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CHAPTER 4 HEALTH, ILLNESS AND DISEASE CHILDRENS HEALTH ADOLESCENTS' HEALTH EMERGING AND YOUNG ADULTS' HEALTH HEALTH AND AGING

CHILDRENS HEALTH Prevention Although the dangers of many diseases for children have greatly diminished, it is still important for parents to keep their children on a timely immunization schedule another important way to prevent health problems in children is to avoid accidents, which are the leading cause of death during childhood Infants need close monitoring as they gain locomotor and manipulative skills along with a strong curiosity to explore their environment. Aspiration of foreign objects, suffocation, falls, poisoning, burns, and motor vehicle accidents are among the most common accidents in infancy. An increasing number of studies reach the conclusion that children are at risk for health problems when they live in homes where a parent smokes POVERTY Poverty Of special concern in the United States is the poor health of many young children from low-income families. An estimated 7 percent of U.S. children have no usual source of health care. Approximately 11 million preschool children in the United States are malnourished. Their malnutrition places their health at risk. Many have poor resistance to diseases—including minor ones, such as colds, and major ones, such as influenza ADOLESCENTS' HEALTH Adolescence is a critical juncture for adopting behaviors that affect health. Many of the factors linked to poor health habits and early death in the adult years begin during adolescence. Social contexts, including families, peers, schools, neighborhoods, and culture, influence adolescent health. seventh- through twelfth-graders, youth who did not eat dinner with a parent five or more days a week had dramatically higher rates of smoking cigarettes, using marijuana, getting into fights, and initiating sexual activity. Parental caring and monitoring often combine to reduce risk taking in youth.. Peers also can influence adolescents' health Peer pressure can instigate health-compromising behaviors such as cigarette smoking, substance abuse, early sexual activity, and violence. Adolescents whose friends drank alcohol were more likely to binge drink in adolescence and early adulthood Improving adolescent health involves (1) reducing adolescents' health-compromising behaviors, such as drug abuse, violence, unprotected sexual intercourse, and dangerous driving; and (2) increasing health-enhancing behaviors, such as eating nutritious foods, exercising, and wearing seat belts. EMERGING AND YOUNG ADULTS' HEALTH Emerging adults have more than twice the mortality rate of adolescents. Males are mainly responsible for the higher mortality rate of emerging adults. Also, compared with adolescents, emerging adults engage in more health-compromising behaviors, have higher rates of chronic health problems, are more likely to be obese, and are more likely to have a mental health disorder. As young adults, many of us develop a pattern of not eating breakfast, not eating regular meals and relying on snacks as our main food source during the day, eating excessively to the point where we exceed the normal weight for our height, smoking moderately or excessively, drinking moderately or excessively, failing to exercise, and getting by with only a few hours of sleep at night. Also, in the Berkeley Longitudinal Study—in which individuals were evaluated over a period of 40 years—physical health at age 30 predicted life satisfaction at age 70, more so for men than for women HEALTH AND AGING Aging can bring new health problems, such as Alzheimer disease. Keep in mind, though, that many older adults are healthy. For example, only 17 percent of U.S. adults from 65 to 74 years of age have a disability. The percentage of Americans without a disability remains above 50 percent until they reach 85 years and older. Chronic Disorders characterized by slow onset and long duration. are characterized by a slow onset and long duration. Chronic disorders are rare in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood. The most common chronic disorders in middle adulthood for U.S. women, in order of prevalence, are arthritis, hypertension, and sinus problems; the most common ones for U.S. men are hypertension, arthritis, hearing impairments, and heart disease. Men have a higher incidence of fatal chronic conditions Older women have higher incidences of arthritis and hypertension and are more likely to have visual problems, but they are less likely to have hearing problems than older men are. Nearly 60 percent of U.S. adults 65 to 74 years of age die of cancer or cardiovascular disease Cancer recently replaced cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death in U.S. middle-aged adults The decline in cardiovascular disease in middle-aged and older adults has been attributed to improved drugs, decreased rates of smoking, improved diets, and increased exercise However, in the 75-to-84 and 85-and-over age groups, cardiovascular disease still is the leading cause of death As individuals age through the late adult years, the older they are the more likely it becomes that they will die of cardiovascular disease rather than cancer Chronic conditions associated with the greatest limitation on work are heart conditions (52 percent), diabetes (34 percent), asthma (27 percent), and arthritis (27 percent). Arthritis—an inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems—is the most common chronic disorder in older adults (Davis, Burke, & others, 2013) Osteoporosis involves an extensive loss of bone tissue. (WOMEN) ALZHEIMER DISEASE Alzheimer Disease Dementia is a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning. Individuals with dementia often lose the ability to care for themselves and can become unable to recognize familiar surroundings and people, including family members. 23 percent of women and 17 percent of men 85 years and older are at risk Dementia is a broad category, and it is important to identify the specific cause of a person's deteriorating mental functioning One form of dementia is Alzheimer disease—a progressive, irreversible brain disorder that is characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function. In 2012, an estimated 5.4 million adults in the United States had Alzheimer disease, and it has been projected that 10 million baby boomers will develop Alzheimer disease in their lifetime Women are likely to develop Alzheimer disease because they live longer than men Causes- Alzheimer disease involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholine, which plays an important role in memory The number of individuals with Alzheimer disease doubles every five years after the age of 65 Healthy lifestyle factors may lower the risk of Alzheimer disease or delay the onset of the disease PARKINSON DISEASE Another type of dementia is Parkinson disease, a chronic, progressive disorder characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis. Parkinson disease is triggered by degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain (da Luz & others, 2015; Shimizu & Ohno, 2013). Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is necessary for normal brain functioning. Why these neurons degenerate is not known. The main treatment for Parkinson disease involves administering drugs that enhance the effect of dopamine (dopamine agonists) in the disease's earlier stages and later administering the drug L-dopa, which is converted by the brain into dopamine STRESS AND DISEASE Stress and Disease Stress is increasingly being identified as a factor in many diseases (Evers & others, 2014; Jaremka & others, 2014). The cumulative effect of chronic stress often takes a toll on the health of individuals by the time they reach middle age. A recent study of middle-aged adults found that when they had a high level of allostatic load (wearing down of the body's systems in response to high stress levels), their episodic memory and executive function were harmed (Karlamangia & others, 2013). And a recent study of occupationally active 44- to 58-year-olds revealed that perceived stress symptoms in midlife were linked to self-care disability and mobility limitations 28 years later (Kulmala & others, 2013). Margie Lachman and her colleagues (2011) argue that having a sense of control is one of the most important modifiable factors in reducing stress and delaying the onset of diseases in middle adulthood and reducing the frequency of diseases in late adulthood. HEALTHY TREATMENT FOR OLDER ADULTS Health Treatment for Older Adults The development of alternative forms of home and community-based care has decreased the percentage of older adults who are living in nursing homes (Katz & others, 2009). Still, as older adults age, their probability of being in a nursing home increases The quality of nursing homes and other extended-care facilities for older adults varies enormously and is a source of ongoing national concern. More than one-third of these facilities are seriously deficient In a recent study of elderly adults with cognitive impairment, those being cared for at home were less depressed, had better cognitive functioning, and reported a higher level of social connectedness than their counterparts experiencing formal institutional care In a classic study that focused on the way older adults are cared for in nursing homes, Judith Rodin and Ellen Langer (1977) found that an important factor related to health, and even survival, in a nursing home is the patient's feelings of control and self-determination

CHAPTER 6 CONCRETE STAGE 7-11 YRS

Concrete operational thought occurs roughly from 7 to 11 years of age. During this stage, children can perform concrete operations, think logically about concrete objects, classify things, and reason about relationships among classes of things. Concrete operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than to focus on a single property of an object. Children who have reached the concrete operational stage are also capable of seriation Seriation-which is the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length) Another aspect of reasoning about the relations between classes is transitivity, Transitivity-the ability to logically combine relations to reach certain conclusions Concrete thought is not as abstract as formal operational though

CHAPTER 7-SPEED OF PROCESSING INFORMATION

A limitation on processing information is the speed at which it takes place. How quickly we process information often influences what we can do with that information There is abundant evidence that the speed with which cognitive tasks are completed improves dramatically across the childhood years Processing speed continues to improve in early adolescence Processing speed began declining in middle adulthood. The slowdown in processing speed continues into late adulthood age-related losses in processing speed were explained by a decline in neural connectivity or indirectly through changing levels of dopamine, or both processing speed is an important indicator of the ability of older adults to continue to effectively drive a vehicle

CHAPTER 8 DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

Although intelligence is more stable across childhood and adolescence than are many other attributes, many children's and adolescents' scores on intelligence tests fluctuate considerably. ADULTHOOD Horn argued that crystallized intelligence continues to increase in middle adulthood, whereas fluid intelligence begins to decline. Schaie found that when assessed longitudinally, inductive reasoning is less likely to decline and more likely to improve than when assessed cross-sectionally in middle adulthood. The highest level of four intellectual abilities (vocabulary, verbal memory, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation) occurs in middle adulthood. Numeric ability & perceptual speed decrease Baltes emphasizes a distinction between cognitive mechanics (the "hardware" of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain) and cognitive pragmatics (the culture-based "software" of the mind). Cognitive mechanics are more likely to decline in older adults than are cognitive pragmatics. Wisdom is expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters. Baltes and his colleagues have found that high levels of wisdom are rare, factors other than age are critical for a high level of wisdom to develop, and personality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive factors such as intelligence.

CHAPTER 3 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING life-span experts argue that biological aging begins at birth five biological theories: evolutionary, cellular clock, free-radical, mitochondrial, and hormonal stress. Evolutionary Theory In the evolutionary theory of aging, natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics in older adults (Gems, 2014; Metcalf & Jones, 2015; Shokhirev & Johnson, 2014). Why? Because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness, which is present only in the earlier part of adulthood. For example, consider Alzheimer disease, an irreversible brain disorder that does not appear until late middle adulthood or beyond. In evolutionary theory, if Alzheimer disease had occurred earlier in development, it might have been eliminated many centuries ago Cellular Clock Theory Cellular clock theory is Leonard Hayflick's (1977) theory that cells can divide a maximum of about 75 to 80 times and that, as we age, our cells become less capable of dividing. Hayflick found that cells extracted from adults in their fifties to seventies divided fewer than 75 to 80 times. Based on the ways cells divide, Hayflick places the upper limit of the human life-span potential at about 120 to 125 years of age. Each time a cell divides, the telomeres become shorter and shorter (see Figure 21). After about 70 or 80 replications, the telomeres are dramatically reduced and the cell no longer can reproduce Free-Radical Theory A second microbiological theory of aging is free-radical theory, which states that people age because when cells metabolize energy, the by-products include unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals. The free radicals ricochet around the cells, damaging DNA and other cellular structures (da Cruz & others, 2014). The damage can lead to a range of disorders, including cancer and arthritis (Kolovou & others, 2014; Phaniendra, Jestadi, & Periyasamy, 2015). Overeating is linked with an increase in free radicals, and researchers recently have found that calorie restriction—a diet restricted in calories although adequate in proteins, vitamins, and minerals—reduces the oxidative damage created by free radicals (Brandes & others, 2013; Cerqueira & others, 2012). In addition to diet, researchers also are exploring the role that exercise might play in reducing oxidative damage in cells (Muthusamy & others, 2012) Mitochondrial Theory There is increasing interest in the role that mitochondria—tiny bodies within cells that supply energy for function, growth, and repair—might play in aging (Romano & others, 2014; Valcarcel-Ares & others, 2014). (See Figure 22.) Mitochondrial theory states that aging is due to the decay of mitochondria. It appears that this decay is primarily due to oxidative damage and loss of critical micronutrients supplied by the cell (Eckert, Lipka, & Muller, 2012; Venditti, Di Stefano, & Di Meo, 2013; Ziegler, Wiley, & Velarde, 2015) Hormonal Stress Theory The three theories of aging that we have discussed so far—cellular clock, free-radical, and mitochondrial—attempt to explain aging at the cellular level. In contrast, hormonal stress theory argues that aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease. When faced with external challenges such as stressful situations, the human body adapts by altering internal physiological processes (Almeida & others, 2011). This process of adaptation and adjustment is referred to as allostasis. Allostasis is adaptive in the short term; however, continuous accommodation of physiological systems in response to stressors may result in allostatic load, a wearing down of body systems due to constant activity

CHAPTER 7-INFORMATION PROCESSING

Encoding is the process by which information gets into memory. Changes in children's cognitive skills depend on increased skill at encoding relevant information and ignoring irrelevant information. Automaticity- refers to the ability to process information with little or no effort. Practice allows children to encode increasing amounts of information automatically Strategy construction is the creation of new procedures for processing information. For example, children become more proficient readers when they develop the strategy of stopping periodically to take stock of what they have read so far metacognition, which means "thinking about thinking or knowing about knowing" (

CHAPTER 4-NUTRITION AND EATING BEHAVIOR BREAST FEEDING VS. FORMULA ADOLESCENCE

For the first 12 months of life, human milk or an alternative formula is the baby's source of nutrients and energy exclusive breast feeding in the first six months followed by continued breast feeding as complementary foods are introduced, with further breast feeding for one year or longer as mutually desired by the mother and infant. BENEFITS fewer gastrointestinal infections lower respiratory tract Allergies. Asthma. less likely to develop this middle ear infection less likely to become overweight or obese in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood likely to develop type 1 diabetes in childhood and type 2 diabetes in adulthood less likely to experience SIDS Outcomes of Breast Feeding for the Mother Breast cancer. Consistent evidence indicates a lower incidence of breast cancer in women who breast feed their infants (Akbari & others, 2011) . Ovarian cancer. Evidence also reveals a reduction in ovarian cancer in women who breast feed their infants (Stuebe & Schwarz, 2010). Type 2 diabetes. Some evidence suggests a small reduction in type 2 diabetes in women who breast feed their infants (Stuebe & Schwarz, 2010) ADOLESCENCE Nutrition and being overweight are also key problems among adolescents Percentage of overweight U.S. 12- to 19-year-olds increased from 11 percent in the early 1990s to nearly 21 percent in 2011-2012 12.4 percent of U.S. kindergarten children were obese and by 14 years of age, 20.8 percent were obese . Adolescents in 56 countries found fast food consumption is high in childhood and continues to increase Adolescents who ate fast food frequently or very frequently had higher body mass indices than adolescents in the lower frequency categories. U.S. adolescents ate more junk food than teenagers ate in most other countries U.S.high school students showed decrease in their intake of fruits and vegetables from 1999 through 2013. Playing on a sports team was an important factor in adolescents' weight among a wide range of activities (other physical activity, physical education, screen time, and diet quality, for example), team sports participation was the strongest predictor of lower risk for being overweight or obese Family meals during adolescence protected against the development of being overweight or obese in adulthood ANOREXIA NERVOSA Although most U.S. girls have been on a diet at some point, slightly less than 1 percent ever develop anorexia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. It is a serious disorder that can lead to death. Four main characteristics apply to people suffering from anorexia nervosa: (1) weight less than 85 percent of what is considered normal for their age and height; (2) an intense fear of gaining weight that does not decrease with weight loss; (3) a distorted perception of their body shape (Stewart & others, 2012), and (4) amenorrhea (lack of menstruation) in girls who have reached puberty. Obsessive thinking about weight and compulsive exercise also are linked to anorexia nervosa (Simpson & others, 2013). Even when they are extremely thin, they see themselves as too fat (Cornelissen & others, 2015). They never think they are thin enough, especially in the abdomen, buttocks, and thighs. They usually weigh themselves frequently, often take their body measurements, and gaze critically at themselves in mirrors Most individuals with anorexia are non-Latina White adolescent or young adult females from well-educated, middle- and upper-income families and are competitive and high-achieving BULIMIA NERVOSA Although anorexics control their eating by restricting it, most bulimics cannot. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge and then purges by self-induced vomiting or use of a laxative. Although some people binge and purge occasionally and some experiment with it, a person is considered to have a serious bulimic disorder only if the episodes occur at least twice a week for three month As with anorexics, most bulimics are preoccupied with food, have a strong fear of becoming overweight, and are depressed or anxious. Like anorexics, bulimics are highly perfectionistic. Bulimics have difficulty controlling their emotions. Unlike anorexics, people who binge and purge typically fall within a normal weight range, a characteristic that makes bulimia more difficult to detect. Bulimia nervosa typically begins in late adolescence or early adulthood. About 90 percent of the cases are women. Many women who develop bulimia nervosa were somewhat overweight before the onset of the disorder, and the binge eating often began during an episode of dieting. One study of adolescent girls found that increased dieting, pressure to be thin, exaggerated importance placed on appearance, body dissatisfaction, depression symptoms, low self-esteem, and low social support predicted binge eating two years later (Stice, Presnell, & Spangler, 2002). Drug therapy and psychotherapy have been effective in treating anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

CHAPTER 6 FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE 11-LIFE

Formal operational thought appears between 11 THRU LIFE. Formal operational thought is more abstract, idealistic, and logical than concrete operational thought. Adolescent Egocentrism- is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility Imaginary Audience-aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves feeling that one is the center of everyone's attention and sensing that one is on stage. An adolescent boy might think that others are as aware as he is of a few hairs that are out of place Personal Fable-the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility Piaget argues that adolescents become capable of engaging in hypothetical-deductive reasoning. But Piaget did not give adequate attention to individual variation in adolescent thinking. Many young adolescents do not think in hypothetical-deductive ways but rather are consolidating their concrete operational thinking. In addition, adolescents develop a special kind of egocentrism that involves an imaginary audience and a personal fable about being unique and invulnerable

CHAPTER 5 GROSS MOTOR SKILLS

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS "Cassandra just learned to crawl," "Jesse is finally sitting alone," or "Angela took her first step last week." These milestones are examples of gross motor skills, skills that involve large-muscle activities such as moving one's arms and walking The Development of Posture How do gross motor skills develop? As a foundation, these skills require postural control (Adolph & Joh, 2009). For example, to track moving objects, you must be able to control your head in order to stabilize your gaze; before you can walk, you must be able to balance on one leg. Posture is more than just holding still and straight. Posture is a dynamic process that is linked with sensory information in the skin, joints, and muscles, which tell us where we are in space; in vestibular organs in the inner ear that regulate balance and equilibrium; and in vision and hearing Newborn infants cannot voluntarily control their posture. Within a few weeks, though, they can hold their heads erect, and soon they can lift their heads while prone. By 2 months of age, babies can sit while supported on a lap or an infant seat, but they cannot sit independently until they are 6 or 7 months of age. Standing also develops gradually during the first year of life. By about 8 to 9 months of age, infants usually learn to pull themselves up and hold onto a chair, and they often can stand alone by about 10 to 12 months of age Learning to Walk Locomotion and postural control are closely linked, especially in walking upright (Soska, Robinson, & Adolph, 2015). Even young infants can make the alternating leg movements that are needed for walking. The neural pathways that control leg alternation are in place from a very early age, even at birth or before. Indeed, researchers have found that alternating leg movements occur during the fetal period and at birth (Adolph & Robinson, 2015). If infants can produce forward stepping movements so early, why does it take them so long to learn to walk? The key skills in learning to walk appear to be stabilizing balance on one leg long enough to swing the other forward and shifting the weight without falling. This is a difficult biomechanical problem to solve, and it takes infants about a year to do it. In learning to locomote, infants must discover what kinds of places and surfaces are safe for crawling or walking (Adolph & Kretch, 2015; Adolph & Robinson, 2015; Ishak, Franchak, & Adolph, 2014). Karen Adolph (1997) investigated how experienced and inexperienced crawling and walking infants go down steep slopes (see Figure 2). Newly crawling infants, who averaged about 8 months in age, rather indiscriminately went down the steep slopes, often falling in the process (with their mothers standing next to the slope to catch them). After weeks of practice, the crawling babies became more adept at judging which slopes were too steep to crawl down and which ones they could navigate safely BY FIRST YEAR OLD: SIGNIFICANT VARIATIONS BY 2 YRS OLD: walk,run stiffly for a short distance, balance on their feet in a squatting position while playing with objects on the floor, walk backward without losing their balance, stand and kick a ball without falling, stand and throw a ball, and jump in place. BY 3YRS OLD: SIMPLE MOVEMENTS (RUNNING, JUMPING, HOPING) BY 4 TRS OLD: DECEND STAIRS ONE FOOT AT A TIME, MORE ADVENTUROUS BY 5 YRS OLD: HAND RAISING STUNTS, ENJOY RACING WITH OTERS ADOLESCENCE: REACH PEAK PERFORMANCE AFTER 30: DECREASES IN CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION, STRENGTH, BONE TISSUE, NEURAL FUNCTION, BALANCE, PERFORMANCE After an individual reaches the age of 30, most biological functions begin to decline, although the decline of specific organs can vary considerably. The decline in general biological functioning that begins at about age 30 occurs at a rate of about 0.75 to 1 percent a year. Declines often occur in cardiovascular functioning, muscle strength, bone density (especially for females), neural function, balance, and flexibility LATE ADULTHOOD: SLOW, WEAKER, EASILY AFFECTED BY OTHER CONDITIONS. Falls are the leading cause of injury deaths among adults who are 65

CHAPTER 8 HEREDITY AND ENVIROMENT

Genetic similarity might explain why identical twins show stronger correlations on intelligence tests than fraternal twins do. Many studies show that intelligence has a reasonably strong heritability component, but criticisms of the heritability concept have been made. In recent decades there has been a considerable rise in intelligence test scores around the world—called the Flynn effect—and this supports the role of environment in intelligence. Researchers have found that how much parents talk with their children in the first three years of life is correlated with the children's IQs and that being deprived of formal education lowers IQ scores. Ramey's research revealed the positive effects of educational child care on intelligence

CHAPTER 10-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ATTACHMENT

INFANCY PRIMARY EMOTIONS: 1-6M SURPRISE, JOY, ANGER, SADNESS, FEAR, DISGUST Primary emotions are emotions that are present in humans and other animals; these emotions appear in the first six months of the human infant's development. Primary emotions include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust SELF CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS 6-24M EMPATHY, JEALOUSY, EMBARRASSMENT self-conscious emotions require self-awareness that involves consciousness and a sense of "me." Self-conscious emotions include jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt—most of these occurring for the first time at some point after 18 months of age when a sense of self become consolidated in toddlers CRYING BASIC, ANGER, PAIN Basic cry. A rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer silence, then a shorter inspiratory whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest before the next cry. Some infancy experts stress that hunger is one of the conditions that incite the basic cry. Anger cry. A variation of the basic cry in which more excess air is forced through the vocal cords. The anger cry has a loud, harsh sound to it, almost like shouting. Pain cry. A sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; no preliminary moaning is present. The pain cry is stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus SMILING REFLEXIVE & SOCIAL Reflexive smile. A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears during the first month after birth, usually during sleep. Social smile. A smile that occurs in response to an external stimulus, typically a face in the case of the young infant. Social smiling occurs as early as 4 to 6 weeks of age in response to a caregiver's voice FEAR 6-18M STRANGER ANXIETY & SEPERATION PROTEST stranger anxiety, in which an infant shows a fear and wariness of strangers. Stranger anxiety usually emerges gradually separation protest—crying when the caregiver leaves. Separation protest is initially displayed by infants at approximately 7 to 8 months and peaks at about 15 months EMOTIONAL REGULATION & COPING 1ST YR TO SOOTHE OR NOT TO SOOTHE Some developmentalists argue that an infant cannot be spoiled in the first year of life, a view suggesting that parents should soothe a crying infant. This reaction should help infants develop a sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver. A recent study revealed that mothers' negative emotional reactions (anger and anxiety) to crying increased the risk of subsequent attachment insecurity EARLY CHILDHOOD Young children's range of emotions expands during early childhood as they increasingly experience self-conscious emotions such as pride, shame, and guilt. Between 2 and 4 years of age, children use an increasing number of terms to describe emotion and learn more about the causes and consequences of feelings. At 4 to 5 years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions and understand that a single event can elicit different emotions in different people. Emotion regulation is a key aspect of competent socioemotional development in childhood. MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD In middle and late childhood, children show a growing awareness of the need to control and manage emotions to meet social standards. Also in this age period, they show enhanced emotional understanding, markedly improve their ability to suppress or conceal negative emotions, use self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings, have an increased tendency to take into fuller account the events that lead to emotional reactions, and develop a genuine capacity for empathy Older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies ADOLESCENCE As individuals go through early adolescence, they are less likely to report being very happy. Moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence. Although pubertal change is associated with an increase in negative emotions, hormonal influences are often small, and environmental experiences may contribute more to the emotions of adolescents than hormonal changes do Adolescents are not constantly in a state of "storm and stress," but emotional highs and lows do increase during early adolescence For some adolescents, such emotional swings can reflect serious problems. Girls are especially vulnerable to depression in adolescence ADULTHOOD Older adults are better at controlling their emotions than younger adults Older adults experience more positive and less negative emotions than younger adults do. MORE STABLE, FEWERE HIGHS AND LOWS Women and men differ Women are more vulnerable to social stressors such as those involving romance, family, and work. For example, women experience higher levels of stress when things go wrong in romantic and marital relationships. Women also are more likely than men to become depressed when they encounter stressful life events such as a divorce or the death of a friend TEND TO BEFRIEND when women experience stress, they are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern, seeking social alliances with others, especially friendS FIGHT OR FLIGHT When men face stress, they are likely to respond in a fight or flight manner—become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol Socioemotional selectivity theory states that older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. This theory argues that older adults deliberately withdraw from social contact with individuals peripheral to their lives while they maintain or increase contact with close friends and family members with whom they have had enjoyable relationships emotion-related goals become more important when individuals get older.

CHAPTER 10 ATTACHMENT AND LOVE

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD Infants show a strong interest in the social world and are motivated to understand it. Infants orient to the social world early in their development. Face-to-face play with a caregiver begins to occur at about 2 to 3 months of age. Social Orientation From early in their development, infants are captivated by their social world. Young infants will stare intently at faces and are attuned to the sounds of human voices, especially those of their caregivers COOPERATION Social referencing is the term used to describe "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation. MONKEY DEMO ON ATTACHMENT CONTACT TIME WITH WIRE AND CLOTH SURROGATE MOTHERS.Regardless of whether the infant monkeys were fed by a wire or a cloth mother, they overwhelmingly preferred to spend contact time with the cloth mother. Attachment develops in four phases during infancy. Securely attached children use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. When in the presence of their caregiver, securely attached infants explore the room and examine toys that have been placed in it. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might protest mildly, and when the caregiver returns these infants reestablish positive interaction with her, perhaps by smiling or climbing onto her lap. Subsequently, they usually resume playing with the toys in the room. Insecure avoidant children show insecurity by avoiding the mother. In the Strange Situation, these babies engage in little interaction with the caregiver, are not distressed when she leaves the room, usually do not reestablish contact with her on her return, and may even turn their back on her. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away. Insecure resistant children often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. In the Strange Situation, these babies often cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom. When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return, then want to be held again. Insecure disorganized children are disorganized and disoriented. In the Strange Situation, these babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver.. Ainsworth notes that secure attachment in the first year of life provides an important foundation for psychological development later in life. The strength of the link between early attachment and later development has varied somewhat across studies. Some critics argue that attachment theorists have not given adequate attention to genetics and temperament. Other critics stress that attachment theorists have not adequately taken into account the diversity of social agents and contexts. Cultural variations in attachment have been found, but in all cultures studied to date secure attachment is the most common classification. Caregiving Styles and Attachment Caregivers of securely attached babies are sensitive to the babies' signals and are consistently available to meet their needs. Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be unavailable or rejecting. Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be inconsistently available to their babies and usually are not very affectionate. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies. Research on the role of hormones and neurotransmitters in attachment has emphasized the importance of two neuropeptide hormones—oxytocin and vasopressin—in the formation of the maternal-infant bond The mother's primary role when interacting with the infant is caregiving; the father's is playful interaction. More U.S. children are in child care now than at any earlier point in history. The quality of child care is uneven, and child care remains a controversial topic. Quality child care can be achieved and seems to have few adverse effects on children. In the NICHD child-care study, infants from low-income families were more likely to receive the lowest quality of care. Also, higher quality of child care was linked with fewer child problems. Secure attachment continues to be important in the childhood years. Researchers have found that secure attachment to parents in middle and late childhood is linked lower levels of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression. ADULTHOOD Three adult attachment styles are insecure attachment, avoidant attachment, and anxious attachment. Attachment styles in early adulthood are linked with a number of relationship patterns and developmental outcomes. For example, securely attached adults often show more positive relationship patterns than insecurely attached adults. Also, adults with avoidant and anxious attachment styles tend to be more depressed and have more relationship problems than securely attached adults. Older adults have fewer attachment relationships than younger adults, and attachment anxiety decreases in older adults. Romantic love and affectionate love are two important types of love. Romantic love tends to be more important in early adulthood; affectionate love is more likely to be important in later-life love relationships. STERNBERG TRIANGLE THEORY OF LOVE (PIC) Sternberg proposed a triangular theory of love that focuses on different combinations of (1) passion, (2) intimacy, and (3) commitment. The collapse of a close relationship can be traumatic, but for some individuals it results in increased self-confidence, relational wisdom, and being better off emotionally. For most individuals, falling out of love is painful and emotionally intense.

CHAPTER 6 PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

In Piaget's theory, children construct their own cognitive worlds, building mental structures to adapt to their world. Schemes are actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. Behavioral schemes (physical activities) characterize infancy, whereas mental schemes (cognitive activities) develop in childhood. Adaptation involves assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when children use existing schemes to deal with new information. Accommodation happens when children adjust their schemes to account for new information and experiences. Through organization, children group isolated behaviors into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system. Equilibration is a mechanism Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one cognitive stage to the next. As children experience cognitive conflict in trying to understand the world, they seek equilibrium. The result is equilibration, which brings the child to a new stage of thought. According to Piaget, there are four qualitatively different stages of thought: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

CHAPTER 6 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2 YRS

In sensorimotor thought, the first of Piaget's four stages, the infant organizes and coordinates sensations with physical movements. The stage lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. Sensorimotor thought has six substages: (3 OF SIX) simple reflexes:sensation and action are coordinated primarily through reflexive behaviors, such as rooting and sucking secondary circular reactions:develops between 4 and 8 months of age. In this substage, the infant becomes more object oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self. tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity:develops between 12 and 18 months of age. In this substage, infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects One key aspect of this stage is object permanence, the ability of infants to understand that objects continue to exist even though they are no longer observing them. Piaget argued that object permanence is one of infancy's landmark cognitive accomplishments. For this 5-month-old boy, "out of sight" is literally out of mind. The infant looks at the toy monkey (left), but when his view of the toy is blocked (right), he does not search for it. Several months later, he will search for the hidden toy monkey, an action reflecting the presence of object permanence Another aspect involves infants' understanding of cause and effect. In the past several decades, revisions of Piaget's view have been proposed based on research. For example, researchers have found that a stable and differentiated perceptual world is established earlier than Piaget envisioned

CHAPTER 8 EXTREME OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

Intellectual disability is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual (1) has a low IQ, usually below 70; (2) has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life; and (3) has an onset of these characteristics by age 18. Most affected individuals have an IQ in the 55 to 70 range (mild intellectual disability). Intellectual disability can have an organic cause or a cultural/familial cause. GIFTEDNESS People who are gifted have high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) or some type of superior talent. Three characteristics of gifted children are precocity, marching to their own drummer, and a passion to achieve mastery in their domain. Giftedness is likely a consequence of both heredity and environment. A current concern is the education of children who are gifted CREATIVITY Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems. Although most creative people are intelligent, individuals with high IQs are not necessarily creative. Creative people tend to be divergent thinkers, but traditional intelligence tests measure convergent thinking. Divergent thinking-thinking that produces many answers to one question Convergent thinking-thinking that produces one answer Creativity has often been described as occurring in a five-step process: preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation, and elaboration. Characteristics of creative thinkers include flexibility and playful thinking, inner motivation, a willingness to take risks, and interest in objective evaluation. Creativity often peaks in the forties and then declines, but the decline may be slight and the peak age varies across domains. Csikszentmihalyi notes that cultivating curiosity and interest is the first step toward leading a more creative life

CHAPTER 7-METACOGNITION

METACOGNITION-thinking about and knowing when and where to use particular strategies for learning or for solving problems THEORY OF MIND They have a theory of mind, which refers to awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Studies of theory of mind view the child as "a thinker who is trying to explain, predict, and understand people's thoughts, feelings, and utterances" AUTISM Children with autism show a number of behaviors different from other children their age, including deficits in social interaction and communication as well as repetitive behaviors or interests. However, children with autism might have difficulty understanding others' beliefs and emotions not solely due to theory of mind deficits but to other aspects of cognition such as problems in focusing attention, eye gaze, face recognition, memory, language impairment, or some general intellectual impairment Metamemory Knowledge about memory. individuals' knowledge about memory, is an especially important form of metacognition. By 5 or 6 years of age, children usually know that familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar ones, that short lists are easier to remember than long ones, that recognition is easier than recall, and that forgetting becomes more likely over time Metacognition is increasingly recognized as a very important cognitive skill not only in adolescence but also in emerging adulthood. Compared with children, adolescents have an increased capacity to monitor and manage cognitive resources to effectively meet the demands of a learning tasks Older adults tend to overestimate the memory problems they experience on a daily basis. They seem to be more aware of their memory failures than younger adults and become more anxious about minor forgetfulness than younger adults do

CHAPTER 12 GENDER AND SEXUALITY

SOCIAL INFLUENCES SOCIAL ROLE THEORY which states that psychological gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men PSYCHOANLYTIC THEORY OF GENDER stems from Sigmund Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF GENDER children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior PARENTS Mothers and fathers often interact differently with their children and adolescents Mothers are more involved with their children and adolescents than are fathers, although fathers increase the time they spend in parenting when they have sons, and they are less likely to become divorced when they have sons Mothers' interactions with their children and adolescents often center on caregiving and teaching activities, whereas fathers' interactions often involve leisure activities SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS Some observers have expressed concern that schools and teachers have biases against both boys and girls Compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly are valued and reinforced in many classrooms. These are behaviors that usually characterize girls more than boys. A large majority of teachers are females, especially at the elementary school level. This trend may make it more difficult for boys than for girls to identify with their teachers and model their teachers' behavior. A recent study revealed that male teachers perceived boys more positively and saw them as more educationally competent than did female teachers (Mullola & others, 2012). Boys are more likely than girls to have a learning disability, ADHD, and to drop out of school. Boys are more likely than girls to be criticized by their teachers. School personnel tend to stereotype boys' behavior as problematic What evidence is there that the classroom setting is biased against girls? : In a typical classroom, girls are more compliant and boys are more rambunctious. Boys demand more attention, and girls are more likely to quietly wait their turn. Teachers are more likely to scold and reprimand boys, as well as send boys to school authorities for disciplinary action. Educators worry that girls' tendency to be compliant and quiet comes at a cost: diminished assertiveness. In many classrooms, teachers spend more time watching and interacting with boys, whereas girls work and play quietly on their own. Most teachers don't intentionally favor boys by spending more time with them, yet somehow the classroom frequently ends up with this type of gendered profile. Boys get more instruction than girls and more help when they have trouble with a question. Teachers often give boys more time to answer a question, more hints at the correct answer, and further tries if they give the wrong answer. Girls and boys enter first grade with roughly equal levels of self-esteem. Yet by the middle school years, girls' self-esteem is lower than boys OTHER ADULTS, MEDIA, PEERS Children also learn about gender from observing other adults in the neighborhood and in the media As children get older, peers become increasingly important. Peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior COGNITIVE INFLUENCES: GENDER SCHEMA THEORY gender schema theory, which states that gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture GENDER STEREOTYPES, SIMILARITIES, AND DIFFERENCES The differences are averages and do not apply to all females or all males. Even when gender differences occur, there often is considerable overlap between males and females . The differences may be due primarily to biological factors, sociocultural factors, or both. boys' gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls' women have about twice the body fat of men, most of it concentrated around breasts and hips. In males, fat is more likely to go to the abdomen. On average, males grow to be 10 percent taller than females. Androgens (the "male" hormones) promote the growth of long bones; estrogens (the "female" hormones) stop such growth at puberty. females have a longer life expectancy than males, and females are less likely than males to develop physical or mental disorders. Females are more resistant to infection, and their blood vessels are more elastic than males'. Males have higher levels of stress hormones, which cause faster clotting and higher blood pressure. One part of the hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior tends to be larger in men than in women An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills tends to be larger in males than in females The areas of the brain involved in emotional expression tend to show more metabolic activity in females than in males Female brains are approximately 10 percent smaller than male brains (Giedd & others, 2012). However, female brains have more folds; the larger folds (called convolutions) allow more surface brain tissue within the skulls of females than males COGNITIVE no differences in math scores for boys and girls females outperform males in reading and writing girls earn better grades and complete high school at a higher rate than boys male's visuospatial skills are higher than an average female's SOCIOEMOTIONAL boys are more physically aggressive than girls girls show as much or more verbal aggression, such as yelling, Females express emotion more openly than males, are better than males at decoding emotion, smile more, cry more, and are happier GENDER DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN CHILDHOOD Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization than girls do. The social cost of deviating from the expected male role is higher for boys than is the cost for girls of deviating from the expected female role, in terms of peer rejection and parental disapproval. Imagine a girl who is wearing a toy holster, bandanna, and cowboy hat, running around in the backyard pretending to herd cattle. Boys might have a more difficult time learning the masculine gender role because male models are less accessible to young children and messages from adults about the male role are not always consistent Although gender roles have become more flexible in recent years, the flexibility applies more for girls than for boys ADOLESCENCE Early adolescence is another transitional point that seems to be especially important in gender development. Young adolescents have to cope with the enormous changes of puberty. These changes are intensified by their expanding cognitive abilities, which make them acutely aware of how they appear to others. Relations with others change extensively as dating begins and sexuality is experienced As females and males experience the physical and social changes of early adolescence, they must come to terms with new definitions of their gender roles with the onset of puberty, girls and boys experience an intensification of gender-related expectations Gender intensification may create special problems for boys. Adopting a strong masculine role in adolescence is increasingly being found to be associated with problem behavior ADULTHOOD AND AGING COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN Rapport talk is the language of conversation; it is a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships. (WOMEN) Report talk is talk that is designed to give information; this category of communication includes public speaking. (MEN) WOMENS DEVELOPMENT women's preference for rapport talk suggests that women place a high value on relationships and focus on nurturing their connections with others. women often try to interact with others in ways that will foster the other person's development along many dimensions—emotional, intellectual, and social. MALE DEVELOPMENT male roles are contradictory and inconsistent Health. Men die 8 to 10 years earlier than women do. They have higher rates of stress-related disorders, alcoholism, car accidents, and suicide. Men are more likely than women to be the victims of homicide. In sum, the male role is hazardous to men's health. Male-female relationships. Too often, the male role involves expectations that men should be dominant, powerful, and aggressive and should control women. "Real men," according to many traditional definitions of masculinity, look at women in terms of their bodies, not their minds and feelings, have little interest in rapport talk and relationships, and do not consider women equal to men in work or many other aspects of life. Thus, the traditional view of the male role encourages men to disparage women, be violent toward women, and refuse to have equal relationships with women. Male-male relationships. Too many men have had too little interaction with their fathers, especially fathers who are positive role models. GENDER AND AGING he evidence suggests that older men do become more feminine—nurturant, sensitive, and so on—but it appears that older women do not necessarily become more masculine—assertive, dominant, and so on SEXUALITY THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN CHILDHOOD A majority of children engage in some sex play, usually with friends or siblings Child sex play includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Much of this child sex play is likely motivated by curiosity. As the elementary school years progress, sex play with others usually declines, although romantic interest in peers may be present. Curiosity about sex remains high throughout the elementary school years, and children may ask many questions about reproduction and sexuality ADOLESCENCE AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD Adolescents have an almost insatiable curiosity about sexuality. They think about whether they are sexually attractive, how to do sex, and what the future holds for their sexual lives. The majority of adolescents eventually manage to develop a mature sexual identity, but most experience times of vulnerability and confusion Adolescence is a bridge between the asexual child and the sexual adult children and adolescents learn a great deal about sex from television SEXUAL IDENTITY An adolescent's sexual identity is influenced by social norms related to sex—the extent to which adolescents perceive that their peers are having sex, using protection, and so on. These social norms have important influences on adolescents' sexual behavior. For example, one study revealed that when adolescents perceived that their peers were sexually permissive, the adolescents had a higher rate of initiating sexual intercourse and engaging in risky sexual practices SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 64 percent of twelfth-graders reported having experienced sexual intercourse, compared with 30 percent of ninth-graders By age 20, 77 percent of U.S. youth report having engaged in sexual intercourse 55 percent of U.S. 15- to 19-year-old boys and 54 percent of girls in the same age group said they had engaged in oral sex ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY United States continues to have one of the highest adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates in the industrialized world 82 percent of pregnancies to mothers 15 to 19 years of age are unintended Adolescent pregnancy creates health and developmental outcome risks for both the baby and the mother Infants born to adolescent mothers are more likely to have low birth weights—a prominent factor in infant mortality—as well as neurological problems and childhood illness ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING Climacteric is a term used to describe the midlife transition in which fertility declines. Menopause is the time in middle age, usually during the late forties or early fifties, when a woman's menstrual periods cease. The average age at which U.S. women have their last period is 51 menopause occurs—from 39 to 59 years of age. Later menopause is linked with increased risk of breast cancer Perimenopause is the transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all, which often takes up to 10 years Menopause overall is not the negative experience for most women it was once thought to be (Henderson, 2011). Most women do not have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause Many middle-aged women are seeking alternatives to HRT such as regular exercise, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, and nonsteroidal medication MEN most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there usually is a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity Testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood, and sperm count usually shows a slow decline, but men do not lose their fertility in middle age The gradual decline in men's testosterone levels in middle age can reduce their sexual drive 75 percent of the erectile dysfunctions in middle-aged men stem from physiological problems. Smoking, diabetes, hypertension, elevated cholesterol levels, and lack of exercise are responsible for many erectile problems in middle-aged men SEXUAL ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR Although the ability of men and women to function sexually shows little biological decline in middle adulthood, sexual activity usually occurs on a less frequent basis than in early adulthood Career interests, family matters, decreased energy levels, and routine may contribute to this decline LATE ADULTHOOD Aging does induce some changes in human sexual performance, more so in men than in women, but many older adults do have sexual desires Orgasm becomes less frequent in males, occurring in every second to third act of intercourse rather than every time. More direct stimulation usually is needed to produce an erection. Even in the sexually active oldest group (75 to 85), more than 50 percent said they still had sex at least two to three times a month.

CHAPTER 7-MEMORY

Memory-is the retention of information over time INFANCY First Memories-Carolyn Rovee-Collier (1987, 2007) has conducted research that demonstrates infants can remember perceptual-motor information. In a characteristic experiment, she places a baby in a crib underneath an elaborate mobile and ties one end of a ribbon to the baby's ankle and the other end to the mobile. The baby kicks and makes the mobile move (see Figure 6). Weeks later, the baby is returned to the crib, but its foot is not tied to the mobile. The baby kicks, apparently trying to make the mobile move. However, if the mobile's makeup is changed even slightly, the baby doesn't kick. If the mobile is then restored to being exactly as it was when the baby's ankle was tied to it, the baby will begin kicking again. According to Rovee-Collier, even at 2½ months the baby's memory is detailed. infants as young as 2 to 6 months of age can remember some experiences until they are 1½ to 2 years of age. However, critics such as Jean Mandler (2000), a leading expert on infant cognition, argue that the infants in Rovee-Collier's experiments are displaying only implicit memory. Implicit memory refers to memory without conscious recollection—memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically. In contrast, explicit memory refers to the conscious recollection of facts and experiences. INFANTILE AMNESIA Do you remember your third birthday party? Probably not. Most adults can remember little if anything from their first three years of life This is called infantile, or childhood, amnesia. The few reported adult memories of life at age 2 or 3 are at best very sketchy CHILDHOOD Children's memory improves considerably after infancy Short-Term and Working Memory When people talk about memory, they are usually referring to long-term memory, which is relatively permanent and unlimited. When you remember the types of games you enjoyed playing as a child, details of your first date, or characteristics of the life-span perspective, you are drawing on your long-term memory. But when you remember the word you just read, you are using short-term memory. Short-term memory involves retaining information for up to 30 seconds without rehearsal of the information. Using rehearsal, individuals can keep information in short-term memory longer MEMORY SPAN Memory Span Unlike long-term memory, short-term memory has a very limited capacity. One method of assessing that capacity is the memory-span task. You simply hear a short list of stimuli—usually digits—presented at a rapid pace (one per second, for example). Then you are asked to repeat the digits. Research with the memory-span task suggests that short-term memory increases during childhood Working memory as a kind of mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language long-term memory is relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time Autobiograhical memory involves memory of significant events and experiences in one's life Eyewitness Testimony One area in which children's long-term memory is being examined extensively relates to whether young children should be allowed to testify in court ADULTHOOD Researchers have consistently found declines in working memory during late adulthood decline in working memory in older adults focus on their less efficient inhibition in preventing irrelevant information from entering working memory and their increased distractibility Declines in processing speed in middle and late adulthood may play a role in working memory decline as well EXPLICIT MEMORY explicit memory refers to the conscious memory of facts and experiences. Explicit memory is also sometimes called declarative memory. Examples of explicit memory include being at a grocery store and remembering that you want to buy something or being able to recall the plot of a movie you have seen IMPLICIT MEMORY implicit memory refers to memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically. (Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as procedural memory.) Examples of implicit memory include unconsciously remembering how to drive a car, swing a golf club, or type on a computer keyboard. Explicit memory can be subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings Semantic memory A person's knowledge about the world, including fields of expertise, general academic knowledge, and "everyday knowledge" about meanings of words, names of famous individuals, important places, and common things. Younger adults have better episodic memory than older adults have Source memory is the ability to remember where one learned something Prospective memory Remembering to do something in the future. such as remembering to take your medicine or remembering to do an errand USE IT OR LOSE IT

CHAPTER 3-PATTERNS OF GROWTH

PATTERNS OF GROWTH The cephalocaudal pattern- is the sequence in which the fastest growth in the human body occurs at the top, with the head. Physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually works its way down from the top to the bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on). This same pattern occurs in the head area, because the top parts of the head—the eyes and brain—grow faster than the lower parts, such as the jaw. During prenatal development and early infancy, the head constitutes an extraordinarily large proportion of the total body. The proximodistal pattern- is the growth sequence that starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities. An example is the early maturation of muscular control of the trunk and arms, compared with that of the hands and fingers. Further, infants use the whole hand as a unit before they can control several fingers HEIGHT AND WEIGHT IN INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD Infancy The average North American newborn is 20 inches long and weighs 7½ pounds. Ninety-five percent of full-term newborns are 18 to 22 inches long and weigh between 5½ and 10 pounds. In the first several days of life, most newborns lose 5 to 7 percent of their body weight. Once infants adjust to sucking, swallowing, and digesting, they grow rapidly, gaining an average of 5 to 6 ounces per week during the first month. Typically they have doubled their birth weight by the age of 4 months and have nearly tripled it by their first birthday. Infants grow about 3/4 inch per month during the first year, increasing their birth length by about 40 percent by their first birthday. Infants' rate of growth slows considerably in the second year of life By 2 years of age, infants weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds, having gained a quarter to half a pound per month during the second year; at age 2 they have reached about 1/5 of their adult weight. The average 2-year-old is 32 to 35 inches tall, which is nearly 1/2 of adult height. EARLY CHILDHOOD Girls are only slightly smaller and lighter than boys during these years. Both boys and girls slim down as the trunks of their bodies lengthen. Although their heads are still somewhat large for their bodies, by the end of the preschool years most children have lost their top-heavy look. Body fat also shows a slow, steady decline during the preschool years. Girls have more fatty tissue than boys; boys have more muscle tissue The culprits are congenital factors (genetic or prenatal problems), growth hormone deficiency, a physical problem that develops in childhood, maternal smoking during pregnancy, or an emotional difficulty. MIDDLE & LATE CHILDHOOD The period of middle and late childhood involves slow, consistent growth. This is a period of calm before the rapid growth spurt of adolescence. During the elementary school years, children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year. At the age of 8, the average girl and the average boy are 4 feet 2 inches tall. During the middle and late childhood years, children gain about 5 to 7 pounds a year. The average 8-year-old girl and the average 8-year-old boy weigh 56 pounds. The weight increase is due mainly to increases in the size of the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the size of some body organs. Muscle mass and strength gradually increase as "baby fat" decreases in middle and late childhood (Burns & others, 2013). Changes in proportions are among the most pronounced physical changes in middle and late childhood. Head circumference, waist circumference, and leg length decrease in relation to body height.

CHAPTER 3 PUBERTY

PUBERTY BOYS male pubertal characteristics typically develop in this order: increase in penis and testicle size, appearance of straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation (which usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream), appearance of curly pubic hair, onset of maximum growth in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits, more detectable voice changes, and, finally, growth of facial hair. GIRLS for most girls, their breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears. Later, hair appears in the armpits. As these changes occur, the female grows in height and her hips become wider than her shoulders MENARCHE-A girl's first menstrual period. —a girl's first menstruation—comes rather late in the pubertal cycle. Initially, her menstrual cycles may be highly irregular. For the first several years, she may not ovulate every menstrual cycle; some girls do not ovulate at all until a year or two after menstruation begins. Marked weight gains coincide with the onset of puberty. During early adolescence, girls tend to outweigh boys, but by about age 14 boys begin to surpass girls. Similarly, at the beginning of the adolescent period, girls tend to be as tall as or taller than boys of their age, but by the end of the middle school years most boys have caught up or, in many cases, surpassed girls in height. the growth spurt occurs approximately two years earlier for girls than for boys. The mean age at the beginning of the growth spurt in girls is 9; for boys, it is 11. The peak rate of pubertal change occurs at 11½ years for girls and 13½ years for boys. During their growth spurt, girls increase in height about 3½ inches per year, boys about 4 inches Hormonal Changes Behind the first whisker in boys and the widening of hips in girls is a flood of hormones, powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream. The endocrine system's role in puberty involves the interaction of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads (see Figure 3). The hypothalamus, a structure in the brain, is involved with eating and sexual behavior. The pituitary gland, an important endocrine gland, controls growth and regulates other glands; among these, the gonads—the testes in males, the ovaries in females—are particularly important in giving rise to pubertal changes in the body The pituitary gland sends a signal via gonadotropins (hormones that stimulate the testes or ovaries) to the appropriate gland to manufacture hormones. These hormones give rise to such changes as the production of sperm in males and menstruation and the release of eggs from the ovaries in females. testosterone- is a hormone associated in boys with the development of genitals, increased height, and deepening of the voice. Estradiol- is a type of estrogen associated in girls with breast, uterine, and skeletal development. improved nutrition and health, and the rate of decline in age of onset of puberty has slowed considerably in the last several decades. However, some researchers recently have found that the onset of puberty is still occurring earlier in girls and boys. nutrition, health, family stress, and other environmental factors also affect puberty's timing For most boys, the pubertal sequence may begin as early as age 10 or as late as 13½, and it may end as early as age 13 or as late as 17. Thus, the normal range is wide enough that, given two boys of the same chronological age, one might complete the pubertal sequence before the other one has begun it. For girls, menarche is considered within the normal range if it appears between the ages of 9 and 15. BODY IMAGE One psychological aspect of puberty is certain for both boys and girls: Adolescents are preoccupied with their bodies. Preoccupation with one's body image is strong throughout adolescence but it is especially acute during puberty, a time when adolescents are more dissatisfied with their bodies than in late adolescence. Girls tend to have more negative body images, which to some extent may be due to media portrayals of the attractiveness of being thin while the percentage of girls' body fat is increasing during puberty. A recent study found that both boys' and girls' body images became more positive as they moved from the beginning to the end of adolescence EARLY BLOOMERS early-maturing boys perceived themselves more positively and had more successful peer relations than did late-maturing boys. early-maturing girls were similar but not as strong as for boys Early-maturing girls are more likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, have an eating disorder, struggle for earlier independence from their parents, and have older friends, psychological and social problems. early-maturing girls tend to engage in sexual intercourse earlier and have more unstable sexual relationships And early-maturing girls are more likely to drop out of high school and to cohabit and marry at younger ages In sum, early maturation often has more favorable outcomes for boys than for girls, especially in early adolescence. However, late maturation may be more favorable for boys, especially in terms of identity and career development. Research increasingly has found that early-maturing girls are vulnerable to a number of problems. EARLY ADULTHOOD Height remains rather constant during early adulthood. Peak functioning of the body's joints usually occurs in the twenties. Many individuals also reach a peak of muscle tone and strength in their late teens and twenties (Candow & Chilibeck, 2005). However, these attributes may begin to decline in the thirties. Sagging chins and protruding abdomens may also appear for the first time. Muscles start to have less elasticity, and aches may appear in places not felt before Most of us reach our peak levels of physical performance before the age of 30, often between the ages of 19 and 26. This peak of physical performance occurs not only for the average young adult, but for outstanding athletes as well. Different types of athletes, however, reach their peak performances at different ages. Most swimmers and gymnasts peak in their late teens. Golfers and marathon runners tend to peak in their late twenties. In other areas of athletics, peak performance often occurs in the early to mid-twenties. However, in recent years, some highly conditioned athletes—such as Dana Torres (Olympic swimming) and Tom Watson (golf)—have stretched the upper age limits of award-winning performances. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Like the changes of early adulthood, midlife physical changes are usually gradual. Although everyone experiences some physical change due to aging in middle adulthood, the rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another. Genetic makeup and lifestyle factors play important roles in whether and when chronic diseases will appear. Middle age is a window through which we can glimpse later life while there is still time to engage in preventive behaviors and influence the course of aging Physical Appearance Individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight (Winett & others, 2014). On average, from 30 to 50 years of age, men lose about ½ inch in height, then lose another ¾ inch from 50 to 70 years of age (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). The height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25 to 75 years of age. Note that there are large variations in the extent to which individuals become shorter with aging. The decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae. On average, body fat accounts for about 10 percent of body weight in adolescence; it makes up 20 percent or more in middle age Noticeable signs of aging usually are apparent by the forties or fifties. The skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues (Pageon & others, 2014). Small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin produce aging spots, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight, such as the hands and face. A recent twin study found that twins who had been smoking longer were more likely to have more sagging facial skin and wrinkles, especially in the middle and lower portion of the face Strength, Joints, and Bones The term sarcopenia is given to age-related loss of lean muscle mass and strength (Sayer & others, 2013; Spira & others, 2015). After age 50, muscle loss occurs at a rate of approximately 1 to 2 percent per year. A loss of strength especially occurs in the back and legs. Obesity is a risk factor for sarcopenia (Meng & others, 2015; Parr, Coffey, & Hawley, 2013). Recently, researchers began using the term "sarcopenic obesity" in reference to individuals who have sarcopenia and are obese (Scott & others, 2014). A recent study found that sarcopenic obesity was linked to hypertension (Park & others, 2013). And a research review concluded that weight management and resistance training were the best strategies for slowing down sarcopenia (Rolland & others, 2011) Maximum bone density occurs by the mid- to late thirties. From this point on, there is a progressive loss of bone. The rate of bone loss begins slowly but accelerates during the fifties (Baron, 2012). Women's rate of bone loss is about twice that of men. By the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly (Rachner, Khosia, & Hofbauer, 2011). Cardiovascular System Cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age (Hwang & others, 2014; Wang & others, 2014). The level of cholesterol in the blood increases through the adult years. Cholesterol comes in two forms: LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and HDL (high-density lipoprotein). LDL is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol because when the level of LDL is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, a condition that can lead to atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). HDL is often referred to as "good" cholesterol because when it is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lessened (Tzourio, Laurent, & Debette, 2014). A recent study revealed that a higher level of HDL was linked to a higher probability of being alive at 85 years of age (Rahilly-Tierney & others, 2011). In middle age, cholesterol begins to accumulate on the artery walls, which are thickening. The result is an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Blood pressure, too, usually rises in the forties and fifties, and high blood pressure (hypertension) is linked with an increased rate of mortality as well as lower cognitive functioning (Shavelle, 2014). For example, a recent study revealed that hypertension in middle age was linked to an increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood (23 years later) (Virta & others, 2013). At menopause, a woman's blood pressure rises sharply and usually remains above that of a man through life's later years (Taler, 2009). The health benefits of cholesterol-lowering and hypertension-lowering drugs are a major factor in improving the health of many middle-aged adults and increasing their life expectancy (Hwang & others, 2015; Wenger, 2014). Regular exercise and healthy eating habits also have considerable benefits in preventing cardiovascular disease (Aatashak, Stannard, & Azizbeigi, 2015; Cuenca-Garcia & others, 2014) Lungs There is little change in lung capacity through most of middle adulthood. However, at about the age of 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic. This change, combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs' capacity to shuttle oxygen from the air people breathe to the blood in their veins. For smokers, however, the picture is different and bleaker (Tomiyama & others, 2010). The lung capacity of smokers drops precipitously in middle age. However, if the individuals quit smoking their lung capacity improves, although not to the level of individuals who have never smoked (Williams, 1995). Also, a recent study found that lung cancer diagnoses were 68 percent lower among men who were the most physically fit compared than among those who were the least physically fit (Lakoski & others, 2013). Sexuality Climacteric is a term used to describe the midlife transition in which fertility declines. Menopause is the time in middle age, usually in the late forties or early fifties, when a woman has not had a menstrual period for a full year. The average age at which women have their last period is 52. A small percentage of women—10 percent—go through menopause before age 40. Just as puberty has been coming earlier, however, menopause has been coming later (Birren, 2002). Specific causes of the later incidence of menopause have not been documented, but improved nutrition and lower incidence of infectious diseases may be the reasons. In menopause, production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically, and this decline produces uncomfortable symptoms in some women—"hot flashes," nausea, fatigue, and rapid heartbeat, for example (Avis & others, 2015; Brockie & others, 2014). However, cross-cultural studies reveal wide variations in the menopause experience (Sievert & Obermeyer, 2012). For example, hot flashes are uncommon in Mayan women (Beyene, 1986), and Asian women report fewer hot flashes than women in Western societies (Payer, 1991). It is difficult to determine the extent to which these cross-cultural variations are due to genetic, dietary, reproductive, or cultural factors During middle adulthood, most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there usually is a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity (Blumel & others, 2014). Testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood, and this decline can reduce sexual drive (Hyde & others, 2012). Sperm count usually shows a slow decline, but men do not lose their fertility altogether. LATE ADULTHOOD Late adulthood brings an increased risk of physical disability, but there is considerable variability in rates of decline in functioning. Let's explore changes in physical appearance and the cardiovascular system in older adults. Physical Appearance The changes in physical appearance that take place in middle adulthood become more pronounced in late adulthood. Most noticeable are facial wrinkles and age spots. Our weight usually drops after we reach 60 years of age, likely because we lose muscle, which also gives our bodies a more "sagging" look. Recent research indicates that obesity was linked to mobility limitation in older adults (Murphy & others, 2014). The good news is that exercise and weight lifting can help slow the decrease in muscle mass and improve the older adult's body appearance (Fragala, Kenny, & Kuchel, 2015; Fragala & others, 2014; Zhang & others, 2015). A recent study found that long-term aerobic exercise was linked with greater muscle strength in 65- to 86-year-olds (Crane, Macneil, & Tarnopsolsky, 2013). Circulatory System Significant changes also take place in the circulatory system of older adults (Krakoff & others, 2014). In late adulthood, hypertension becomes even more problematic and the likelihood of a stroke increases. In one analysis, 57 percent of 80-year-old men and 60 percent of 81-year-old women had hypertension, and 32 percent of the men and 31 percent of the women had experienced a stroke (Aronow, 2007). Today, most experts on aging recommend that consistent blood pressure above 120/80 should be treated to reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke, or kidney disease. A rise in blood pressure with age can be linked to illness, obesity, stiffening of blood vessels, stress, or lack of exercise (Kramer, 2015). The longer any of these factors persist, the higher the individual's blood pressure gets. Various drugs, a healthy diet, and exercise can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in o

CHAPTER 6 PAIGETS EDUCATION AND EVALUATING HIS THEORY

Piaget was not an educator, but his constructivist views have been applied to teaching. These applications include an emphasis on facilitating rather than directing learning, considering the child's level of knowledge, using ongoing assessment, promoting the student's intellectual health, and turning the classroom into a setting for exploration and discovery We are indebted to Piaget for establishing the field of cognitive development. He was a genius at observing children, and he gave us a number of masterful concepts. Critics, however, question his estimates of competence at different developmental levels, his stage concept, and other ideas. Neo-Piagetians emphasize the importance of information processing Some experts argue that the idealism of Piaget's formal operational stage declines in young adults, being replaced by more realistic, pragmatic thinking.

CHAPTER 6 PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7 YRS

Preoperational thought is the beginning of the ability to reconstruct at the level of thought what has been established in behavior. It involves a transition from a primitive to a more sophisticated use of symbols. In preoperational thought, the child does not yet think in an operational way. The symbolic function substage occurs roughly from 2 to 4 years of age and is characterized by symbolic thought, egocentrism, and animism. the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present Egocentrism-The inability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective; an important feature of preoperational thought. Animism-another limitation of preoperational thought, is the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action A young child might show animism by saying, "That tree pushed the leaf off, and it fell down" or "The sidewalk made me mad; it made me fall down." The intuitive thought substage stretches from about 4 to 7 years of age. It is called intuitive because children seem sure about their knowledge yet are unaware of how they know what they know . What makes you grow up? Who was the mother when everybody was a baby? Why do leaves fall? Why does the sun shine? One limitation of preoperational thought is centration, a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others. Centration is most clearly evidenced in young children's lack of conservation, the awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. For example the beaker example, to adults, it is obvious that a certain amount of liquid stays the same, regardless of a container's shape. But this is not at all obvious to young children. Instead, they are struck by the height of the liquid in the container; they focus on that characteristic to the exclusion of others The preoperational child lacks conservation and asks a barrage of questions.

CHAPTER 5 REFLEXES

REFLEXES Newborn infants are not completely helpless. Among other things, they have some basic reflexes. For example, when they are submerged, they will hold their breath and contract their throat to keep water out. Reflexes allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment before they have had the opportunity to learn. The rooting and sucking reflexes are important examples. Both have survival value for newborn mammals, who must find a mother's breast to obtain nourishment. The rooting reflex occurs when an infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns its head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck. The sucking reflex occurs when newborns suck an object placed in their mouth. This reflex enables newborns to get nourishment before they have associated a nipple with food; it also serves as a self-soothing or self-regulating mechanism. Another example is the Moro reflex, which occurs in response to a sudden, intense noise or movement, When startled, newborns arch their back, throw back their head, and fling out their arms and legs. Then they rapidly close their arms and legs. The Moro reflex is believed to be a way of grabbing for support while falling, because it would have had survival value for our primate ancestors Some reflexes—coughing, sneezing, blinking, shivering, and yawning, for example—persist throughout life. They are as important for the adult as they are for the infant. Other reflexes, though, disappear several months following birth, as the infant's brain matures and voluntary control over many behaviors develops. The rooting and Moro reflexes, for example, tend to disappear when the infant is 3 to 4 months old. The movements of some reflexes eventually become incorporated into more complex, voluntary actions. One important example is the grasping reflex, which occurs when something touches the infant's palms (see Figure 1). The infant responds by grasping tightly. By the end of the third month, the grasping reflex diminishes, and the infant shows a more voluntary grasp. As its motor development becomes smoother, the infant will grasp objects, carefully manipulate them, and explore their qualities. Individual differences in reflexive behavior appear soon after birth. For example, the sucking capabilities of newborns vary considerably. Some newborns are efficient at sucking forcefully and obtaining milk; others are not as adept and get tired before they are full. Most infants take several weeks to establish a sucking style that is coordinated with the way the mother is holding the infant, the way milk is coming out of the bottle or breast, and the infant's temperament

CHAPTER 3 THE BRAIN-INFANCY

Shaken Baby Syndrome Early Experience Children who grow up in a deprived environment may have depressed brain activity (Berens & Nelson, 2015; Narvaez & others, 2013; Nelson, Fox, & Zeanah, 2014). As shown in Figure 12, a child who grew up in the unresponsive and unstimulating environment of a Romanian orphanage showed considerably depressed brain activity compared with a normal child. The brain demonstrates both flexibility and resilience. Consider 14-year-old Michael Rehbein. At age 7, he began to experience uncontrollable seizures—as many as 400 a day. Doctors said the only solution was to remove the left hemisphere of his brain where the seizures were occurring. Recovery was slow, but his right hemisphere began to reorganize and take over functions that normally occur in the brain's left hemisphere, including speech Changing Neurons At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about 75 percent of its adult weight. Two key developments during these first two years involve the myelin sheath (the layer of fat cells that speeds up movement of electrical impulses along the axons) and connections between dendrites. Myelination, the process of encasing axons with a myelin sheath, begins prenatally and continues after birth (see Figure 9). Myelination for visual pathways occurs rapidly after birth, reaching completion in the first six months. Auditory myelination is not completed until 4 or 5 years of age. Some aspects of myelination continue even into emerging adulthood and possibly beyond. Indeed, the most extensive changes in myelination in the frontal lobes occur during adolescence Changing Structures The areas of the brain do not mature uniformly (Blakemore & Mills, 2014; Casey, 2015). The frontal lobe is immature in the newborn. As neurons in the frontal lobe become myelinated and interconnected during the first year of life, infants develop an ability to regulate their physiological states (such as sleep) and gain more control over their reflexes. Cognitive skills that require deliberate thinking do not emerge until later (Bell, 2015; Bell & Fox, 1992). At about 2 months of age, the motor control centers of the brain develop to the point at which infants can suddenly reach out and grab a nearby object. At about 4 months, the neural connections necessary for depth perception begin to form. And at about 12 months, the brain's speech centers are poised to produce one of infancy's magical moments: when the infant utters its first word

CHAPTER 2-HAZARDS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: TERATOGENS

TERATOGENS AND THE TIMING OF THEIR EFFECTS ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT. The danger of structural defects caused by teratogens is greatest early in embryonic development. The period of organogenesis (red color) lasts for about six weeks. Later assaults by teratogens (blue color) mainly occur in the fetal period and instead of causing structural damage are more likely to stunt growth or cause problems of organ function. After organogenesis is complete, teratogens are less likely to cause anatomical defects. Instead, exposure during the fetal period is more likely to stunt growth or to create problems in the way organs function. To examine some key teratogens and their effects, let's begin with drugs. Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs Prescription drugs that can function as teratogens include antibiotics, such as streptomycin and tetracycline; some antidepressants; certain hormones, such as progestin and synthetic estrogen; and Accutane (often prescribed for acne) (Gonzalez-Echavarri & others, 2015; Koren & Nordeng, 2012). Nonprescription drugs that can be harmful include diet pills and aspirin. Recent research revealed that low doses of aspirin pose no harm to the fetus but that high doses can contribute to maternal and fetal bleeding Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive drugs are drugs that act on the nervous system to alter states of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods. Examples include caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine, as well as illegal drugs such as cocaine and marijuana Maternal Diseases Maternal diseases and infections can produce defects in offspring by crossing the placental barrier, or they can cause damage during birth (Brunell, 2014). Rubella (German measles) is one disease that can cause prenatal defects. Women who plan to have children should have a blood test before they become pregnant to determine whether they are immune to the disease. Maternal Diet and Nutrition A developing embryo or fetus depends completely on its mother for nutrition, which comes from the mother's blood. The nutritional status of the embryo or fetus is determined by the mother's total caloric intake as well as her intake of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Children born to malnourished mothers are more likely than other children to be malformed. Being overweight before and during pregnancy can also put the embryo or fetus at risk, and an increasing number of pregnant women in the United States are overweight Emotional States and Stress When a pregnant woman experiences intense fears, anxieties, and other emotions or negative mood states, physiological changes occur that may affect her fetus (Howerton & Bale, 2012). A mother's stress may also influence the fetus indirectly by increasing the likelihood that the mother will engage in unhealthy behaviors such as taking drugs and receiving poor prenatal care High maternal anxiety and stress during pregnancy can have long-term consequences for the offspring (Brunton, 2015; Schuurmans & Kurrasch, 2013; Rash & others, 2015). A recent study found that high levels of depression, anxiety, and stress during pregnancy were linked to internalizing problems in adolescence (Betts & others, 2014). A research review indicated that pregnant women with high levels of stress are at increased risk for having a child with emotional or cognitive problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and language delay (Taige & others, 2007). Another study revealed that maternal stressful life events prior to conception increased the risk of having a very low birth weight infant Maternal Age When possible harmful effects on the fetus and infant are considered, two maternal age groups are of special interest: adolescents and women 35 years and older (de Jongh & others, 2015; Rudang & others, 2012). The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties. Adequate prenatal care decreases the probability that a child born to an adolescent girl will have physical problems. However, adolescents are the least likely age group to obtain prenatal assistance from clinics and health services Environmental Hazards Many aspects of our modern industrial world can endanger the embryo or fetus (Lin & others, 2013). Some specific hazards to the embryo or fetus include radiation, toxic wastes, and other chemical pollutants. Women and their physicians should weigh the risk of an X-ray when the woman is or might be pregnant (Baysinger, 2010). However, a routine diagnostic X-ray of a body area other than the abdomen, with the woman's abdomen protected by a lead apron, is generally considered safe Paternal Factors Men's exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood cancer (Cordier, 2008). The father's smoking during the mother's pregnancy also can cause problems for the offspring. In one study, heavy paternal smoking was associated with the risk of early miscarriage (Venners & others, 2004). This negative outcome may be related to maternal exposure to secondhand smoke. And in a recent study, paternal smoking around the time of the child's conception was linked to an increased risk of the child developing leukemia (Milne & others, 2012). Also, a recent research review concluded that there is an increased risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), autism, and schizophrenic disorders when the father is 40 years of age or older (Liu & others, 2012). And a recent research study revealed that children born to fathers who were 40 years of age or older had increased risk of developing autism because of an increase in random gene mutations in older fathers (Kong & others, 2012). However, the age of the offspring's mother was not linked to development of autism in children.

CHAPTER 2- THE COLLABORATIVE GENE

THE COLLABORATIVE GENE Each of us began life as a single cell weighing about one twenty-millionth of an ounce! This tiny piece of matter housed our entire genetic code—information that helps us grow from that single cell to a person made of trillions of cells, each containing a replica of the original code. That code is carried by our genes. What are genes and what do they do? For the answer, we need to look into our cells The nucleus of each human cell contains chromosomes, which are threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA is a complex molecule that has a double helix shape, like a spiral staircase, and it contains genetic information. Genes, the units of hereditary information, are short segments of DNA, as you can see in Figure 3. They help cells to reproduce themselves and to assemble proteins. Proteins, in turn, are the building blocks of cells as well as the regulators that direct the body's processes CELLS, CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES.(Left) The body contains trillions of cells. Each cell contains a central structure, the nucleus. (Middle) Chromosomes are threadlike structures located in the nucleus of the cell. Chromosomes are composed of DNA. (Right) DNA has the structure of a spiral staircase. A gene is a segment of DNA. Each gene has its own location, its own designated place on a particular chromosome. Today, there is a great deal of enthusiasm about efforts to discover the specific locations of genes that are linked to certain functions and developmental outcomes Mitosis, Meiosis, and Fertilization All of the cells in your body, except your sperm or eggs, have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. These cells reproduce by a process called mitosis. During mitosis, the cell's nucleus—including the chromosomes—duplicates itself and the cell divides. Two new cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes However, a different type of cell division—meiosis—forms eggs and sperm (which also are called gametes). During meiosis, a cell of the testes (in men) or ovaries (in women) duplicates its chromosomes but then divides twice, thus forming four cells, each of which has only half of the genetic material of the parent cell (Colbert & Gonzalez, 2016; Johnson, 2015). By the end of meiosis, each egg or sperm has 23 unpaired chromosomes. During fertilization, an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote (see Figure 4). In the zygote, the 23 unpaired chromosomes from the egg and the 23 unpaired chromosomes from the sperm combine to form one set of 23 paired chromosomes—one chromosome of each pair from the mother's egg and the other from the father's sperm. In this manner, each parent contributes half of the offspring's genetic material. A SINGLE SPERM PENETRATING AN EGG AT THE POINT OF FERTILIZATION © Don W. Fawcett/Science Source Figure 5 shows 23 paired chromosomes of a male and a female. The members of each pair of chromosomes are both similar and different: Each chromosome in the pair contains varying forms of the same genes, at the same location on the chromosome. A gene that influences hair color, for example, is located on both members of one pair of chromosomes, in the same location on each. However, one of those chromosomes might carry a gene associated with blond hair, and the other chromosome in the pair might carry a gene associated with brown hair. SOURCE OF VARIABILITY Combining the genes of two parents in offspring increases genetic variability in the population, which is valuable for a species because it provides more characteristics on which natural selection can operate (Belk & Borden Maier, 2016). In fact, the human genetic process includes several important sources of variability (Simon, 2015). First, the chromosomes in the zygote are not exact copies of those in the mother's ovaries or the father's testes. During the formation of the sperm and egg in meiosis, the members of each pair of chromosomes are separated, but which chromosome in the pair goes to the gamete is a matter of chance. In addition, before the pairs separate, pieces of the two chromosomes in each pair are exchanged, creating a new combination of genes on each chromosome (Lewis, 2015). Thus, when chromosomes from the mother's egg and the father's sperm are brought together in the zygote, the result is a truly unique combination of genes. Another source of variability comes from DNA (Bauman, 2015). Chance, a mistake by cellular machinery, or damage from an environmental agent such as radiation may produce a mutated gene, which is a permanently altered segment of DNA. Even when their genes are identical, however, people vary. The difference between genotypes and phenotypes helps us to understand this source of variability. All of a person's genetic material makes up his or her genotype. A phenotype consists of observable characteristics, including physical characteristics (such as height, weight, and hair color) and psychological characteristics (such as personality and intelligence). For each genotype, a range of phenotypes can be expressed, providing another source of variability. An individual can inherit the genetic potential to grow very large, for example, but good nutrition, among other things, will be essential for achieving that potential.

CHAPTER 2- THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Prenatal development lasts approximately 266 days, beginning with fertilization and ending with birth. It can be divided into three periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. The Germinal Period The germinal period is the period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the fertilized egg (the zygote), cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. Rapid cell division by the zygote begins the germinal period. (Recall from earlier in the chapter that this cell division occurs through a process called mitosis.) By approximately one week after conception, the differentiation of these cells—their specialization for different tasks—has already begun. At this stage the group of cells, now called the blastocyst, consists of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo, and the trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation, the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 10 to 14 days after conception. The Embryonic Period The embryonic period is the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear. This period begins as the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall. The mass of cells is now called an embryo, and three layers of cells form. The embryo's endoderm is the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems. The ectoderm is the outermost layer, which will become the nervous system, sensory receptors (ears, nose, and eyes, for example), and skin parts (hair and nails, for example). The mesoderm is the middle layer, which will become the circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system. Every body part eventually develops from these three layers. The endoderm primarily produces internal body parts, the mesoderm primarily produces parts that surround the internal areas, and the ectoderm primarily produces surface parts. Organogenesis is the name given to the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development. While they are being formed, the organs are especially vulnerable to environmental influences (Halt & Vainio, 2014). As the embryo's three layers form, life-support systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These systems include the amnion, the umbilical cord (both of which develop from the fertilized egg, not the mother's body), and the placenta. The amnion is like a bag or an envelope; it contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. The amniotic fluid provides an environment that is temperature- and humidity-controlled, as well as shockproof. The umbilical cord, which contains two arteries and one vein, connects the baby to the placenta. The placenta consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. Very small molecules—oxygen, water, salt, and nutrients from the mother's blood, as well as carbon dioxide and digestive wastes from the baby's blood—pass back and forth between the mother and the embryo or fetus. Virtually any drug or chemical substance the pregnant woman ingests can cross the placenta to some degree, unless it is metabolized or altered during passage, or is too large (Holme & others, 2015; Hutson & others, 2013). A recent study confirmed that ethanol crosses the human placenta and primarily reflects maternal alcohol use (Matlow & others, 2013). Another recent study revealed that cigarette smoke weakened and increased the oxidative stress of fetal membranes from which the placenta develops (Menon & others, 2011). The stress hormone cortisol also can cross the placenta (Parrott & others, 2014). Large molecules that cannot pass through the placental wall include red blood cells and harmful substances such as most bacteria, maternal wastes, and hormones. The complex mechanisms that govern the transfer of substances across the placental barrier are still not entirely understood (Mandelbrot & others, 2015; Yuen & others, 2013). The Fetal Period The fetal period, which lasts about seven months, is the prenatal period that extends from two months after conception until birth in typical pregnancies. Growth and development continue their dramatic course during this time. Three months after conception, the fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 3 ounces. It has become active, moving its arms and legs, opening and closing its mouth, and moving its head. The face, forehead, eyelids, nose, and chin are distinguishable, as are the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs. In most cases, the genitals can be identified as male or female. By the end of the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus has grown to 6 inches in length and weighs 4 to 7 ounces. At this time, a growth spurt occurs in the body's lower parts. For the first time, the mother can feel arm and leg movements. By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 12 inches long and weighs close to a pound. Structures of the skin have formed—toenails and fingernails, for example. The fetus is more active, showing a preference for a particular position in the womb. By the end of the sixth month, the fetus is about 14 inches long and has gained another 6 to 12 ounces. The eyes and eyelids are completely formed, and a fine layer of hair covers the head. A grasping reflex is present and irregular breathing movements occur. As early as six months of pregnancy (about 24 to 25 weeks after conception), the fetus for the first time has a chance of surviving outside the womb—that is, it is viable. Infants that are born early, or between 24 and 37 weeks of pregnancy, usually need help breathing because their lungs are not yet fully mature. By the end of the seventh month, the fetus is about 16 inches long and now weighs about 3 pounds. During the last two months of prenatal development, fatty tissues develop and the functioning of various organ systems—heart and kidneys, for example—steps up. During the eighth and ninth months, the fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight—about 4 more pounds. At birth, the average American baby weighs 7½ pounds and is about 20 inches long. In addition to describing prenatal development in terms of germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods, prenatal development also can be divided into equal three-month periods, called trimesters (see Figure 10). Remember that the three trimesters are not the same as the three prenatal periods we have discussed. The germinal and embryonic periods occur in the first trimester. The fetal period begins toward the end of the first trimester and continues through the second and third trimesters

CHAPTER 8 INTELLIGENCE

Sternberg's triarchic theory states that there are three main types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Gardner identifies eight types of intelligence: verbal skills, mathematical skills, spatial skills, bodily-kinesthetic skills, musical skills, interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, and naturalist skills. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to use feelings to facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in oneself and others. The multiple intelligences approaches have broadened the definition of intelligence and motivated educators to develop programs that instruct students in different domains. Critics maintain that the multiple intelligences theories include factors that really aren't part of intelligence, such as musical skills and creativity. Critics also say that not enough research has been done to support the concept of multiple intelligences

CHAPTER 11 PERSONALITY

TRAIT THEORIES Trait theories state that personality consists of broad dispositions, called traits, that tend to produce characteristic responses. In other words, people can be described in terms of the basic ways they behave, such as whether they are outgoing and friendly or whether they are dominant and assertive STAGE CRISIS VIEW LEVINSON AND SO CALLED MIDLIFE CRISIS the transition to middle adulthood lasts about five years (ages 40 to 45) and requires the adult male to come to grips with four major conflicts that have existed in his life since adolescence: (1) being young versus being old, (2) being destructive versus being constructive (3) being masculine versus being feminine, and (4) being attached to others versus being separated from them. Seventy to eighty percent of the men Levinson interviewed found the midlife transition tumultuous and psychologically painful, as many aspects of their lives came into question. According to Levinson, the success of the midlife transition rests on how effectively the individual reduces the polarities and accepts each of them as an integral part of his being. Midlife Crises Levinson (1978) views midlife as a crisis, believing that the middle-aged adult is suspended between the past and the future, trying to cope with this gap that threatens life's continuity VAILLANTS STUDY George Vaillant (1977) concludes that just as adolescence is a time for detecting parental flaws and discovering the truth about childhood, the forties are a decade of reassessing and recording the truth about the adolescent and adulthood years. ERICKSON GENERAYIVITY VS. STAGNATION Erikson (1968) argues that middle-aged adults face the issue of generativity versus stagnation, which is the name Erikson gave to the seventh stage in his life-span theory. Generativity encompasses adults' desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next By contrast, stagnation (sometimes called "self-absorption") develops when individuals sense that they have done nothing for the next generation.

CHAPTER 3 SLEEP INFANCY

The Sleep/Wake Cycle When we were infants, sleep consumed more of our time than it does now (Lushington & others, 2014). Newborns sleep 16 to 17 hours a day, although some sleep more and others less—the range is from a low of about 10 hours to a high of about 21 hours per day. A recent research review concluded that infants 0 to 2 years of age slept an average of 12.8 hours out of the 24, within a range of 9.7 to 15.9 hours (Galland & others, 2012). A recent study also revealed that by 6 months of age the majority of infants slept through the night, awakening their parents only one or two nights per week (Weinraub & others, 2012). Although total sleep remains somewhat consistent for young infants, their sleep during the day does not always follow a rhythmic pattern. An infant might change from sleeping several long bouts of 7 or 8 hours to three or four shorter sessions only several hours in duration. By about 1 month of age, most infants have begun to sleep longer at night. By 6 months of age, they usually have moved closer to adult-like sleep patterns, spending their longest span of sleep at night and their longest span of waking during the day (Sadeh, 2008). The most common infant sleep-related problem reported by parents is nighttime waking (Hospital for Sick Children & others, 2010). Surveys indicate that 20 to 30 percent of infants have difficulty going to sleep and staying asleep at night (Sadeh, 2008). One study revealed that maternal depression during pregnancy, early introduction of solid foods, infant TV viewing, and child-care attendance were related to shorter duration of infant sleep (Nevarez & others, 2010). And a recent study found that nighttime wakings at 1 year of age predicted lower sleep efficiency at 4 years of age REM SLEEP A much greater amount of time is taken up by REM (rapid eye movement) sleep in infancy than at any other point in the life span. Figure 18 shows developmental changes in the average number of total hours spent in REM and non-REM sleep. Unlike adults, who spend about one-fifth of their night in REM sleep, infants spend about half of their sleep time in REM sleep, and they often begin their sleep cycle with REM sleep rather than non-REM sleep. By the time infants reach 3 months of age, the percentage of time they spend in REM sleep decreases to about 40 percent, and REM sleep no longer begins their sleep cycle. The large amount of REM sleep may provide infants with added self-stimulation, since they spend less time awake than do older children. REM sleep also might promote the brain's development in infancy. REM sleep also might promote the brain's development in infancy SIDS Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a condition that occurs when infants stop breathing, usually during the night, and die suddenly without an apparent cause. SIDS remains the highest cause of infant death in the United States, with nearly 3,000 infant deaths attributed to it annually (Montagna & Chokroverty, 2011). Risk of SIDS is highest at 2 to 4 months of age two factors that place infants at the highest risk for SIDS are (1) maternal smoking, and (2) bed sharing

CHAPTER 11 SELF, IDENTITY, PERSONALITY

The self consists of all of the characteristics of a person. Identity is who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding. Personality refers to the enduring personal characteristics of individuals. Personality is usually viewed as the broadest of the three domains and as encompassing the other two (self and identity) INFANCY being attentive and positive toward one's image in a mirror—appears as early as 3 ,MONTHS of age However, a central, more complete index of self-recognition—the ability to recognize one's physical features—does not emerge until the second year-18 MONTHS LANGUAGE? Interactions with caregivers, older siblings, and others support the development of the self in infants and toddlers. Through labeling and describing physical aspects and internal states of infants and toddlers, these persons scaffold infants' and toddlers' self-development and understanding. EARLY CHILDHOOD Self-Understanding They can verbally communicate, research on self-understanding in childhood is not limited to visual self-recognition. A.CONCRETE DESCRIPTIONS. Preschool children mainly think of themselves and define themselves in concrete terms. A young child might say, "I know my ABC's," "I can count," and "I live in a big house" B. PHYSICAL SELF. Young children also distinguish themselves from others through many physical and material attributes. Says 4-year-old Sandra, "I'm different from Jennifer because I have brown hair and she has blond hair. C. ACTIVE SELF. The active dimension is a central component of the self in early childhood. For example, preschool children often describe themselves in terms of activities such as play D. UNREALISTIC POSITIVE OVERESTIMATION'S Self-evaluations during early childhood are often unrealistically positive and represent an overestimation of personal attributes (Harter, 2012, 2013). A young child might say, "I know all of my ABC's" but does not MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD Children's self-understanding becomes more complex during middle and late childhood And their social understanding, especially in taking the perspective of others, also increases A. PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAITS children increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits, in contrast with the more concrete self-descriptions of younger children B. SOCIAL DESCRIPTIONS children begin to include social aspects such as references to social groups in their self-descriptions For example, a child might describe herself as a Girl Scout, as a Catholic, or as someone who has two close friends. C. SOCIAL COMPARISON elementary-school-age children increasingly think about what they can do in comparison with others D. REAL SELF & IDEAL SELF involves differentiating their actual competencies from those they aspire to have and think are the most important. E. REALISTIC children's self-evaluations become more realistic UNDERSTANDING OTHERS: PERSPECTIVE TALKING-taking another's perspective improves children's likelihood of understanding and sympathizing with others when they are distressed or in need. ADOLESCENCE A. ABSTRACT AND IDEAL THINKING When asked to describe themselves, adolescents are more likely than children to use abstract and idealistic labels B. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS be self-conscious about and preoccupied with their self-understanding C. CONTRADICTIONS WITHIN THE SELF their concept of the self into multiple roles in different relationship contexts, they sense potential contradictions between their differentiated selves D. FLUCTUATING SELF self-understanding fluctuates across situations and across time E. REAL AND IDEAL SELVES(POSSIBLE SELVES) an important aspect of the ideal or imagined self is the possible self—what individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming F. SELF INTEGRATION self-understanding becomes more integrative, with the disparate parts of the self more systematically pieced together UNDERSTANDING OTHERS becoming a competent adolescent involves not only understanding one's self but also understanding others. Among the aspects of understanding others that are important in adolescent development are perceiving others' traits, understanding multiple perspectives, and monitoring their social world. ADULTHOOD SELF AWARENESS self-awareness—that is, the degree to which a young adult is aware of his or her psychological makeup, including strengths and weaknesses POSSIBLE SELVES Recall that possible selves are what individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming LIFE REVIEW Life review involves looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating them, interpreting them, and often reinterpreting them. As the past marches in review, the older adult surveys it, observes it, and reflects on it

CHAPTER 2-LOW BIRTH WEIGHT

Three related conditions pose threats to many newborns: low birth weight, preterm birth, and being small for date. Low birth weight infants weigh less than 5½ pounds at birth. Very low birth weight newborns weigh less than 3 pounds, and extremely low birth weight newborns weigh less than 2 pounds. Preterm infants are born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term—in other words, 35 or fewer weeks after conception. Small for date infants (also called small for gestational age infants) have a birth weight that is below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered. They weigh less than 90 percent of all babies of the same gestational age. Small for date infants may be preterm or full term. One study found that small for date infants have a 400 percent greater risk of death (Regev & others, 2003 The increase in preterm births is likely due to such factors as the increasing number of births to women 35 years of age or older, increasing rates of multiple births, increased management of maternal and fetal conditions (for example, inducing labor preterm if medical technology indicates that it will increase the likelihood of survival), increased rates of substance abuse (including tobacco and alcohol), and increased stress. Ethnic variations characterize preterm birth. Consequences of Low Birth Weight Although most preterm and low birth weight infants are healthy, as a group they have more health and developmental problems than do infants of normal birth weigh. Survival rates for infants who are born very early and very small have risen, but with this improved survival rate have come increased rates of severe brain damage Low birth weight children are more likely than their normal birth weight counterparts to develop a learning disability, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, or breathing problems such as asthma

CHAPTER 6 VYGOTSKYS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPEMENT

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but that can be learned with the guidance and assistance of more-skilled adults and peers. Scaffolding is a teaching technique in which a more-skilled person adjusts the level of guidance to fit the child's current performance level. Dialogue is an important aspect of scaffolding. LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT Vygotsky argued that language plays a key role in cognition. Language and thought initially develop independently, but then children internalize their egocentric speech in the form of inner speech, which becomes their thoughts. This transition to inner speech occurs between 3 and 7 years of age. Vygotsky's view contrasts with Piaget's view that young children's self-talk is immature and egocentric. TEACHING STRATEGIES Applications of Vygotsky's ideas to education include using the child's zone of proximal development and scaffolding, using more-skilled peers as teachers, monitoring and encouraging children's use of private speech, and accurately assessing the zone of proximal development. The Tools of the Mind curriculum reflects the Vygotskian approach. These practices can transform the classroom and establish a meaningful context for instruction. EVALUATING VYGOTSKYS THEORY Like Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized that children actively construct their understanding of the world. Unlike Piaget, he did not propose stages of cognitive development, and he emphasized that children construct knowledge through social interaction. In Vygotsky's theory, children depend on tools provided by the culture, which determines which skills they will develop. Some critics say that Vygotsky overemphasized the role of language in thinking

CHAPTER 7-ATTENTION

WHAT IS ATTENTION? Attention is the focusing of mental resources. Attention improves cognitive processing for many tasks. At any one time, though, people can pay attention to only a limited amount of information. Selective attention Focusing on one voice among many in a crowded room or a noisy restaurant is an example of selective attention. When you switched your attention to the toes on your right foot, you were engaging in selective attention. Divided attention involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time. If you are listening to music or the television while you are reading this chapter, you are engaging in divided attention. Sustained attention is the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Sustained attention, which is also called vigilance, involves being on high alert for opportunity or danger as well as paying attention for a length of time. Executive attention involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances INFANCY By 4 months, infants can selectively attend to an object Orienting/Investigative Process This process involves directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment (that is, where) and recognizing objects and their features (such as color and form) (that is, what). From 3 to 9 months of age, infants can deploy their attention more flexibly and quickly. Habituation—decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus. Dishabituation is the recovery of responsiveness after a change in stimulation JOINT ATTENTION in which two or more individuals focus on the same object or event. Joint attention requires (1) an ability to track another's behavior, such as following the gaze of someone; (2) one person directing another's attention; and (3) reciprocal interaction. Early in infancy, joint attention usually involves a caregiver pointing or using words to direct an infant's attention. Emerging forms of joint attention may occur as early as midway through the first year, but it is not until toward the end of the first year that joint attention skills are frequently observed CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE The child's ability to pay attention improves significantly during the preschool years Salient versus relevant dimensions. Preschool children are likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out, or are salient, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task. For example, if a flashy, attractive clown presents the directions for solving a problem, preschool children are likely to pay more attention to the clown than to the directions. After the age of 6 or 7, children attend more efficiently to the dimensions of the task that are relevant, such as the directions for solving a problem. This change reflects a shift to cognitive control of attention, so that children act less impulsively and reflect more. Planfulness. Although in general young children's planning improves as part of advances in executive attention, when experimenters ask children to judge whether two complex pictures are the same, preschool children tend to use a haphazard comparison strategy, not examining all of the details before making a judgment. By comparison, elementary-school-age children are more likely to systematically compare the details across the pictures, one detail at a time MULTITASKING One trend involving divided attention is adolescents' multitasking, which in some cases involves not just dividing attention between two activities, but even three or more A major factor that encourages multitasking is the availability of multiple electronic media. Many adolescents have a range of electronic media at their disposal. It is not unusual for adolescents to divide their attention by working on homework while engaging in an instant messaging conversation, surfing the Web, and listening to an iTunes playlist. 50 percent of adolescents made and answered phone calls while driving, and 13 percent (approximately 1.7 million) wrote and/or read text messages while driving ADULTHOOD ttentional skills are often excellent in early adulthood and, of course, the discussion of divided attention and multitasking applies to many adults as well as adolescents. However, in many contexts older adults may not be able to focus on relevant information as effectively as younger adults Older adults have more difficulty in attention that involves various aspects of driving, distraction, selective attention, and complex vigilance tasks. Let's examine research that documents declines in older adults' attention in these areas ADULTHOOD: RELEVANT INFO YOUNG GOOD, MIDDLE GOOD, OLD DECLINES EXECUTIVE ATTENTION YOU GOOD, MIDDLE GOOD, OLDER DECLINES SELECTIVE ATTENTION YOUNG GOOD, MIDDLE GOOD, OLDER DECLINE W COMPLEXITY SUSTAINED ATTENTION YOUNG INCREASES, MIDDLE STABLE, OLDER STABLE

CHAPTER 11 IDENTITY

WHAT IS IDENTITY? Identity is a self-portrait composed of many pieces, including the following: The career and work path the person wants to follow (vocational/career identity) Whether the person is conservative, liberal, or middle-of-the-road (political identity) The person's spiritual beliefs (religious identity) Whether the person is single, married, divorced, and so on (relationship identity) The extent to which the person is motivated to achieve and is intellectually active (achievement, intellectual identity) Whether the person is heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual (sexual identity) Which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person identifies with his or her cultural heritage (cultural/ethnic identity) The kinds of things a person likes to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies, and so on (interests) The individual's personality characteristics, such as being introverted or extraverted, anxious or calm, friendly or hostile, and so on (personality) The individual's body image (physical identity) ERIK ERIKSON IDENTITY VS IDENTITY CONFUSION Erikson states that in this fifth of his eight stages in the life span, adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. These questions about identity occur throughout life, but they become especially important for adolescents. Erikson maintains that adolescents face an overwhelming number of choices. As they gradually come to realize that they will be responsible for themselves and their own lives, adolescents search for what those lives are going to be. JAMES MARCIA IDENTITY STATUSES analyzed Erikson's theory of identity development and concluded that it involves four statuses of identity, or ways of resolving the identity crisis: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement The four statuses of identity are as follows: IDENTITY DIFFUSION is the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments. Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices, but they are also likely to show little interest in such matters. IDENTITY FORECLOSURE is the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way, before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own. IDENTITY MORATORIUM is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or only vaguely defined. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT is the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment SOCIAL CONTEXTS FAMILY INFLUENCES Family Processes Parents are important figures in the adolescent's development of identity For example, one study found that poor communication between mothers and adolescents, as well as persistent conflicts with friends, was linked to less positive identity development PEER AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS a recent study found that an open, active exploration of identity when adolescents are comfortable with close friends contributes to the positive quality of the friendship (Doumen & others, 2012). In another study, friends were often a safe context for exploring identity-related experiences, providing sort of a testing ground for how self-disclosing comments are viewed by others CULTURAL AND ETHNICITY Many of these individuals have grown up in cultural contexts that value individual autonomy. However, in many countries around the world, adolescents and emerging adults have grown up influenced by a collectivist emphasis on fitting in with the group and connecting with others

CHAPTER 5 FINE MOTOR SKILLS

fine motor skills involve finely tuned movements. Buttoning a shirt, typing, or doing any task that requires finger dexterity demonstrates fine motor skills. Infancy Infants have hardly any control over fine motor skills at birth, but newborns do have many components of what will become finely coordinated arm, hand, and finger movements. The onset of reaching and grasping marks a significant milestone in infants' increasing ability to interact with their surroundings During the first two years of life, infants refine how they reach and grasp (Keen, 2011). Initially, infants reach by moving their shoulders and elbows crudely, swinging toward an object. Later, when infants reach for an object they move their wrists, rotate their hands, and coordinate their thumb and forefinger. Infants do not have to see their own hands in order to reach for an object (Clifton & others, 1993). Cues from muscles, tendons, and joints, not sight of the limb, guide reaching by 4-month-old infants two types of grasps. Initially, infants grip with the whole hand, which is called the palmer grasp. Later, toward the end of the first year, infants also grasp small objects with their thumb and forefinger, which is called the pincer grip INFANCY: SMALL, BUT SIGNIFICANT STEPS BY 3 YRS OLD: PICK UP TINY OBJECTS BY 4 YRS OLD: PRECISION ON FINE MOTOR COORDINATION BY 6 YRS OLD: HAMMER, PASTE, TIE SHOES, FASTEN CLOTHES 10-12 YRS OLD: MANIPULATIVE SKILLS SIMILAR TO ADULTS MIDDLE AND LATE ADULTHOOD: SLIGHT DECLINE

CHAPTER 10 TEMPERMENT

temperament, which involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFYING TEMPERAMENT Temperament is an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of emotional responding. Developmentalists are especially interested in the temperament of infants. Chess and Thomas classified infants as An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences. A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS AND EXPERIENCE Physiological characteristics are associated with different temperaments, and a moderate influence of heredity has been found in studies of the heritability of temperament. Children inherit a physiology that biases them to have a particular type of temperament, but through experience they learn to modify their temperament style to some degree. Very active young children are likely to become outgoing adults. In some cases, a difficult temperament is linked with adjustment problems in early adulthood. The link between childhood temperament and adult personality depends in part on context, which helps shape the reaction to a child and thus the child's experiences. For example, the reaction to a child's temperament depends in part on the child's culture