Broadcast Century Issues TEST

Radio During the Great Depression

stock market crashed in 1929, launching the Great Depression --> unemployment reached 20-25% (1/4 or more of American public couldn't buy products, which did companies under -- vicious cycle) --> many companies dumped their advertisers (which some might have predicted to doom radio) INSTEAD, radio was just fine--provided the public w an escape/distraction --> media amplifies the darkness (at least nowadays) --> back then, though, radio prioritized entertainment

Communications Act of 1934

the far-reaching act that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the federal regulatory structure for U.S. broadcasting --> FCC had parity with other departments in the government --> reported directly to Capitol Hill --> had regulatory power over wired forms of communication (telegraph and telephone)

Rise of the Miniseries

the miniseries brought people back to network television --> one of the first that ABC rolled out was called "Roots" -- Alex Haley (late 1970s) ~ about slaveships going over to Africa and bringing Africans over to America as indentured servants --> gained viewership by the week (reason why it was popular was because it came at the end of the Civil Rights movement) *BUT by the early-mid 80s, the miniseries had washed up (producers took the miniseries' success for granted and started getting lazy with production) and story ideas

Radio's Early Problem With Interference

there were only two frequencies, but there were over 400 radio stations across the country --> depending on where you were, you could be hearing the overlap of three stations at once

In the beginning

goes back to the stone age--cavemen/women created hieroglyphics to document their existence *sounds were used over vast distances *visual communications --> semaphore--system of flag-based communication developed by the Greeks

Device Manufacturing During World War II

in 1941, government put a freeze on the manufacturing of radio stations and televisions (wasn't the only product that suffered wartime setback -- several car manufacturers also altered their distribution) --> FCC also issued a freeze on television licenses (they were just too many requests) --> this time, the focus was on the war

Introduction of Video Tape

in 1956, video tape was introduced (very transformative) --> before that point, most of the shows were live --> transformed pro sports (Ex. Instant Replay)

Radio and Television Scandals in the 1950s

in the late 1950s, radio and television were tied to several scandals --> back then, quiz shows were pretty popular, but simultaneously fraudulent -- gave answers to contests (manipulated results) --> after about 30 or so years, quiz shows went off the air and instead game shows came into play

Radio Conferences (1922-25)

inspired by confusion relating to interference and radio's role in society --> by 1925, it was evident that radio was going to be a key element of American life --> conferences were designed to get radio on the right track

Digitization of the 1990s

"Digital" became an important word in the 1990s. --> HDTV, which had been discussed conceptually during the 1980s, was adopted by the FCC although it would be another 8 years before real consumer demand for HD sets would materialize (really wasn't till 2009) --> During the 1990s, three direct broadcast satellites services competed for viewers; service expanded rapidly. And, during the first six months of 1996, Internet usage rose by 50%.

Kennedy Assassination

(JFK) , Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas 1963, LBJ took the oath of office --> Walter Cronkite broadcast -- country hadn't seen anything like this in 50 years (since Garfield really) --> following three days, all TV did was cover the assassination -- all other programming and advertisements were suspended --> Jack Ruby kills Oswald on live national TV *Zapruder Film (kept under wraps for 10 days)

State of Radio and Television in 1990s

--> 60% of houses in the country could be reached by cable --> music was pop heavy (Brittany / Backstreet Boys) --> Radio was entering Twilight Zone --> Slow rise of the Internet

Television Prospered During the 1950s (Programming)

--> Everyone already knows I Love Lucy (from Tim's TV Showcase) but many other shows became immense hits in the 1950s. --> Shows such as Father Knows Best depicted a happy, suburban life after the war --> Westerns were immensely popular --> Roy Rogers (of Happy Trails fame), The Lone Ranger, and Gene Autry all made successful transitions from radio and film over to television, but Gunsmoke was the biggest hit of all. --> The Tonight Show started in 1954 with funny man and musician Steve Allen, but later Johnny Carson redefined it and made the show into a long-running success --> the TODAY Show was introduced (still exists today)

Advantages of FM Radio

--> FM had better sound quality (could provide stereophonic sound) -- and above all else, FM didn't have static --> FM's signal went higher (was above low frequency emissions ~ wasn't affected quite like AM radio) --> the width of the FM channel was 30 kilocycles (width of the AM was 10 kilocycles) -more room to fine tune FM

FRC's Duties

--> FRC was responsible for addressing radio's problems (Ex. interference, etc.) --> FRC realized that there were only two frequencies--so they created the federal broadcast band (had 100 frequencies; became known as AM radio) -had to assign frequencies to stations based on distance (that way, there wouldn't be overlap); allowed thousands of stations to be created

Philo Farnsworth

--> Farnsworth developed key patents for both the image disector camera tube and the receiving cathode ray tube --> at just 16 years old, came up with a way to send images over the air

Media Demonstrates Ability to Report Breaking News

--> In 1986, America's space program suffered a terrible tragedy—the Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart only 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of seven crew members --> Reagan assassination attempt is another example

Contradictory Reports From Vietnam

--> Pentagon was giving reports about what was going on in Vietnam --> BUT reporters also went to Vietnam and uncovered different reports (Ex. more casualties than the Pentagon reported) -led to lost trust in the Pentagon and the LBJ administration (clash between broadcast and the federal government) *Walter Cronkite--most trusted person in America--went to Vietnam and deemed the war a waste of time --> after that, LBJ announced that he wasn't running for reelection

Television in the 1960s

--> Programming changed during the 1960s as most prime time shows were shot on film, live primetime programming was mostly variety. --> Shows like The Untouchables brought new, graphic violence into American homes. --> Other shows seemed to take the situation comedy out of the living room and into the realm of fantasy *this was time of counterculture -- hippies, rebellion, protest

Early Form of TV

--> TV in its earliest form consisted of live shows --> only shows that were pre-recorded were those that were actually filmed *Kinescoping: recording of a television program on motion picture film, directly through a lens focused on the screen of a video monitor -TV's cheaper means of replicating the live shows

1960 Presidential Debates

--> The four debates: (1) Domestic (2-3) U.S. involvement in two small islands off China (4) Relations w Cuba --> 70 million people tuned in to watch (it was a major television event) --> Debate Breakdown: -handsome JFK vs. pale, 6 o'clock shadow Nixon -camera fell in love with Kennedy -Kennedy, by the next day, was pronounced the winner (at least by TV viewers) -those who listened to the debates on the radio came out of it thinking that Nixon won (he had more substantive answers) *BUT it was a sign that America was entering the age of television -- one that was driven by appearance and PERFORMANCE

Nixon's "Checkers Speech"

--> at the time, Richard Nixon was gunning for the VP election in 1952 --> prior to the speech, it was revealed that Nixon was misusing campaign funds for his own personal interests --> Nixon bought 30 minutes of air time and explained to the American people what his situation was, and he did so in a comfortable manner --> Nixon admits that he was given a campaign gift: but it was a cocker spaniel named Checkers *public is flattered that Nixon would take the time and effort to talk to them NOTE: without TV, presidential lineup could very well be different

Wireless Act of 1910

--> established by the Department of Commerce --> attempts to ensure that this device is operated in a way that benefits the maritime services, all while preserving the safety of the general public *wireless station on all ships with 50 or more passengers

"We stand on the shoulders of giants"

--> everything we have is the result of other people --> phrase can be trace back to Isaac Newton *Ex. Steve Jobs and Bill Gates wouldn't have been able to accomplish what they did without their predecessors

What Killed the Radio?

--> iPods (predated by MP3s) -device gave people access to download every song imaginable --> within two years, the population was listening on the iPod, NOT radio --> there was an attempt by radio to compete with satellite and iPods ... HD and HD2 Radio -broadcasters thought that high-definition radio would level the playing field, BUT no on gave a damn

Telephone

--> invented by Alexander Graham Bell --> massive leap, but only a point-to-point mode of communication --> ultimately led to the creation of the modern communication network. But before broadcasting, telephones connected cities together and brought new, important communication resources to rural communities.

World War II Airwave Regulations

--> new regulations were instituted -- information that could somehow benefit the enemy was not permitted on the airway --> government created the Office of War Information (OWI) to censor or propagandize -not really necessary, because a good portion of people were on board with the war *if America lost that war, democracy would be gone -- as a result, patriotism was rampant

The Printing Press

--> otherwise known as the Gutenberg Press -a lot of copies could be made at once --> prior to that, access to literature was often dictated by wealth *gave rise to books, newspapers, etc.

Public Broadcasting Act of 1967

--> set up public broadcasting in the United States, establishing the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) and, eventually, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), and National Public Radio (NPR) -PBS Ex. Sesame Street, Mr. Rogers, etc. (they educated, informed, and entertained for 6, 7, 8, and 9-year olds) -funded startup stations across America (including ones for Native Americans -- portable radios were handed out to American Indians) *the last public broadcasting act that we would see in 30 years

Transistor Radio

--> small portable radio receiver that uses transistor-based circuitry. -Following their development in 1954, made possible by the invention of the transistor in 1947, they became the most popular electronic communication device in history, with billions manufactured during the 1960s and 1970s *kids would even take their transistors into school

Television and the Cuban Missile Crisis

--> staring contest between Khruschev and JFK --> Khruschev blinked and USSR withdrew missiles from Cuba *JFK went on TV and told the American people what was going on (without revealing the U.S.'s brush with destruction)

Lee DeForest

--> the American father of radio --> originally wanted to beat Marconi in creating a wireless 'Empire.' -DeForest was constantly searching for the answers that would make him rich and famous. --> Created the audion tube which amplified weak radio signals

Titanic Incident

--> throughout the day, the wireless operators brought to the Titanic's captain's attention that there was an iceberg ahead --> ship could have switched course and one of the reasons why they didn't was because they wanted to break the speed record for crossing the Atlantic Ocean -when the ship was going down, wireless operator sent S.O.S. message (because of this, the 800 survivors were picked up) *thanks to Sarnoff, Warnock Department Store picked up messages of the names of the survivors, wrote them down, and sent them to the local newspapers (which then published those names)

1939 World's Fair

--> took place in New York --> theme was "the future" --> during this event, the concept of television was formally announced to the American public by Sarnoff (at first, was announced as "Radiovision"

Diode

--> two-terminal electronic component that has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other --> can be used for extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers

David Sarnoff

--> young Russian émigré, worked for Marconi; nicknamed "The General"; famously received distress signals from the Titanic --> later went on to head RCA, create television, promote it as a mass medium, and block the development of FM radio for years because RCA produced and sold AM radio receivers

The Birth of NBC

-1926, NBC was created (the very first radio network) when RCA bought WEAF --> AT&T wasn't allowed to own stations--RCA bought AT&T's stations, ending up with 30-some stations and started its own network --> NBC actually decided to split the stations and divide itself into two networks (NBC Red and NBC Blue)

Fairness Doctrine Repealed

-1987; the left wasn't happy -- felt that broadcasters no longer had an obligation --> has always been the fear that a new president is going to reimplement the Fairness Doctrine

CBS Gets Creative on the Airwaves

-CBS found itself with a block of time on Tuesday nights --> offered writers the opportunity to put forth their best work -- CBS would turn around and produce it for broadcast *these programs started to get critical acclaim, and CBS soon started to attract more and more distinguished writers NOTE: Norman Corwid was one writer in particular that emerged--his programs really started catching the attention of the general public; became known as the Shakespeare of radio

Local Stations and Cable Threaten Network News (80s)

-erosion of network news in the 1980s; causes: —> local stations have satellite coverage (used to be the networks were the only ones that were decked out in high tech) -As a result, the significance of network news declined —> cable (all of a sudden, the networks had serious competition) --> People were willing to reach into their pockets and pay the monthly subscription fee --> Throughout the 80s, more things were coming on cable to divert viewers from the networks

Shift From AM to FM Radio in the Late 1970s

-in 1978, the No. 1 reason why people listened to radio was MUSIC -- and that had been the case for the previous 30 years (and radio was doing well because of it) --> Migration from AM to FM radio -- by 1978, AM and FM were equal in audience; but then, FM overtook AM, due to radio turning into primarily a music machine *From 1970s on, FM radio became dominant

Birth of CBS

-third network emerged in 1928 -- the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) --> at this time, radio becomes a contender -- networks start developing genres and create a real schedule that people could count on

Patent Wars

1900 marks the beginning of the patent wars --> if someone uses any part of the patent, they have to pay you --> race for patents -- everyone tried to get to the U.S. patent office first

Advertisements Slowly Integrated into Radio

1922 - WEAF, later became WNBC (owned by AT&T) was first station to really go ahead with advertisements --> sold a 10-minute commercial to a real estate company in Queens (was essentially a segment in itself) -company sold two houses as a result (showcased just how powerful radio could be) *AT&T tried to get a patent to be the only company to sell advertisements for radio (never even got close to getting that patent)

War of the Worlds Broadcast

1938 - Orson Welles was famous in radio because he was such a versatile performer (by age 20, he was one of the most well-known Broadway performers) --> put on a Halloween program called War of the Worlds -- took the doomsday ET novel and converted it into a radio play --> BUT, because of the way it was written, it was interpreted as if it was real -- those who joined in late were confused, frightened, and distraught *it was a landmark that changed FCC regulations -- radio stations can't put out programs unless it's absolutely clear that they are fake (they are programs and only programs)

The Fairness Doctrine

1949 FCC requirement that broadcasters who air programs on controversial issues must provide equal time for opposing views --> can't present a biased view unless the other side is given a chance to voice its opinion --> stations were going to act in a way that really benefitted the audience *BUT some stations backed off and simply said "Let's not go there" -- conservatives were against the doctrine; liberals were for it

Moonlanding

1969, JFK: the goal of my admin is to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade (after a tumultuous decade, the U.S. did just that) --> Walter Cronkite did a play-by-play of Neil Armstrong landing on the moon --> at the time, it was wild that this was broadcast on the air (there was only a 1/2 second delay) --> TV had given American public a window to the world -- television has allowed us to "be there" when it happens

FCC and Cigarettes

1971, FCC ruled that TV and radio could no longer pull in advertisement revenue from its No. 1 advertiser (cigarettes) --> the surgeon general of the U.S. two years before discovered that cigarettes would make people ill --> since the American public technically owned the airwaves, cigarettes couldn't be advertised (American public had to be protected)

Cable TV's Gradual Ascent

85% of the country in 1975 didn't have cable, so networks news' dominance/popularity existed across America --> from its inception (after WWII), cable was just used to help people watch television in the first place --> by the late 1970s, 25 percent of the public was watching cable news *OF LATE, networks have primarily been used for sports and reality TV shows (Ex. The Voice, American Idol)

Telegraph

A device that used electrical signals to send messages quickly over long distances --> created by Samuel F.B. Morse *revolutionized communication

Radio Act of 1927

An act of Congress (first regulations since the Radio Act of 1912) that created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), intended to regulate the largely chaotic airwaves --> Act also established the principle that companies had a civic duty to use airwaves, a limited public good, responsibly.

Birth of ABC Radio

ABC Radio is born when the FCC forces NBC to divest itself of its smaller 'Blue" radio network --> purchased for $8,000,000 by conservative businessman Edward J. Noble, Developer of Life-Savers candies --> Though the youngest of the major national networks, ABC went on to become one of the 'Big Three' to make a successful transition to television

World War I - Patent Pooling

American Marcomi was engaged in manufacturing wireless radio for the military (military claimed ownership of all patents, so that the U.S. could win the war ~ "patent pooling") *after the war, patent pools were dispersed --> soon enough, AT&T purchased American Marcomi

Daisy Commercial

Aired on TV only one time --> Showed little girl picking flower and then went into countdown to nuclear war and was a major factor in President Lyndon B. Johnson's landslide victory over Barry Goldwater in the 1964 Presidential Election *was an important turning point in political and advertising history. NOTE: Goldwater was nicknamed "Mad Bomber"

Telecommunications Act of 1996

Allows one company to own as many as eight radio stations in large markets (six in medium ones) and as many as it wishes nationally --> idea was to remove ceilings on ownership

Crossley Ratings

An audience measurement system created to determine the audience size of radio broadcasts between 1930 and 1935 --> Developed by Archibald Crossley in 1930. Crossley Inc. --> conducted tests by calling the homes and asking them what they had listened to the previous night. *This survey was referred to as "counting the house", by the radio industry NOTE: this information was key for advertisers (2-3 years down the road, Hooper Ratings came along)

Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984

Because of this new legislation, cable was able to begin to challenge over-the-air television networks for viewers. --> New cable television networks such as USA, ESPN, and MTV all started during this decade. --> By the end of the 1980s, the number of cable franchises in the United States had doubled and more than 20 cable superstations were created

Edward R. Murrow

CBS television reporter and war correspondent --> See it Now aired from 1951 to 1958 and focused its most famous programs on the Red Scare, specifically McCarthyism -Reporters on across the country interviewed controversial subjects—people who had been identified as security risks or potential threats to the U.S., on little or no evidence. -Murrow, moderating the program live from CBS' control room above Grand Central Station, supplied analysis and perspective for the reports, in effect, objectively debunking many of McCarthy's allegations for a national audience

New Devices Hurt Radio

CD affected the radio, but it wasn't until the iPod came along that radio took a hit --> sometimes you could hear more digitally than you could hear on radio

Interactive Television

CUBE - gave you a little box with a keyboard ~ allowed the viewer to interact with the programming on air (wasn't successful, but foreshadowed rise of interactive media)

Smothers Brothers

Controversial late 1960s comedy duo whose show was filled with anti-war statements, drug-related humor, etc. --> Their battle with CBS censors eventually led to the show's cancellation --> network used declining ratings as an excuse for dismissing the show's free speech

Sixth Report and Order

Created by the FCC after it froze processing of television license applications due to problems with the supply of channels and interferences. This relocated the original 12 VHF channels to reduce interference and added 70 new UHF channels. --> Also reserved television allotments for noncommercial education broadcast stations.

Newton Minnow

He was head of the FCC during the 1960s who criticized TV for being "a vast wasteland" and criticized the networks/broadcasters for not doing more to serve/promote the public interest --> NAB audience was shocked, BUT over the course of the coming months there were tangible signs of change --> when JFK was assassinated, Minnow was gone

State of TV in the 2000s

High definition and plasma screen TVs are everywhere in stores and new DVDs are introduced that can record and play in high definition --> Television programming takes a decidedly "realistic" (Survivor, The Apprentice) turn before turning to reality shows (like American Idol, America's Got Talent, etc.) --> Animated prime time continued its popularity with The Simpsons, Family Guy, and South Park

Lindbergh Kidnapping

In 1932, Charles Lindbergh, Jr., 20-month old son of the famous aviator, was abducted from the family home --> It was one of the most highly publicized crimes of the 20th century (Baby Lindbergh's body was found 2 months later) --> radio brought the unfolding story to Americans across the nation

Rise of Rock and Roll / Allen Freed

Instead of the variety of programs--soap operas and light dramas--radio stations switched to recorded music --> Pop music icons such as Frank Sinatra and Perry Como continued to entertain the adults, but kids tuned into new music—Rock and Roll --> Allen Freed, who was at one point the figurehead of the DJ industry, was at the forefront of Rock and Roll's growing popularity

Guglielmo Marconi

Italian electrical engineer known as the father of wireless --> Although others theorized about the capabilities of Hertzian waves, Marconi received the first patent for the wireless telegraph in June 1896. --> Marconi's invention made possible wireless ship-to-shore communication -did most of his work in Eastern Mass. -- the idea was that his location allowed him to be as far out on the East Coast as possible to test the telegraph's range

Media Coverage of Iraq War

Media coverage of the war is extensive as reporters are "embedded" with troops in the field --> Public sentiment in 2004 reflects growing concern that the war was not going as planned (don't find weapons of mass destruction in Iraq; lives are lost)

Amos 'n' Andy

One of the first comedy shows on the radio--performed by two white guys (Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll) who were wearing blackface and mimicking black people (depiction was negatively stereotypical) -BUT the show was a hit --> sitcoms like this, albeit controversial, helped bring families and neighbors together

The Red Scare

Post-World War I public hysteria over Bolshevik influence in the United States directed against labor activism, radical dissenters, and some ethnic groups --> Red Channels -- document that included all of those thought to be Red/communist sympathizers (the demand was that broadcasters on the list be purged) --> even though the list was baseless, some of the named were actually purged *The Cold War was so named by Winston Churchill and it marked the beginning of a 40 year struggle between two conflicting ideologies

FCC - Children / Benjamin Hooks

Public interest groups such as Action for Children's Television (from Museum of Broadcast Communication) put external pressure on the FCC to re-evaluate whether the industry was serving the needs of children --> Internally, the FCC's first black commissioner, Benjamin Hooks pushed for EEO reforms. -Must-carry, duopoly, and community access rules illustrated FCC attempts to make regulation work

RCA

Radio Corporation of America --> RCA was created as a patent sharing consortium after the war and it licensed the patents and resources it gained from American Marconi, General Electric, Westinghouse, AT&T and other members of the patent pool --> RCA also took over the worldwide communication functions of American Marconi but it was also experimenting with broadcasting

Shock Jocks

Radio personalities who make lewd and tasteless comments to drive up ratings for their programs --> Ex. Don Imus -- marked the start of the "morning zoo" --> Radio in the 1970s and 80s was nuts *as we get into the 1990s, Shock Jocks flared out

Reagan's Era of Deregulation

Ronald Reagan, a communication major himself, was sympathetic to commercial broadcasters --> Reagan wanted to get rid of stupid rules that made broadcasters' jobs more complicated --> he got rid of the expectation that broadcasters were to set aside 6% of programming for news and public affairs programming --> eliminated quarterly ascertainment surveys --> repealed Fairness Doctrine --> during Reagan's presidency, the limit of stations almost doubled *this form of monopolization is no longer a concern in the media world

McCarthy Years

Senator Joseph McCarthy -- United States politician who unscrupulously accused many citizens of being Communists (affected employment) --> beginning of the end of McCarthyism started with Edward R. Murrow broadcasts

Effect of Internet / Social Media

The Internet increasingly becomes a focal point for individuals and groups. Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and MySpace create social media networks where anybody and everybody can have an online presence.

The Living Room War

The Vietnam War was the first war that was shown on TV every night in America (notably, the public announcements of the kill counts) --> at first, U.S. got into Vietnam and tethered to the colonial-ruling French (the Vietnamese wanted independence) --> eventually, the Vietnamese embraced communism in pursuit of that independence --> when France left, the U.S. walked in (Domino Theory -- if you didn't stop communism in Vietnam, it would spread throughout all of Asia and then throughout the whole world)

Watergate

The events and scandal surrounding a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up of White House involvement, leading to the eventual resignation of President Nixon under the threat of impeachment --> all networks suspended programs during the day --> every day someone was testifying or being questioned about the criminal activity in the White House (viewers followed along on the tube)

KDKA

The first commercial radio station in America (in Pittsburgh) --> Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse engineer, broadcast the election returns of the Harding-Cox election and KDKA was born *1920-22, about 400 radio stations go on the air

Fireside Chats

The informal radio conversations Roosevelt had with the people to keep spirits up --> when FDR took over for Hoover, the country was pretty splintered -- he knew that radio could be an effective tool to facilitate cohesion --> people would sit in the living room w the fire and FDR and on the radio *FDR was seen as an uncle of sorts

DF vs. RF Waves

Thomas Edison discovered the DC current (which required regeneration after a certain distance) --> BUT Edwin Armstrong found a current (RF) that didn't need to be regenerated *soon enough, devices started to be built with these currents (RF)

World War II Radio

U.S. had a war correspondent (Edward R. Murrow) who would send information from Europe back to the states --> hired reporters ("Murrow's boys") who were trained to write a good news story based on assembled research *these reports were broadcast back in the U.S. using short-wave radio (this marked the first time that people could listen to live reports from the warfront)

VHF vs. UHF

UHF (Ultra High Frequency) - am stations and high frequency that requires special equipment VHF (Very High Frequency) - very crowded but preferred by FCC

VHS

Video Home System --> Now, people could rent a movie or a documentary --> Great percentage of the audience was watching shows on cable and home videos

The Radio Act of 1912

a United States federal law that mandated that all radio stations in the United States be licensed by the federal government, as well as mandating that seagoing vessels continuously monitor distress frequencies

Postwar Vietnam Coverage, or Lack Thereof...

after the war was over, it was almost as if Vietnam didn't exist (TV programs avoided touching upon the war) --> radio was even worse--with the exception of 1-2 stations--in terms of wartime ignorance -thought that if they mentioned the death count, people would tune out (so instead they stuck with music)

Conflict Between DeForrest, Sarnoff, and Armstrong

all claimed to be the Father of Radio --> didn't really realize how they were affecting/changing the world *they were doing more than they might have thought

Primetime Access Rule (PTAR)

broadcasting regulation that was instituted in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1970 to restrict the amount of network programming that a local television station either owned-and-operated or affiliated with a television network can air during "prime time"

Problem With Station Monopoly

corporations thought that if they had eight stations in the market, they could own an individual market --> also thought they could cut down on size of a staff within radio stations (could have copy writers cover multiple stations) *what these corporations didn't realize was that once you took localism away, the audience would leave --> people didn't want generalists -- they wanted to hear local voices

Vladimir Zworkin

invented iconoscope--first television camera tube to convert light rays into electric signals.

Howard Armstrong

inventor of modern frequency modulation (FM) radio transmission; creator of the regeneration circuit --> was frustrated by the static that came with AM radio (AM couldn't broadcast full range of sounds and had static) -Armstrong believed that the band of wavelength had to be widened *NOTE: Sarnoff wasn't sold on FM, kicked Armstrong out of Empire State Building (which Sarnoff was using for the creation of television) --> even as television overtook radio, pushed for FM -- fought for his patents in lawsuits w RCA -BUT the stress was too much for him (and he committed suicide)

Broadcast Overregulation in the Late 1970s

late 1970s, there was a concern that broadcasters were over regulated --> newspaper industry wasn't met with this kind of challenge --> many of the rules were excessive and unrealistic for the broadcast injury *Federal government had gotten too involved

Commercial Underground Radio

motivated by the belief that so much music is never heard by people (outside the top 40) --> started controversy, though, because these rock artists spewed anti-war lyrics (Ex. encouraging people to burn draft cards) --> the audience who tuned in to the station (mostly college-aged kids) finally had a station that was sympathetic to the anti-war sentiment --> Underground Commercial Radio lasted from 1967-73/74 -very similar track as the Vietnam War (the two went hand in hand) -BUT a lot of college students took the baton (free forma and progressive radio)

Network Rerun Policy

networks weren't allowed to run reruns/profit off of old shows --> Instead, syndicators leased the shows -stations decided that it was cheeper to lease than it was to produce a show *once again, sitcoms came back into the picture--could address real issues all while infusing humor

Tensions Between Newspaper and Radio Industries

newspaper industry became increasingly upset that radio industry was starting to air news (it was hurting their business--fear that radio would steal the spotlight) --> radio's response: NO -- you can't dictate what we do --> after unsuccessfully threatening to cut off wired services for radio, newspapers begged for radio to only cover soft news *again, radio gave newspapers the middle finger and reported whatever news it wanted

Dichotomy Between Newspapers and Radio During World War II

newspapers were still very much alive during this time --> radio would report headline news, whereas newspapers would provide in-depth coverage

TV's Impact on Film Industry

once movie industry realized that viewers at home were about to have access to motion picture, they decided to ramp up theater gimmicks (like 3D, Cinerama (early IMAX), Smellerama -- you could smell what was on screen) to get people to go --> eventually, though, television and film had a marriage of sorts

Howard Stern

one of the most famous shock jocks --> cost station 10s of millions of dollars, but he was making 100s of millions of dollars --> Sirius Radio offered Howard Stern a 5-year $500 million contract--on satellite radio, he could say whatever he wanted *BUT he didn't have as large of an audience (part of what made him so popular was that he was controversial on public broadcast)

Popularity of Radio During World War II

when things are disturbing and going wrong, radio thrives because people desire 24/7 coverage, due to the fact that they want to know what is going right/wrong --> more people were listening to the radio than ever before --> if you knew someone in the war, the radio was the go-to source for wartime news *Soap Operas became the most popular genre in American broadcast (each network aired soap operas during the 10-3 time frame) --> appealed to war mothers, wives, etc

Why FOX's Channel is Different Than Other Networks

—> in most cities, the local stations were already affiliated with networks (so when Fox came to Boston, there were no VHF channels — as a result, they had to opt for a UHF channel) *at the time, it seemed pretty crazy (but, 32 years later, they're still around)

FOX

—> out of nowhere, though, Fox rolls up to the scene (Rupert Murdoch purchases Metromedia group) just when the networks are losing their numbers; this was doable because the FCC had relaxed trafficking rules and ownership caps —> Fox's strategy: they rolled out innovated youth-oriented programs Within a short amount of time, they had an audience Young people are the most desirable for advertisers (young people need to buy things) The networks were asleep at the wheel, and Fox beat them to a new, revenue-friendly strategy