of whom were con-nected to Butler's CI church, were criminally convicted in 1985. It was disclosed at trial that the group was responsible for the assassination of outspoken Denver, Colorado, talk show host Alan Berg because he was Jewish, and also had plans to assassinate political leaders and the heads of American television networks and to wage war on the U.S. government Prosecutors in the trial of those responsible for killing Alan Berg demonstrated that the Order was following the blueprint for racial revolution outlined in The Turner Diaries, a novel written by William T. Pierce that Pierce describes as a "handbook for White Victory" (written under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald). The Turner Diaries received a great deal of notoriety when following the Oklahoma City bombing it was reported that Timothy McVeigh regularly carried a copy of The Turner Diaries and sold the book at gun shows. The Order continues to inspire various lone wolves. In August 1999, Buford O'Neal Furrow, married to Matthews's widow, went on a shooting rampage in Los Angeles at a Jewish community center and wounded five persons (Toy, 1989). The Covenant, the Sword and the Arm (CSA) was one of the most lethal right-wing groups. The group established its headquarters at a compound on the Arkansas-Missouri border and planned to bomb the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City years before it was bombed by Timothy McVeigh. The group planned to attack FBI agents and federal judges and to poison local water sup-plies. The CSA successfully bombed a Missouri church that supported LGBT civil rights and a Jewish community center, and they murdered a Jewish busi-nessman and an African American state trooper in Missouri. A federal raid on the CSA compound uncovered land mines, a supply of cyanide, and hundreds of firearms. More than 20 members were sentenced to lengthy prison terms

8.2. You Decide

In 1983 Judith Clark, age 33, was sentenced to 75 years in prison for her role as a getaway driver in the Brink's robbery. Clark was unapologetic at her sentencing and called herself a freedom fighter, proclaiming that "rev-olutionary violence is necessary." The two police officers and the security guard killed during the robbery, whom Clark denounced as "fascist dogs," left behind grieving families and a total of nine children. In 2016 New York governor Andrew Cuomo commuted Clark's sentence to 35 years in prison (time served), resulting in her immediate eligibility for parole. He based this decision on her sincere remorse, acceptance of responsibility, the number of people who wrote on her behalf, and her positive record in prison. Governor Cuomo noted that the prison system is meant to be a correctional system, and that Clark had demonstrated that she had been rehabilitated. Elaine Lord, former superintendent of the maximum-security Bedford Hills Correctional Facility where Clark had spent her sentence, wrote that she had witnessed Clark change into one of the most "perceptive, thought-ful, helpful and profound human beings that I have ever known, either inside or outside of a prison." Thirteen former presidents of the New York City Bar Association wrote to endorse Clark's clemency. Ed Day, county executive of Rockland County, the site of the Brink's robbery, called Clark a domestic terrorist whose only place in a civilized society is behind bars. He stated that the blood of the two officers and the Brink's guard were on Clark's hands and conscience. Clark was slow to change once incarcerated and spent 2 years in soli-tary confinement. She eventually transformed herself, earning bachelor's and master's degrees. She also led educational programs for inmates including prenatal and HIV/AIDS programs, served as a chaplain's assis-tant, and trained service dogs. Three members of the New York State parole board following a 7-hour hearing voted unanimously against granting Clark parole and releasing her from prison. The parole board, although agreeing with Governor Cuomo that Clark had demonstrated regret and had been rehabilitated, was unwill-ing to overlook the petitions by police unions that given the seriousness of Clark's crimes, her release would undermine the rule of law. A new parole hearing was subsequently ordered by a judge who found that the parole board had improperly based their decision to deny Clark parole on the severity of Clark's crimes rather than on her rehabilitation

Personalities and Events

In 2014 a UN committee of inquiry characterized the Democratic People's Republic of North Korea as the most repressive government in the world. Kim Jong Un, the 34-year-old Supreme Leader, succeeded his father as leader of the so-called hermit kingdom. The country is ruled as a totalitarian police state in which there is no freedom of expression, religion, movement, or private enterprise and unionization; only a small elite has Internet access. Individuals are subject to continuous propaganda campaigns in which they are told that Kim is a divine and perfect being. Individuals are under constant surveillance by informants, and children are encouraged to inform officials on the activities members of their family. The population is divided into "loyalists," "wavering," and "hostile." Individuals considered hostile are labeled as enemies of the regime and, along with their family and friends, are singled out for persecution. The government operates at least 10 prison camps, in which between 200,000 and 250,000 individuals are imprisoned. Prisoners are starved and enslaved, and the death rate is said to be as high as 25% each year. Executions of individuals are regularly carried out in public to deter dissent. North Korea also sponsors a sophisticated program of cyberterrorism and in retribution for a satirical film about Kim Jong Un, Korean nationals hacked into Sony Pictures' computer system and, on at least one occa-sion, hacked into computers around the world to spread ransomware. Kim Jong Un views North Korea as constantly under the threat of inva-sion. The country has a military of more than 1 million men, has stockpiled chemical weapons, and has developed missiles capable of reaching South Korea and Japan. North Korea has at least 10 nuclear weapons and has developed the missile technology to strike the United States with a nuclear weapon. Kim Jong Un has insisted on the right to develop nuclear weapons and to pos-sess nuclear armed missiles capable of reaching the United States. North Korea's domestic policies and the threat to deploy nuclear weapons has made the country both an internal terrorist regime and an international nuclear terrorist regime. Pressure on the North Korean regime to abandon its nuclear program has thus far proven unsuccessful and the United States has a long-estab-lished policy of striking North Korea before the regime develops a missile capable of striking the United States. In 2018 President Donald Trump took the bold step of meeting with Kim Jong Un. Any effort to attack North Korea is complicated because hundreds of thousands of individuals in South Korea would likely suffer as well. China opposes any use of force because the collapse of North Korea could cause a flood of refugees into China. In 2017 while visiting North Korea University of Virginia student Otto Warmbier attempted to take a poster off a wall and was criminally convicted and sentenced to 15 years of hard labor. In June 2017 he was returned home to the United States in a coma and died within a few days because of injuries resulting from head trauma. Critics asserted that this was emblematic of North Korea's disregard for human life.

8.1 You Decide

In January 2016 President Barack Obama commuted the prison sentence of Oscar López Rivera, age 74, leader of the FALN. López Rivera had served 35 years of his 55-year prison sentence (and 15 additional years for an unsuccessful escape) for seditious conspiracy and armed robbery. The plan of the organizers of the Puerto Rican Day parade in New York City to honor López Rivera as a "National Freedom Hero" was roundly condemned by individuals who viewed him as a criminal killer who never should have been released from prison. López Rivera responded by stating that he would forego the honor and would participate as a citizen because the focus should be on the plight of the Puerto Rican people—roughly 45% of whom on the island live in poverty—rather than on him. JetBlue Airways, AT&T, and other advertisers nonetheless decided against serving as spon-sors, and the New York Police Benevolent Association called for a boycott of the parade because of López Rivera's inclusion on a float in the parade. Joseph Connor, who was 9 years of age when his father was killed in the Fraunces Tavern bombing had earlier called López Rivera's commutation a "travesty" and a "mistake" and pointed out that López Rivera had never expressed contrition. In 1999 President Clinton offered clemency to 16 imprisoned Puerto Rican nationalists—none of whom had been convicted of direct involvement in violence. López Rivera refused clemency for vari-ous reasons, including the fact that he refused to renounce violence. López Rivera's supporters, including Hamilton playwright Lin Miranda, view him as a national hero who had fought against Puerto Rico's colonial status as an American commonwealth. López Rivera was honored as a grand marshal in a People's Parade cel-ebration sponsored by activists in Chicago, a city in which he lived before serving in Vietnam.

Jihad in America

In the 1990s America suffered the first of what would become a series of attacks by jihadist groups. Jihad, as noted earlier, means struggle and the term has tra-ditionally been interpreted as a religious term meaning the struggle to adhere to the requirements of the Koran. Jihad was also historically meant as a duty to defend Muslim lands against invaders. The term, as interpreted by Osama bin Laden and other terrorists, is interpreted as a duty of Muslims to fight against enemies of Islam—wherever they may be found. Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri declared that America and its allies had declared war on Islam by way of their military presence in Saudi Arabia, military actions across the Middle East, and support for Israel. Bin Laden declared that every Muslim had a duty to kill Americans and their allies—whether civilian or military—wherever they may be found. A hint of what was to come in the future occurred in 1990 when El Sayyid Nosair, later implicated in a New York City terrorist cell, assassinated the mil-itant rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the extremist Jewish Defense League in New York. In February 1993, Palestinian-Pakistani militant Ramzi Yousef, who had come to the United States to supervise an attack on the World Trade Center, drove a van into the basement parking garage of the building and lit four 20-foot long fuses meant to detonate a dirty bomb. Yousef hoped to bring down one of the twin towers and to kill 250,000 people. The blast penetrated six stories of structural steel and cement, created a 200-foot-wide crater and could be felt more than a mile from the site of the explosion. In the end, six people were killed and 1,042 were injured, and engineers concluded that the center would stand forever In 1995, 10 individuals, including the now-deceased radical Egyptian cleric Omar Abdel-Rahman (also known as the blind Sheik), were convicted of a sedi-tious conspiracy to ignite five bombs in 10 minutes against the UN building and other structures in New York City. Abdel-Rahman and a cell of militants were linked to Nosair and Yousef. These attacks were a prelude to the 9/11 attacks.

Militia Groups

In the past few decades there has been a proliferation of armed local militia groups or patriot groups. These paramilitary groups are inspired by the American Revolution and are dedicated to restoring the values that they believe inspired the struggle against Great Britain. Following the events at Ruby Ridge in October 1992, militia members across the country gathered to form a national movement dedicated to White supremacy, gun rights, and opposition to the federal govern-ment and to immigration. The militia movement notes Timothy McVeigh and Randy Weaver as their inspirations. Militia leader Louis Beam called for leaderless resistance against the Amer-ican government. This involved the formation of decentralized "phantom cells" independently engaged in terrorist attacks. The thinking was that this strategy would prevent federal infiltration of the movement. Beam also proposed that individuals be awarded "points" based on the importance of their terrorist tar-gets. Following the 1995 explosion at the Murrah Federal Building, the movement began to decline in numbers. This trend accelerated after the 1995 and 1996 arrests of militia members in Arizona and West Virginia for conspiring to bomb a gov-ernment building and arrests of militia members in Oklahoma for conspiring to bomb gay bars and abortion clinics. After nearly 90% of the armed militias was dissolved, the number of militia groups began to dramatically increase following the election of Barack Obama in 2008 The militia movement introduced the belief that the United Nations was pre-paring to invade and to take control of the U.S. government. They reportedly saw "black helicopters" ferrying troops that when ordered to attack would seize power, create concentration camps, and rule America as part of a one-world gov-ernment. The militia movement denounced issues like global warming, abortion, and same-sex marriage as an expression of the New World Order that they were committed to combating. They viewed the attack on the World Trade Center on 9/11 as an "inside job" by the American government designed to enable the federal government to consolidate power. At the extreme end, the militia groups warned that the federal government was inserting computer chips into Americans' skin to keep them under continuous surveillance Armed militia groups in the western states bordering Mexico—groups like Three Percenters, Patriots, and Oath Keepers are strongly anti-immigration and patrol the border to prevent undocumented individuals from entering the United States. Some self-anointed constitutionalists pride themselves on demonstrating that the text and history of American Constitution prohibits federal regulation, environmental protection, taxation, gun control, abortion, public schools, and antidiscrimination laws. Groups like the Militia of Montana (MOM), formed by David John Troch-man, combined the militia's patriotic ideology with the CI movement. MOM engaged in armed conflict with law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges Militia groups in some instances include survivalists—individuals who arm themselves and take extreme measures (including building underground shel-ters) to prepare for a global nuclear exchange or race war. In some instances, these individuals live offthe grid, refusing to use the Internet, register for Social Security, or obtain driver's licenses and avoid noncash payments, as well as bank accounts and other activities that would permit the government to identify and to monitor them. The invasion of the Branch Davidian compound near Waco, Texas, in 1993 and the Oklahoma bombing in 1995 are two important events on the militia movement calendar. A third event of continuing importance is Ruby Ridge. Ruby Ridge, along with Waco, are right-wing symbols of the federal abuse of power. Randy Weaver was alleged to have been selling illegal firearms. He failed to appear for a court hearing and hid with his family in a remote cabin in Idaho. Weaver and a codefendant exchanged gunfire with federal agents who were attempting to arrest him, and his wife and son were killed during the 11-day siege. Both Weaver and a codefendant were acquitted for the killing of a federal marshal during the fight

In Rwanda today "genocide denial" is prohibited:

It is a crime to deny that the killings in 1993 constituted genocide.

In 1954 the United States sponsored a military coup to overthrow the democratically elected government of

Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) installed the military government of Carlos Castillo, which carried out a campaign of mass repression. This ultimately led to a 36-year civil war, which resulted in the deaths of more than 200,000 individuals. In 1999 President Bill Clinton apologized for the role of the United States in the war. A year earlier, the United States and Great Britain organized a coup against the democratically elected Iranian government of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. Great Britain feared that Mosaddegh would nationalize its oil inter-ests in Iran. The monarchical government of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was installed, which ruled through the use of secret police known as SAVAK. The Shah may have been responsible for as many as 30,000 deaths before being overthrown by a popular revolution in 1979. Rather than ushering in true reform, the revolution resulted in the repressive Islamic government of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

Modern Left Wing terrorism

Left-wing terrorists range from White radicals to African-American reformists, nationalists, and revolutionaries, and to Puerto Rican groups advocating for independence. Organized left-wing terrorism in the United States has largely disappeared in recent years. These leftist groups to a greater or less extent share certain ideological beliefs Economy. These groups are skeptical of capitalism, believe in the redistribution of wealth, and advocate for a society that provides equal access to quality education, medical, care and housing. Diversity. There is a commitment to the eradication of racism and to support ethnic and racial diversity. Feminism. These groups believe in gender equality and women's rights. Local control. There is a belief in the need for local community involvement in decision making in education, policing, transportation, and health care and in other areas. Internationalism. These group identify with foreign terrorist groups struggling for national autonomy and with what they view as progressive foreign governments. Leadership. Left-wing groups in the past have endorsed the notion that there is a potential for revolutionary violence by students, minorities, and a portion of White youth. They believed that by acting as a violent vanguard that they would inspire mass revolt Various single-issue groups have a strong commitment to the protection of the environment and to the rights of animals. As previously noted, left-wing groups tend to have a younger, better educated, and more racially diverse membership than right-wing groups. About 25% of the members of left-wing groups are women. Left-wing terrorists are also frequently from white-collar backgrounds. They tend to be organized in small, decentralized urban cells rather than in a "top-down" structure; and like right-wing groups fund themselves through criminal activity. Left-wing groups tend to focus their attacks on political institutions and large corporations and avoid targeting indi-viduals and the general populace. Two thirds of the attacks by left-wing groups, according to one study, were directed at property and roughly 18% resulted in fatalities or injuries Between 1960 and the mid-1980s, roughly 45% of all terrorism was committed by left-wing groups—although some analysts believe the figure was as high as 75%. This violence centered on opposition to the Vietnam War and income inequality (Carson, 2017). The next sections survey various left-wing groups, most of whom were active in the 1960s and 1980s: Weather Underground African American liberation movements Puerto Rican nationalist groups Symbionese Liberation Army United Freedom Front M19CO Animal Liberation Front and Earth Liberation Front

There is perhaps no more tragic example of war crimes committed by an occupying power than the

Nanking Massacre. As part of its drive to expand its borders for resources, Japan provoked a war with China in 1937. The Japanese troops encountered unanticipated difficulties and by the time they arrived at the gates of the Nanking, they were primed to exact retribution. Civilians were mas-sacred, buried alive, thrown into burning pits, frozen to death, decapitated and dismembered, nailed to boards, ripped apart by dogs, and run over with tanks and crucified on trees and posts. Men had their eyes gouged out and their noses and ears cut off before being set on fire. The number of Chinese killed within a 6-week period are estimated to range from 260,000 to 300,000 individuals. Women were gang raped, tortured, and killed in unspeakable fashion. The estimates on the number of rapes range from a staggering 200,000 to over 400,000.

Personalities and Events Chapter 8

Omar Mateen, aged 29, fatally shot 49 individuals and wounded scores more in an armed attack with an assault rifle and pistol on the patrons of the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Florida, on June 13, 2016. After negotiating for 3 hours with Mateen, police stormed the building and killed Mateen after he threatened to ignite a bomb and to kill those he had taken hostage. The Pulse was known as a gay club, frequented by Hispanics. The FBI later categorized the attack as both a hate crime (in this case, killing indi-viduals because of their sexual orientation) and as a terrorist attack based on Mateen's calling 911 during the attack, declaring his allegiance to ISIS, and referring to the 9/11 bombers as his "homeboys." He also announced his allegiance to ISIS during a call to a local television station and in his final Facebook postings. Mateen was born in the United States to parents who had emigrated from Afghanistan. He grew up in Florida. As a high school student, he was a disruptive bully, applauded the 9/11 attack, and claimed that Osama bin Laden was his relative who had taught him to handle a firearm. He held down various jobs, including as a grocer and a salesman, then earned an associate's degree in criminal justice and worked in a correctional facility before obtaining employment with a private security company. Mateen had been interviewed three times by the FBI, and at one point had been placed under surveillance for 10 months in response to complaints by coworkers at the private security firm that he boasted of ties to terrorist groups. An undercover informant befriended him for a year in an effort to determine whether he posed a danger. In 2014 the FBI concluded that Matten did not pose a threat and removed him from the domestic terrorist watchlist. At any given time, the FBI may have as many as 10,000 individuals under investigation and did not follow up on additional complaints about Mateen—including a report that he had tried to purchase military-grade body armor and more than 1,000 rounds of ammunition. On May 22, 2016, ISIS called for attacks on the United States. Two weeks later, Mateen passed the background check and purchased the assault rifle and Glock pistol, both of which he used in the attack at Pulse. Before entering Pulse, Mateen posted his adherence to ISIS on Face-book and expressed his support for the suicide bomber Moner Abu-Salah and denounced American bombing strikes against ISIS. There were rumors that Mateen, who was married, may have been gay himself, used a dating app, and had visited Pulse in the past. According to this line of thinking, Mateen committed the attack because of self-hatred or in reaction to mistreatment by a lover. His first wife divorced him after 4 months and said that he harbored extreme prejudice against LGBT people and also described him as mentally unbalanced and violent. President Barack Obama characterized the mass shooting at Pulse as an act of homegrown extremism inspired by the Internet, and that there was no evidence of a wider plot. Then-FBI-director James Comey was confident that Mateen had been radicalized on the Internet. Donald Trump, despite Mateen's lack of established ties to ISIS, declared that the attack was an example of radical Islamic terrorism as well as of the threat posed by continued Muslim immigration into the United States. Other commentators argued that the attack was best described as a hate crime directed against the LGBT community—particularly LGBT people of color. Yet another narrative viewed the attack as an example of the need for stricter gun laws that denied firearms to people like Mateen with a history of mental instability and domestic violence. In 2018 Noor Salman, Mateen's second wife, was acquitted of assisting him in carrying out the Pulse shooting.

September 11, 2001 Attacks

On September 11, 2001, 19 al Qaeda terrorists on a suicide mission hijacked four Ameri-can airliners and crashed them into the Pentagon in Washing-ton, D.C., and into the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York City. This terrorist attack was one of the most lethal in history, killing close to 3,000 people and injuring roughly 6,000. This included 265 on the four hijacked planes, 2,606 in the WTC and in the adjacent area, and 125 at the Pentagon. The death toll also included 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and 19 terrorists. New York and New Jersey lost more residents than any other states, and people from 90 countries lost their lives, including 67 from the United Kingdom. This was the most lethal attack on American territory since the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The 9/11 attacks demonstrated that America was not immune to international terrorism and that America confronted an enemy capable of inflicting mass casual-ties on the United States.

Left-Wing Revolutionary Violence: May 19 Communist Organization

Perhaps the most lethal terrorist organization in the 1970s and early 1980s was the May 19 Communist Organization (M19CO). The organization derived its name from the birthdays of the inspirational African American activist Malcolm X and the Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh. The organization thus was inspired by both domestic and international resistance to American racial and international policies. M19CO brought together members of the RNA, the BLA, the Weather Underground, and the Black Panthers. The organization used various names in claiming credit for attacks and remained a threat until the last members were arrested in May 1985 e BLA leader JoAnne Chesimard from a New Jersey prison and helped her escape to Cuba. The same year they arranged for FALN leader William Morales to escape from police custody in a New York hospital and flee to Mexico. M19CO also was responsible for one of the most high-profile terrorist attacks when in October 1979, the group killed a security guard during the robbery of a Brink's armored truck in Nyack, New York. The group fled, and two police officers were killed during a gunfire exchange at a roadblock (Smith, 1994). Fourteen months after the Brink's robbery, M19C0 bombed a federal building in Staten Island, New York, and later bombed the National War College in Wash-ington, D.C, the Washington Navy Yard Computing Center, and the U.S. Capitol. The group carried out a bombing roughly every 3 months until the last members of M19C0 were apprehended in May 1985 (Smith, 1994).

Nationalist Violence: Puerto Rican Independence

Puerto Rico is a commonwealth of the United States, rather than one of the 50 states. The United States acquired Puerto Rico from Spain following the Span-ish-American War. As a territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have a voting member in the U.S. Congress and does not participate in the November presidential elections. Although Puerto Rico enjoys considerable self-governance, the island is subject to the decisions of the U.S. Congress. A majority of Puerto Ricans have voted as recently as 2017 in favor of statehood and have rejected independence. There has nonetheless been a strong independencia movement that advocates for Puerto Rico becoming an independent country. There have been several terrorist acts carried out against the American gov-ernment by Puerto Rican groups advocating nationhood. In 1950 there was an attempt to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. The gunman and a Secret Service agent died during the exchange of gunfire at Blair House across from the White House. Four years later four Puerto Rican nationalists entered the gallery of the U.S. House of Representatives and opened fire, wounding five members of the House. All five were apprehended and criminally convicted (Burroughs, 2015). Between 1985 and 1990, Puerto Rican terrorists were responsible for over 60% of terrorist acts in the United States and Puerto Rico The Puerto Rican terrorist groups opposed American control and military presence on the island. Most also believed in socialist economics and rejected capitalism, and they were closely aligned with the Castro brothers in Cuba. These groups generally worked together, and members were often affiliated with more than one group. The primary Puerto Rican terrorist groups that are generally no longer active include the following (Smith, 1994): Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN) the Organization of Volunteers for the Puerto Rican Revolution (OVRP) Boricua Popular Army (Los Macheteros) the Armed Forces of Popular Resistance (FARP) the Guerilla Forces of Liberation (GFL) the Pedro Albizu Campos Revolutionary Forces (PACRF) These groups in past years have focused their attacks on Puerto Rico, although the FALN also operated in the United States; in the late 1970s they launched a number of attacks in Chicago and in New York. Between 1974 and 1980, the FALN carried out 100 bombings in the territorial United States. In 1975 the group bombed Fraunces Tavern—one of the oldest buildings in New York City, the tavern opened in 1762 and was regularly visited by George Washington. Four individuals were killed and 54 were wounded in the attack. On the anniversary of the bombing of Fraunces Tavern, the FALN ignited 10 bombs in Washington D.C., New York, and Chicago. The year before these bombings, the FALN had ignited 15 bombs In 1977 William Morales, the leader of the FALN, suffered severe injuries while constructing a bomb in New York City. He lost most of his fingers, teeth, and jaw and fled to Mexico. In 1983 Morales was arrested along with several other FALN terrorists in Chicago (Smith, 1994). Los Macheteros, the FARP, and the OVRP established themselves as organi-zations to be feared when they engaged in a coordinated ambush attack in 1979 on a U.S. Navy bus, killing two soldiers and wounding nine others. In 1981 Los Macheteros blew up nine Puerto Rican National Guard planes at Muniz Airport on Isla Verde, Puerto Rico. Later in the same year Los Macheteros killed one navy soldier and wounded three others who were on shore leave from the USS Pensacola In 1985 Los Macheteros and the OVRP combined to fire a light antitank weapon at the federal courthouse in Old San Juan. They later shot an army major; the next year, the two organizations, together with the FARP, were responsible for 10 terrorist incidents in Puerto Rico. The most daring of these was carried out primarily by the OVRP—the assassination of former police officer Alejandro Malavé. On October 28, 1986, in a joint action intended to discourage young Puerto Ricans from joining the military, the three groups planted 10 pipe bombs at military targets throughout Puerto Rico. These actions were funded by var-ious robberies carried out by Los Macheteros on the mainland United States, including a September 1983 Wells Fargo robbery in which the organization seized $7 million In 1987 the GFL committed several acts of domestic terrorism in the United States—they bombed banks, a department store, and government buildings

Ku Klux Klan

Resistance and revolts by African American slaves in the South prior to the Civil War were met with harsh retribution. In 1800 a group of 25 slaves suspected of conspiring to escape and to join the Catawba Native American tribe in a revolt were executed. Two years later an unsuccessful slave rebellion led by Denmark Vesey in South Carolina resulted in his execution and that of 30 others. This type of violence continued during the Reconstruction period following the U.S. Civil War. Institutions like the Freedmen's Bureau were established by the federal government to ensure that African Americans were registered to vote, provided with property rights, and guaranteed access to education and to medical care. Southern White vigilantes responded by burning down hospitals and schools that admitted African Americans, and African Americans were singled out for killing, maiming, and torture (Miller, 2013). In 1866 a meeting was convened by Confederate veterans in Pulaski, Tennessee, to form an organization to maintain White privilege. They called their secret soci-ety Kuklos (after the Greek word for group, circle, or band). The attacks against African Americans around Pulaski inspired attacks across the South and were attributed to what would become known as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Operat-ing across mostly southern states, the Klan dressed in White robes, took on local names (like the Constitutional Union Guard in North Carolina), and held rallies around the symbol of a burning cross. The KKK was dedicated to keeping Afri-can Americans from the polls; attacks escalated around election time. A federal undercover agent who infiltrated what was known as the Knights of the White Camelia in Louisiana reported that 200 African Americans had been killed in a single day to keep them from voting. State governments cooperated in these efforts by creating impediments to the voting booth—including literacy tests, property requirements, and prohibitive poll taxes. A White mob went on a rampage through the majority-African American city of Wilmington, North Carolina. They burned down the African American-owned newspaper, destroyed homes, and killed more than 100 persons. The White population declared the election that had brought African Americans to power null and void and elected an all-White city government. These types of attacks largely went unpunished because the entire criminal justice system in most states was aligned with the KKK The passage of a federal anti-Klan law in 1871 gave federal courts jurisdiction over Klan cases and marked the beginning of the end for the first phase of the KKK, which all but disappeared in the early 1880s. The second phase of the Klan was initiated in the 20th century. The so-called new Klan was formed by Methodist minister William Simmons who declared himself "Imperial Wizard." A celebratory ceremony at Stone Mountain, Georgia, in addition to attacking African Americans, targeted Communists, gays, Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and organized labor The new Klan attracted support in the Midwest and in Oklahoma, Colorado, and Oregon. At the height of its power in 1923, the membership of the so-called invisible empire was between 3 million and 6 million; that same year, 30,000 Klansmen marched down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. Five U.S. senators and one governor were members of the Klan Between 1889 and 1932, there were as many as 3,753 lynchings of African Americans by Whites; most were carried out as public spectacles. Although violence by the KKK largely came to an end by the early 1930s, between 1936 and 1946 there were more than 40 lynchings of African Americans—none of which resulted in a criminal conviction The Klan, which by the 1950s was in decline, was reinvigorated by the Civil Rights Movement in the South in the late 1950s and 1960s which relied on marches, rallies, and sit-ins to desegregate public accommodations and schools and to ensure access to a quality education. African Americans ultimately succeeded through federal legislation and federal court decisions in desegregating the schools and public facilities and in gaining the right to vote free from discrimination. The Klan now was organized into various independent factions such as the White Knights of Mississippi and the United Klans of America. These groups were united in violently opposing African American empowerment. The Klan was responsible for more than 130 bombings between January 1956 and June 1963 and was involved in shootings, lynchings, and torture. Klansmen perpetrated the notorious 1963 bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, in which four young African American girls were killed; the "Mississippi Burning"—the murder of civil rights workers Andrew Goodman, James Chaney, and Michael Schwerner near Philadelphia, Mississippi; the assassination of civil rights leader Medgar Evers in Fayette, Mississippi; and the killing of Lemuel Penn in Athens, Georgia, in 1964; and the murder of Detroit native Viola Liuzzo The Klan has also emerged to attack civil rights demonstrators. In 1979 Klan members attacked a group of demonstrators in Greensboro, North Carolina, killing five individuals and wounding eight. The assailants were acquitted at trial The Klan group called the Invisible Empire, was dissolved by court order in 1993 after having been found civilly liable for a 1987 attack on civil rights workers in Georgia. In 1997 members of the True Knights of the KKK were arrested for a plot to bomb gas storage tanks that would have killed between 10,000 and 30,000 individuals Klan membership has continued to decline and today largely has been replaced by the so-called "clean-cut Klan" led by David Duke. The Klan now portrays itself as middle class and socially acceptable and has discarded white robes and cross burnings for business suits. A small group of traditionalists cling to the Klan's historical roots.

Right Wing Terrorism

Right-wing extremist terrorism in the United States historically has been carried out by relatively small groups that possess differing beliefs. For the most part, these groups do not participate in conventional politics like elections and have experienced limited success in achieving their goals. However, they historically have proven to be extremely violent and to pose a threat to social stability. There are various views that are common to most right-wing terrorist groups. These views include White supremacy, a distinctive version of Christianity, distrust of government institutions and policies, local political control, a rejection of inter-national institutions, and a belief in absolute individual freedom. In general, there is an underlying psychological desire among right-wing terrorists to maintain an idealized way of life that existed in the past and that is viewed as threatened by immigration, diversity, feminism, and the changing economy. The core views of most right-wing terrorists include: Racism. There is a belief in White supremacy and a demonization of Jews, African-Americans, Hispanics, and immigrants, as well as a rejection of diversity. Religion. There is strong adherence to a distinctive form of Christianity. Social conservatism. The groups for the most part are strongly opposed to abortion, homosexuality, and feminism, and other "liberal" policies. Local control. There is a belief in some form of local control or decentralized governance and opposition to the federal government and to federal policies. Second Amendment. The Second Amendment protection of the right to bear arms is vital to protect individuals against the threat posed by "big government" and as essential to the protection of other fundamental rights. Globalism. There is a distrust of international organizations and treaties and a belief in a global conspiracy of Jews, bankers, and the United Nations. Interna-tional trade is blamed for the loss of jobs and for the decline of local communities. Conspiracy theories. Most groups believe in various government conspiracies that are intended to threaten individual freedom. This ranges from the belief that the U.S. government was responsible for the 9/11 attacks to the belief that the government is planning to seize individuals' firearms. Groups place differing degrees of emphasis on these aspects of right-wing ide-ology and the emphasis has shifted depending on the issues that are at the center of public debate. During the 1950s the focus was on the threat posed by "godless" Communism and with the decline of the Soviet Union, this was replaced by a fear of the so-called New World Order imposed by Jews, bankers, and international organizations. More recently, the primary threat is perceived by right-wing groups as coming from immigration and Islamic extremists. In his book on U.S. terrorism, Brent Smith (1994)observes that members of right-wing terror groups tend to draw support from older, rural White males who are not college educated and who are lower income workers or are unemployed. Right-wing groups tend to be headquartered in rural training camps and organized in a hierarchical fashion. The groups support themselves through criminal activity and although they have committed significant attacks against the government, most of their violence is directed against racial and religious "enemies." In the 1980s two thirds of individuals indicted for federal terrorism offenses were right-wing extremists; in the 1990s 44% of federal terrorism indictments involved right-wing extremists. In the 5 years following the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in 1995, the Southern Poverty Law Center found that 35 terrorist plots were planned or carried out by right-wing groups. Other analysts report that more than 150 far-right-wing motivated homicides were committed between 1990 and 2014 (Simi & Bubolz, 2017).

Minutemen and Posse Comitatus

Robert Bolivar DePugh founded the Minutemen in 1960. Until DePugh's arrest on federal gun charges, his group of a few thousand men formed a fanatically anti-communist and pro-gun rights militant group (Bennett, 1988). The Minutemen's focus on waging guerilla warfare and its contempt for federal law laid the foundation for Posse Comitatus (meaning "power of the county"). Posse Comitatus was comprised of small groups that combined tax protestors, farmers, and survivalists. Robert Bolivar DePugh founded the Minutemen in 1960. Until DePugh's arrest on federal gun charges, his group of a few thousand men formed a fanatically anti-communist and pro-gun rights militant group (Bennett, 1988). The Minutemen's focus on waging guerilla warfare and its contempt for federal law laid the foundation for Posse Comitatus (meaning "power of the county"). Posse Comitatus was comprised of small groups that combined tax protestors, farmers, and survivalists. The name Posse Comitatius is derived from an 1878 Congressional piece of legislation that prohibits the military from engaging in local law enforcement, and authorizes local sheriffs to deputize citizens to assist in maintaining law and order. Adherents to Posse Comitatus refused to pay taxes and to apply for driver's and hunting licenses. The Posse Comitatus movement became a powerful force in the farm states in the early and mid-1980s when hundreds of thousands of farmers confronted the prospect of banks seizing their lands because of an inability to meet their monthly mortgage payments. The most infamous incident involving Posse Comitatus occurred in 1983, when Gordon W. Kahl shot and killed two federal marshals in Medina, North Dakota. Kahl subsequently died in a gun battle with authorities The sovereign citizens movement is an outgrowth of Posse Comitatus. Sovereign citizens believe that they are not subject to state or federal laws. They engage in "paper terrorism"—such as filing false tax returns, using counterfeit money, creating in fraudulent drivers' licenses, and relying on fake deeds to claim a right to property. Sovereign citizens have been convicted of tax and document fraud, and they have engaged in a series of violent confrontations with law enforcement. In May 2010, Jerry Kane and his teenage son, Joseph, were pulled over by the police in West Memphis, Arkansas. Joseph exited the car firing a pistol, and he killed two police officers. The Kanes then fled to a parking lot where they were killed after wounding two officers.

FIGURE 7.1 Memorial to Victims of the Rwandan Genocide

Rwanda is comprised of two dominant ethnic groups: the majority Hutu comprise roughly 85% of the country's estimated 2 million inhabitants. The Hutu cultivated the land and provided the labor; the minority Tutsi raised cattle. Although there has been an intermingling of the two groups, and economic distinctions between the two groups are no longer significant, the Hutu traditionally have been portrayed in the popular imagination as stocky and oval-faced. The Tutsi are characterized as the exact opposite—tall and thin with sharp features. The two groups share a common language, religion, and national culture. The perceived differences between the two groups provided an opportunity throughout the latter part of the 20th century for Hutu politicians to consolidate power by engaging in nationalistic rhetoric. In 1990 a leading newspaper published the "Hutu Ten Commandments" which warned that Hutu who befriended or engaged in business with Tutsi would be killed and that no mercy should be shown to the Tutsi. In August 1993, President Juvénal Habyarimana, the Hutu head of Rwanda who had sought to put an end to the smoldering violence between the Hutu and Tutsi, was killed when his plane was shot down as it landed in Rwanda. Hutu extremists in the government immediately employed youth gangs armed with machetes and hammers and scythes to kill Tutsi and moderate Hutu leaders. Roadblocks were established, and individuals with Tutsi government identity cards were killed; individuals taking shelter in schools and churches were slaughtered. Systematic sexual violence and rape was used against Tutsi women. The slaughter only came to a halt when a military force comprised of Tutsi living in exile in neighboring Uganda managed to take control of the country. It is estimated that beginning on April 4, 1994, half a million Tutsi were killed in 13 weeks—roughly 75% of the Tutsi population of Rwanda. The Rwandan genocide was unique because for the most part, the killing was carried out in a face-to-face fashion using crude farm and construction tools. The primary perpetrators were youth gangs who in many instances pressured ordinary Hutus to participate in killing their friends and neighbors. A special UN international criminal tribunal for Rwanda was established following the genocide. The tribunal convicted 61 individuals of crimes against humanity and of genocide. The events in Rwanda illustrate how ethnic differences can be used by extremists to mobilize popular support and involvement to inflict mass violence. The U.S. government, throughout the killing in Rwanda, intentionally avoided the use of the term genocide and refused to intervene to stop the killing. American lives and resources were considered too precious to be spent on calming the situation in Rwanda The UN International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the preamble notes that "international cooperation" is required to liberate humanity from the "scourge" of the crime of genocide. In Article One, signatories "undertake" to cooperate in the prevention and punishment of genocide. In 2005 the United Nations adopted a document imposing a "responsibility to protect" on all countries when a state does not act to prevent genocide within its territory

Left Wing terrorism

START

Middle Eastern states have engaged in terror campaigns against their domestic populations over the past 30 years. In March 1988, Iraqi dictator

Saddam Hussein, in what has become known as the "Black Friday," launched a chemical-weapon attack against the Kurdish population in Halabja in Northern Iraq. Between 3,200 and 5,000 people were killed, and between 7,000 and 10,000 were injured. Those affected by the attack suffered from increased rates of cancer and birth defects. The Iraqi attack likely is the most lethal chemical-weapon attack directed against a civilian population

Between 1970 and 1973, the United States spent more than $8 million to prevent the election of socialist

Salvador Allende to the Chilean presidency, and then to create chaos in the country to prevent Allende from succeeding in implementing his reform agenda. The United States feared that Chile would become a Communist country aligned with Fidel Castro's Cuban dictatorship and spread Communist ideology throughout Latin America.

External State-Sponsored Terrorism: Coup D'état

States that invade and seize the territory of another nation risk condemnation for failing to respect the core principle of international law, which requires respect for the territorial integrity of another country. In invading another country, a state also confronts the challenge of occupying a foreign territory. It makes a great deal of political sense for a state to support the overthrow of an enemy government and to install a friendly government that can ensure domestic stability and sup-port the national security interests of the dominant state in the partnership.

INTRODUCTION chapter 7

Terrorism experts continue to disagree on whether it is accurate and useful to use the term state terrorism. -Bruce Hoffman notes that there is a difference between the situation of states and of terrorists. He notes that states are subject to the law of war and to the requirements of international agreements. -Violating these rules is tantamount to committing war crimes or crimes against humanity. -States that violate these rules recognize their legitimacy and either deny that the attack occurred or argue that they possessed a legal justification for the attack, such as self-defense.

Moralist Movements

The Army of God and Phineas Priesthood are two loosely organized coalitions of lone-wolf terrorists who are inspired by fundamentalist interpretations of biblical texts and/or by the CI movement to violently combat abortion, LGBT rights, and feminism, which they view as contrary to Christian teaching. Individuals iden-tifying with these groups have committed a string of abortion-clinic bombings, the killing of doctors performing abortions, and bombing gay bars. The violent antiabortion movement firmly established itself as a threat in 1984 when 30 abortion clinics were damaged by arson. Michael Bray, one of the chief spokespeople for the Army of God, described America as an immoral society which by tolerating homosexuality, fornication, and abortion had abandoned God's aw. He characterized violence against abortion providers as acts of self-defense against "baby killers" Eric Rudolph is the most notorious individual identifying with the Army of God and the CI movement. He was responsible for the bombing at the Atlanta Olympic Park and for bombing a gay nightclub and abortion clinics in Atlanta, Georgia, and Birmingham, Alabama, in 1998. Rudolph is responsible for two deaths and the injury of 119 others. In 2003 Paul Hill shot and killed a Florida doctor who provided abortions. Hill was sentenced to death and executed. In 2009 Dr. George Tiller, a Kansas abortion provider, was gunned down in his church by Scott Roeder. In 2015 Robert Lewis Dear killed two individuals and wounded nine others who worked at a Planned Parenthood in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and killed a police officer during a standoff with the police.

The Black Panther Party

The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in 1968 in Oak-land, California. The name was taken from an African American voting rights organization founded in Lowndes County, Alabama, by civil rights activist Stokely Carmichael. At the height of the organization's influence, the Black Panthers had more than 40 chapters and 2,000 members and very quickly became the most visible and influential radical African American organization. The Black Panthers 10-point program called for full employment, quality housing and education, and criminal justice reform. They were involved in local efforts to support and strengthen their communities, including breakfast, health, and educational programs. The Panthers also would appear at the scene of an arrest to monitor police behavior. They directly challenged the police with the slogan "off the pig (police)." At the time it was lawful to openly carry a weapon in California, and the Panthers caused a national panic when they appeared armed at the state legislative assembly The Black Panthers, led by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, were viewed as the single most dangerous group in the United States by the FBI; most of the significant figures in the party were shot and killed in confrontation with law enforcement or were imprisoned. Although influential, by 1969 the Black Panthers had ceased to be a powerful force—Huey Newton was criminally convicted of manslaughter, Bobby Seale was indicted in the Chicago Seven Trial, and Eldridge Cleaver, the charismatic Minister of Information, fled the country. In 1969 the Chicago police raided the apartment of Fred Hampton and Mark Clark and shot and killed the two Black Panthers under suspicious circumstances, driving the remaining members of the organization underground

Black Liberation Army

The Black Panthers were responsible for a number of terrorist incidents, most of which were committed by a breakaway militant wing, the Black Liberation Army (BLA). The BLA was inspired by Eldridge Cleaver's call for the Panthers to engage in armed revolutionary violence. The BLA was a violent underground organiza-tion headquartered in New York City led by Lumumba Shakur and Sekou Odinga, and undoubtedly was the most violent and dangerous African American terrorist group in American history. Between 1970 and 1985, the BLA was responsible for more than 30 attacks—almost half of which resulted in at least one death. Most of their attacks focused on the police, including the murder of two New York officers and the serious wounding of two other officers in May 1971. The New York cells supported themselves by engaging in a string of violent robberies (Carson, 2017). A West Coast wing of the BLA was responsible for a number of minor bombings and the killing of a police officer. Yet another cell in Atlanta murdered a police officer In January 1972, three members of a New York cell brutally assassinated two New York police officers, shooting one between the eyes and the other in the groin as they lay wounded on the ground. The individuals responsible were later apprehended after exchanging gunfire with the police and the BLA, although continuing their attacks, was greatly diminished

State Sponsors of External Terrorism

The Bureau of Counterterrorism, in the 2015 Country Reports on Terrorism, lists Iran and Syria as the leading state sponsors of terrorism. In the past, Cuba has also been included on the list.

The Republic of New Afrika (New Afrikan Freedom Fighters)

The Republic of New Afrika (RNA) was formed by former Black Panthers and BLA members. The aspiration was to create an African American nation in the southern part of the United States. The group was severely disrupted when a number of former members of the Black Panthers and the BLA that were active in the RNA were convicted for involvement in the 1981 Brink's robbery. The remain-ing militants regrouped and formed the New Afrikan Freedom Fighters (NAFF) as an underground wing of the RNA. The NAFF was headed by Randolph Simms (also known as Coltraine Chimurengo), a Harvard doctoral student. The police penetrated the organization and arrested the core leadership before they were able to carry out a plan to attack the Brooklyn courthouse, intended to free Donald Weems (who was standing trial for the Brink's robbery) and Nathaniel Burns (who had been convicted of involvement in the robbery). The Brink's robbery is discussed below. The police were startled to find that a number of the members of the NAFF were successful middle-class professionals (Smith, 1994).

Youth Violence: The Weather Underground

The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a group of college students that organized on college campuses across the country and advocated fundamental change in America. In 1962 the SDS agreed on a set of principles in the Port Huron Statement which included opposition to militarism, foreign interventions, and capitalist exploitations, and also articulated a strong commitment to social equality. The statement strongly condemned violence and advocated peaceful reform through the building of a mass movement of students, minorities, and the White working class. The SDS burst onto the national scene when students occupied buildings at Columbia University to protest the university's policies toward the local commu-nity. Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) facilities were burned at a number of campuses to protest the Vietnam War. The SDS also played a significant leadership role in the anti-Vietnam War movement and in organizing the protests at the 1968 Democratic Convention, which led to violent clashes between demonstrators and the police. The SDS was divided over how to support the diverse group of antiwar leaders charged and prosecuted (and ultimately acquitted on appeal) in the Chicago Seven trial for a conspiracy to cross state lines to incite a riot at the convention. The majority of the group favored building a mass movement to pro-test the trial. A faction of the SDS, however, was disillusioned with the possibility of democratic change and believed that violence was the only avenue to achieve social change. There also was the belief among this faction that the United States was committing war crimes against the Vietnamese and that it was necessary to "bring the war home" to make America realize the violence being practiced against the Vietnamese. Individuals advocating violence invoked the words of a Bob Dylan song "you don't need a weatherman to tell you which way the wind is blowing" and adopted the name the Weathermen. The Weathermen organized four "Days of Rage" in Chicago, which resulted in extensive property damage and confrontations between the Weathermen and the police. Following the "Days of Rage," a group within the Weathermen decided to form small revolutionary cells and named themselves the Weather Underground. They viewed themselves as fighting behind enemy lines to bring down the "American Empire" and drew inspiration from international revolutionary movements such as the Cuban Revolution. During the next 5 years, the Weather Underground was responsible for at least 19 bombings—including the police headquarters in New York City, the National Guard Headquarters in Washington, D.C., the Presidio army base in San Fran-cisco, the U.S. Capitol, and the Pentagon. Three members of the group died in 1970 when a bomb they were constructing ignited. In another incident, an innocent graduate student working late at night in the Army Math Research Center at the University of Wisconsin was killed when the building was bombed by a group of radicals inspired by the Weather Underground (Law, 2016).

Left-Wing Revolutionary Violence: Symbionese Liberation Army

The Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) was a small independent terrorist group that was active between 1975 and 1976. The SLA was headed by a an escaped inmate named Donald DeFreeze (who took the alias of "Cinque" after the leader of the revolt on the slave ship Amistad). The organization was committed to anticapitalist revolutionary violence and as their first act, they assassinated the African American superintendent of Oakland, California, public schools, Marcus Foster, and later shot and killed a police officer The group received considerable notoriety in February 1974 when members of the SLA kidnapped newspaper heiress Patty Hearst from her apartment at the University of California at Berkeley. The SLA kept Hearst in a closet for 50 days and subjected her to psychological abuse and to political indoctrination. They demanded a ransom for Hearst's return, involving free food for the community 3 days a week for 4 weeks, along with a payment of several million dollars. Hearst subsequently adopted the name "Tania" and took part in a bank rob-bery. A widely distributed photo portrayed her in a beret wielding a firearm. She was prosecuted, unsuccessfully claiming that she was brainwashed. Most of the members of the SLA were killed after the house in which they were hiding caught fire during a fight with the police. The remaining members of the SLA formed the New World Liberation Front (NWLF) and ignited over 64 bombs in the Bay Area, aimed at the military and corporations. In a single evening the NWLF sabotaged as many as 500 parking meters in San Francisco. In February 2003, four NWLF members were criminally convicted for a bank robbery in Carmichael, California, in which a mother of four was killed (Burrough, 2015).

Left-Wing Revolutionary Violence: The United Freedom Front

The United Freedom Front (UFF) was a small underground ideological group that was active for roughly a decade. The group was composed of former members of the SDS who devoted their efforts to developing a revolutionary consciousness among inmates. The UFF detonated a bomb in 1975 at the Boston Courthouse. In 1983 the group bombed the U.S. Capitol to protest the American invasion of Grenada. The UFF focused its attacks on the East Coast, and in a 2-year period they bombed an IBM office, army reserve center, army recruiting center, and the offices of General Electric and Union Carbide (Burrough, 2015).

Genocide in Kampuchea

The United States intervention in South Vietnam (SVN) in 1965 led the North Vietnamese to send assistance to the National Liberation Front (NLF), an insurgent movement mobilized to overthrow the South Vietnamese regime. The NLF, in addition to controlling territory in SVN, occupied the border between SVN and Cambodia. In pursuit of a strong Cambodian ally in the struggle against the NLF, the United States supported a coup against Prince Sihanouk and facilitated his replacement by Lon Nol, head of the armed forces. Lon Nol welcomed the American bombing of NLF sanctuaries and in 1973, the United States dropped more than 11 times more explosives in 6 months than was dropped on Japan during the entirety of World War II. The devastation resulted in the death of as many as 150,000 people, the killing of livestock, the displacement of village populations, and the acreage devoted to rice cultivation decreasing from 6 million to 1 million by the end of the bombing campaign. This combination of factors created mass starvation which only was partially alleviated by assistance from American humanitarian organizations (Jones, 2017). Although the NLF agreed to leave Cambodia in 1973, they left behind a well-armed and highly trained domestic insurgent group, the Khmer Rouge, which was embraced by the rural population that had suffered under the Lon Nol regime. The Khmer Rouge swept into power in 1975 and renamed the country Kampuchea in recognition of the country's ancient Angor Empire that stretched across Southeast Asia during the 12th to 14th centuries. The new regime declared that the calendar was reset to "year zero" in recognition that a new day had dawned. Their goal was to immediately create the first pure Communist state. The Khmer advocated an extreme nationalism combined with an antiurban philosophy, introduced collective land ownership, and forced slave labor, the abolition of money, and rejection of Buddhism and other religions. Food was distributed in collective kitchens, and it was prohibited to forage for food or to share food with one another. Families were often divided, and individuals were subject to intense surveillance of their daily life. Despite starvation, disease, and the lack of medicine the regime refused foreign assistance. Two million inhabitants of the capital city of Phnom Penh and the inhabitants of other cities were deported by foot to rural areas. They were labeled the "new people" because, unlike the rural "old people" population, they were "late" to the revolution and were targeted for mass executions along with their families. Intellectuals in particular were summarily killed. In the Tuol Sleng prison, an estimated 17,000 "class enemies" were subjected to internment, torture, and to death. Prisoners were abused until they revealed the names of family, friends, and neighbors who were involved in the complex conspiracies concocted by interrogators. At the end of the Khmer Rouge regime, only an estimated 3,000 Buddhist monks remained out of an original population of 60,000 monks. The coun-try's entire Vietnamese population appeared to have been exterminated, along with one third of Muslims and more than 50% of the Thai population. A combination of direct killings, starvation, and disease resulted in the death of as many as 2 million people out of a total population of 8 million between 1975 and 1978. As many as 50% of these individuals were directly killed by the Khmer Rouge. Although the Khmer regime was removed in 1979 following a Vietnamese invasion, only a handful of officials in the Khmer regime have been prosecuted and convicted before an international tribunal established in Kampuchea by the United Nations. The Khmer Rouge illustrates that regimes are able to engage in much more far-reaching violence over an extended period of time than a terrorist group. Although governments are theoretically restrained by domestic law—and subject to international law and norms of conduct—they are actually subject to little restraint. Regimes typically claim that they are acting against individuals and groups who are enemies of the regime and who pose a terrorist threat. Individuals in the general population who might ordinarily protest the government's terrorist acts are silenced by the threat that they will be prosecuted for supporting the terrorists.

In his 2015 address to Congress, Pope Francis denounced the international arms trade and the "shameful and culpable silence" that surrounds the "economy of death"

The address may have been directed at President Barack Obama, who sold more weapons to foreign governments while he was in office than any U.S. president since World War II. During his first 5 years in office, President Obama sold $169 billion in arms—when adjusted for inflation, that is more than the total arms sales under President George W. Bush (Human Rights First, 2013). These arms sales partially result from the fact that the United States has depended on allied nations to fight the War on Terror. These sales also provide a boost to the U.S. economy. Sixty percent of these arms sales went to Middle Eastern governments with questionable human rights records. The biggest recipient of arms sales was Saudi Arabia, which has used American weapons to carry out a bloody war in Yemen and implement a repressive regime at home. Another benefactor was Bahrain, which has a well-documented record of human rights abuses in repressing its Shia minority. This pattern has con-tinued under President Donald Trump, whose administration has announced a billion-dollar arms sale to Saudi Arabia and an even larger sale to Bahrain. Note that these sales all have been approved by the U.S. Congress. American arms sales include military weapons as well as technology used for internal crowd control, such as riot batons and tear gas. The United States, of course, is not alone in selling arms abroad. The United Kingdom is the second largest seller of arms and has sold arms to 39 of the 51 countries listed by the nongovernmental organization Freedom House as the leading human rights violators in the world, and the United Kingdom has sold arms to 22 of the 30 countries on the its own watchlist of human rights violators. Russian arms sales have reached record levels as a result the proven effectiveness of Russian armaments in the Syrian War, and Russia has become a major competitor to the United States. Sweden recently announced that it will not sell arms to nondemocratic regimes.

In effect, there are two systems of justice:

The formal criminal justice system that functions in accordance with due process, and an informal terror system of justice.

External State Terrorism

The law of war is set forth in various international agreements and establishes various types of violations that are subject to criminal punishment. These include attacks on civilians and civilian objects, the mistreatment of prisoners of war, and the use of prohibited weapons. War crimes—when undertaken in a systematic, violent fashion with the specific intent to intimidate an enemy government or population—constitute state terrorism. The law of war also sets forth the obligations of an occupying power—a state which takes control of the territory of a defeated country. An occupying power has an obligation to treat the domestic population with dignity and respect, and to respect human and property rights.

Labor Violence

The most violent American labor group in the 1870s were the Molly Maguires. A group of Irish immigrants, they worked under brutal and dangerous conditions in the anthracite coal fields of eastern Pennsylvania. The dangers that the Molly Maguires confronted are illustrated by a fire in 1869 that took the life of 110 workers. Tension in the mines was enhanced by the fact that most of the owners, supervisors, and skilled workers were English or Welsh; the Irish miners had long-standing ethnic, religious, and economic antagonisms with these groups. Powerful mine and railway owner Franklin B. Gowen blamed the Molly Maguires—without persuasive evidence—for the deaths of a number of mine supervisors and under-took a campaign to eradicate the Mollies. Between 1876 and 1879 20 members of the Molly Maguires were prosecuted, convicted, and executed, eliminating the group as a political

Neo Nazi Extremists

The post-World War II American neo-Nazi movement was established in 1958 by George Lincoln Rockwell, a former navy pilot. The movement collapsed when Rockwell was shot and killed by a member of the Nazi party in 1967. Rockwell and his small group of followers distributed Nazi literature, picketed and protested civil rights leaders, and drove a "hate bus" though the southern states. Hitler and the Nazi Party continue to inspire lone-wolf terrorists to commit violence. Tom Metzger, a former adherent to the KKK, advocated a neo-Nazi ideology to orga-nize young White working-class skinheads. In the early 1990s the group had as many as 144 chapters and 3,500 members. The skinheads engaged in a string of murders and robberies but began to decline when three members in Seattle were criminally convicted of murdering a young Ethiopian man and were held liable for $10 million in damages. Inspired by neo-Nazi racist ideology, Richard Baumhammers formed the Free Market Party which opposed non-White immigration. In April 2000 Baumham-mers murdered five persons and wounded one other individual. He intentionally targeted Jews, Asians, Indians, and African Americans, among other minority groups

SINGLE-ISSUE TERRORISM START Radical Environmental and Animal-Liberation Groups

There are countless groups engaging in lawful political efforts to protect the environment or animals. The Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), however, are an exception and have collaborated to commit arson and vandalism under the banner of what calls animal liberation and what the ELF call monkey-wrenching or eco-tage. These groups generally avoid attacking people, instead directing their attacks toward animal research labora-tories and property developments that they view as posing a threat to animals or to the environment. The ALF was founded in 1963 in Great Britain and engaged in the sabotage of animal research and fox hunts. The ALF is based on the philosophy that human beings have no right to treat animals as property, and that animals have rights that should be respected. In the view of the ALF, the mistreatment of animals is as serious an ethical violation as racism or sexism. The "liberation" of animals from their cages is not vandalism or theft because human beings have no right to restrain or abuse them. The term extensional self-defense is used to justify the right of human beings to defend animals. The ALF, along with the ELF, has been condemned as a terrorist organization by the FBI and other federal law enforcement agencies. ALF actions include releasing dolphins from the University of Hawaii Marine Mammal Laboratory in 1977 and removing 468 animals from a laboratory at the University of Cali-fornia, Riverside. At times, ALF actions have endangered individuals. In June 2006, the ALF claimed responsibility for a firebomb attack on a house owned by UCLA researcher Lynn Fairbanks which, had it been successful, was sufficiently powerful to kill the occupants. The ELF was established in 1992 in Great Britain by members of Earth First!, whose symbol is a monkey wrench and stone hammer. The American movement was launched on Columbus Day in 1996 when activists spray painted "504 years of genocide" and "ELF" on a McDonald's restaurant in Oregon. On Christmas Day of that year, 150 minks were released from a Michigan farm by the ELF. One of the ELF's next actions was to burn down a ski resort in Vail, Colorado, in protest of plans to expand the resort because the expansion would destroy a lynx habitat in Colorado. Other actions included the burning of an SUV dealership and the burning of a logging company's headquarters. In 2001 the Center for Urban Horticulture at the University of Washington was destroyed by arson committed by members of the ELF. This resulted in the loss of 20 years of research, and of valuable plant and book collections. Six months later, bombs failed to ignite on the campus of Michigan Technologi-cal University. In 2003 a 206-unit condominium in San Diego, California, was burned, causing $20 million in damages. A banner was left proclaiming, "If you build it, we will burn it," signed "The E.L.F.s are mad." In 2008 a bombing set fire to four multimillion-dollar homes in Echo Lake, Washington, causing $7 million in damages. The FBI records more 1,200 criminal acts by the ELF since 1996, causing roughly $100 million in damages. In 2006 American and Canadian activists pled guilty to 20 counts of arson committed between 1996 and 2001, which resulted in $40 million in damages.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 7

There is a continuing debate over whether the term state terrorism is useful and appropriate. Some commentators assert that there already are categories of criminal conduct available to describe the unjustified—if not illegal—actions of states, and that the focus should be on subnational terrorism. On the other hand, according to critical terrorism scholars, state violence inflicts much greater harm than the actions of subnational groups and thus fits the definition of terrorism. There are a wide variety of types of state terrorism, ranging from killing to torture. Genocide is the most extreme form of state terrorism. States typically attempt to justify or deny terrorism or use terms that obscure their acts of terrorism. There are various approaches to categorizing acts of state terror. One approach is to focus on who is carrying out the terror and on the location of the terrorism. Domestic state terrorism: Government attacks against unarmed civilians in a so-called dirty war against terrorism. Domestic state-sponsored terrorism: Supporting, encouraging, or condoning domestic private paramilitary groups to target dissidents. External state terrorism: A state's direct use of force or threat of force against civilians and unarmed individuals in another country. External state-sponsored terrorism: A state's direction or support for the internal replacement of a foreign government and support for the new government's use of force against the domestic population. Foreign state-sponsored terrorism also may involve support for a terrorist group acting against a foreign government.

United Flight 93

United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark, New Jersey's Liberty International Airport left at 8:32 a.m. (it was 15 minutes late) for Los Angeles. The flight had 33 passengers and four hijackers aboard. After the plane had been taken over by the hijackers, the passengers became aware that other flights had been seized by terrorists and a number of passengers charged the cockpit. The hijackers likely panicked and crashed the plane into an empty field in Shanksville, Pennsyl-vania, killing all aboard. The plane appeared to be headed for the White House.

United Flight 173

United Flight 173 left Boston Logan Airport at 7:58 a.m. for Los Angeles with 56 passengers aboard. The hijackers killed the pilots, stabbed flight attendants and a number of passengers, and at 9:03 crashed into the south tower of the WTC.

A state also may provide support by tolerating the activities of

a terrorist group that it has the power to influence.

Another argument is that states use violence selectively against individuals

and that individuals in the country are aware of how to act to avoid being targeted by government forces. Terrorists, in contrast, target individuals without rhyme or reason. On the other hand, subnational terrorist violence may be "unpredictable," but that the individuals who are the focus of terrorist attacks, like government officials and the police, are not selected without reason.

Adolf Hitler was named German chancellor by Weimar president Paul von Hindenburg in January 1933. Hitler blamed a fire ignited

at the Reichstag (the German parliament) on a Dutch immigrant, Marinus van der Lubbe, a former Communist who had become aligned with anarchists. Hitler issued emergency decrees to combat Communist terror, which suspended civil liberties and expanded police powers. Thousands of Communists, socialists, anarchists, and trade unionists were interned. Members of the Reichstag, frightened and in a panic, vested all authority in Hitler—who proclaimed himself Führer, or leader of Germany. Opposition par-ties were abolished, and German Jews were gradually stripped of their rights and possessions and either forced to emigrate or be interned in concentration camps. The mentally and physically challenged were marginalized and eventually subject to sterilization—and in some instances, to euthanasia

A democratic government may find itself in a state of emergency and revert to an

authoritarian-style government.

In a totalitarian government, power is

centralized—much like in an authoritarian government. The difference is that in a totalitarian regime the state dominates every aspect of life and there is no room for private organizations, businesses, or individual decisions about matters ranging from what profession to pursue to the number of children in a family.

The president can remove the designation of State Sponsor of Terrorism by

certifying to Congress that the country is no longer supporting terrorism, has provided assurances that it will not support terrorism in the future, and that there has been a fundamental change in leadership and policies. The president also can report to Congress at least 45 days before removing the designation that the country has not supported international terrorism for a 6-month period and that the country has provided assurance that it will not support international terrorism in the future.

Stohl theorizes that a regime will use state terror against their own populations to

consolidate power; to repress demands for political, social, or economic reform; to defeat insurgents; and in furtherance of a program of domestic repression.

Duvall and Stohl theorize that state terrorism involves a calculation of

costs and benefits. A government will use terrorism when it enables the regime to achieve goals more effectively than other policies; and when the regime believes that the costs of state terrorism are lower than the costs of other policies. In other words, the greater the threat to the government, the more likely a government will resort to violence to maintain power.

The sudden rebellious replacement of a government by an internal opposition group is termed a

coup d'état.

State civilian and military officials and combatants who violate the internationally recognized rules for armed conflict are subject to

criminal prosecution and the states responsible may be required to pay monetary compensation

The reliance on death squads enables a government to quickly and efficiently eliminate

dissidents and suspected terrorists without needing to employ the procedures of the criminal justice system.

The German expansion across Europe was accompanied by the establishment of

extermination camps. As many as 6 million Jews and 5 million others—including religious minorities and nonbelievers, Roma, and political dissidents—were exterminated. Following the war, 22 Nazi officials were prosecuted by the Allied Powers at Nuremberg. The tribunal—in convicting the defendants of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace—condemned the Nazis' terroristic policies and use of terrorism against civilians across Europe.

Sponsorship may involve training, providing equipment and arms, money, enlisting support from other states, and public political endorsement of the insurgents. The sponsoring state also may provide nonuniformed

fighters; an example is Russia in the Ukrainian conflict. The negative aspect of this policy is that the sponsoring state risks embarrassment if its involvement comes to light. A classic case is the Bay of Pigs crisis when a CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed, and American involvement was revealed.

There are a number of types of state terrorism that can be categorized by whether the violence or threat of violence is committed by the government or

individuals who are not formally part of the government, and whether the violence is committed at home or aboard.

Part of the calculation of a regime in deciding whether to use violence is the reaction of the

international community A strong state can act with little concern about the reaction of other governments. On the other hand, states that depend on the United States or Europe for arms, foreign assistance, trade, and tourism need to determine whether they will be subject to a cutoff of foreign aid and/or a trade boycott if they engage in state terror.

A country is designated as a State Sponsor of Terrorism if

it has "repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism." A country remains on the list and only is removed if certain statutory standards are satisfied.

The term state terrorism is important because

it helps to highlight the fact that official violence is the cause of much of the pain and violence in the world and encourages individuals to think twice before accepting the arguments of government officials that their use of violence is both necessary and justified.

Iran has been designated a State Sponsor of Terrorism since 1984, based on

its support for the Palestinian group Hamas, the Shia group Hezbollah in Leba-non, and support for various Iraqi Shia terrorist groups in Iraq. Iran, along with Russia, has been the primary supporter of the Assad regime in Syria.

Sudan was designated a State Sponsor of Terrorism in 1993 because of

its support for various terrorist groups—including al Qaeda. The country provided a meeting site for various groups and allowed members of the Palestinian group Hamas to live in the country, train, and raise money. The Trump administration withdrew Sudan from the list of state sponsors of terrorism.

The executive power of the president or dictator is unlimited and unrestrained by the

law or by the other branches of government.

In 1979 the Sandinista guerillas overthrew the corrupt Nicaraguan government of Anastasio Somoza and established the

left-wing Sandinista Junta of National Reconstruction as the ruling regime. The United States funded and armed a number paramilitary guerilla groups, collectively referred to as the Contras. The disclosure of Contra acts of terrorism against civilians, a Contra assassination manual, and the revelation that the United States had mined the Managua Harbor led Congress to pass the first Boland Amendment in 1982, which prohibited the expenditure of American funds to overthrow the Nicaraguan government. The subsequent versions of the Boland Amendments in 1983 and 1984 reaffirmed the Congressional intent to end support for the Contras and closed loopholes in the legislation. The Reagan administration was intent on removing the Sandinista regime, which it feared would spread communism throughout neighboring states. The administration circumvented Congress's failure to support the Contras by using $30 million in profits from a secret arms deal with Iran, a sworn enemy of the United States, to secretly fund the Contras. In 1989 in summarizing the activities of the Contras, the international non-governmental organization Human Rights Watch reported that the Contras had engaged in the regular and systematic violation of human rights including kid-napping, torture, rape, and execution of civilians, destruction of civilian property, and the targeting of health clinics. In recent years the Sandnesta government itself has engaged in repressive policies to suppress popular protests.

The notion that states are entitled to use violence and that subnational (nonstate) terrorist groups do not erroneously assumes that all violence by states is both

legal and justified

The catalogue of countries that have employed terrorism against their domes-tic populations are too numerous to

mention. Another tactic of state terrorism discussed below is the government's reliance on paramilitary groups that are not formally affiliated with the government to attack individuals viewed as internal enemies of the regime.

In contrast to nation-states, terrorists do not recognize legal or moral restraints on their use

of violence and disregard these restraints

Domestic terrorism within a state's national territory is differentiated from external terrorism carried

out abroad

The bottom line, according to the critical terrorism scholars, is that the omission of states from the definition of terrorism seems to be based on

political considerations rather than on logic.

Yet another argument against the concept of state terrorism is that unlike subnational terrorists, state agents do not seek

publicity and typically attempt to conceal their involvement in terrorism. -In other words, state terrorism—unlike subnational terrorism—does not create fear and apprehension of state-sponsored violence among the population. This overlooks the fact that, in most instances, there is little doubt that is the government that is behind a kidnapping and mutilation of a body left on the street. There is no need to publicize government involvement.

Jackson and his colleagues reject the argument that state terrorism already is encompassed by terms like

repression and human rights abuses, and that there is no reason to introduce the additional analytical category of state terrorism. It is true that acts of terrorism also already are encompassed in existing analytical categories such as murder, assassination, and hijacking. Nonetheless, the use of the term terrorism to describe the criminal acts of a state clarifies and highlights that acts of terror—whether committed by governments or by subnational groups—are morally reprehensible and involve the unjustified infliction of widespread harm and human suffering for political purposes.

In sum, there is a continuing question as to whether subnational terrorism and state terrorism should be viewed as a

single concept. Keep in mind that state terrorism is committed by governments of all types and varieties and is not limited to right-wing or to left-wing regimes

State-sponsored terrorism may involve an ongoing campaign or a

single episode.

Richard Jackson and his colleagues (2011) in the United Kingdom surveyed articles published in two leading counterterrorism journals between 1990 and 1999 and found that only 2% addressed

state terrorism. -They conclude that analyses focusing on state terror-ism are uncommon, and that this imbalance contributes to the inaccurate view that states—particularly western democracies—are the victims rather than the perpetrators of terrorism.

Direct state terrorism is thus distinguished in this chapter from

state-sponsored terrorism, or terrorism carried out by individuals who are acting in the interests of the government and are trained, funded, or encouraged by a government but not formally affiliated with the government.

In the past the United States has listed Cuba as a State Sponsor of Terrorism based on its support for

the Basque Nation and Identity (ETA) and providing safe haven to ETA members, along with harboring known American terrorists.

A state that directly intervenes abroad may also engage in a joint operation, in which the government collaborates with another regime in carrying out a collective campaign of terror. A classic example is

the Phoenix Program in South Vietnam, in which Americans, Australians, and allied South Vietnamese intelligence units assassinated suspected Viet Cong guerilla fighters and sympathizers. Over 20,000 individuals were killed, and roughly 60,000 were interned and subjected to harsh interrogation—and in some instances, torture. The program is credited with cre-ating a significant dent in the NLF in South Vietnam, although it was ultimately disbanded because of the brutal tactics that were employed to gather information. A more typical pattern is for a state to sponsor terrorism abroad, concealing its involvement by directing support to a foreign regime or sponsoring paramilitary groups operating abroad.

A Senate investigation in 1975 (the Church Committee) found that the United States provided money and weapons to military officers who assassinated

the army commander, who was a supporter of Allende. The evidence is subject to dispute, although at a minimum, the United States was aware of the planned coup and murder of Allende and did not discourage the military takeover. President Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger privately took credit for creating the con-ditions for the coup.

Syria has a long history of state terrorism. In 1982...

the government of patriarch Hafez al-Assad suppressed a revolt by the Muslim Brotherhood, a Sunni Muslim opposition group, killing more than 25,000 civilians and destroying a large section of the city of Hama.

Both Jackson and Claridge stress that state terrorism is directed at

the immediate victims as well as at deterring opposition from a wider audience. Of course, claims that a state is engaging in violence to protect national security may in some instances be a convenient excuse for attacking individuals or groups that threaten the government's grip on power. -Keep in mind that acts of state terrorism, however violent, are typically endorsed and embraced by individuals who support and who benefit from the regime

An interesting aspect of state terrorism is that government officials invariably use terminology in communicating among

themselves that obscures the reality of their actions. Killing, for example, may be termed neutralization or special treatment; torture may be termed enhanced interrogation. The use of these types of terms allows decision makers to psychologically distance themselves from the consequences of their policies. Another distancing technique is to view the individuals who are attacked as evil or as deserving of their fate. The Nazi extermination squads were able to persuade themselves that they had the strength of character to cleanse Germany of Jews and minorities, and that only a small elite possessed that same capacity to kill. In other instances, individuals rationalize that they are following orders and that their superiors are ultimately responsible.

McAllister and Schmid note that state terrorism is of greater intensity when

there is unequal distribution of income in a society

The distinction between acts undertaken by state officials and acts undertaken by subnational groups in defining terrorism makes little sense, according

to critical scholars. Violence undertaken for political motives—no matter the perpetrator—is terrorism