BSC1005 Unit 2

Which is the best explanation of how the activity of the cell is controlled?

Each of our body cells carries out instructions that are encoded in a sequence of bases in its DNA

Risk of cancer can be detected in body?

White blood cells can be isolated from the blood and genetic testing can be carried out on the DNA isolated from those cells

The term cancer is best defined as

a disease caused by the inability to control cell division

lining of the internal organs or skin (cancer)

carcinoma

Prior to cell division, ______________ are copied

chromosomes

2 major parts of the m phase

cytokinesis and mitosis

RNA polymerase

enzyme that participates in every stage of transcription

what happens during mitosis?

genetic material is divided into 2 nuclei

There are several known mutations associated with breast cancer risk. How might an individual's risk of developing breast cancer be assessed using this info?

genetic testing can compare the cancer genes in an individual's DNA to the DNA sequence of the normal genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2

cell division occurs in

m phase

connective tissues, like bone (cancer)

sarcoma

what is a mutagen?

they cause DNA mutation (chemicals, radiation, viruses)

How are cells able to ensure they do not proceed through the cell cycle with damaged DNA or other flaws?

- a cell receives external signals when it is ready to divide - a series of 3 checkpoints use proteins to check the DNA

which of the following summarize a method by which cancer, or the risk of cancer, is detected in the body?

- a simple blood test - a variety of x-ray technologies - a minor surgical prodecure

New cells are produced:

- because of regulatory signals during growth and development or to replace old, worn out cells - because of signals to repair damaged tissue - under the regulation of hormones and genes

cancer and physiolgy

- blocks vessels and ducts - interferes with homeostasis - can decrease calcium in blood leading to coma or death

a tumor suppressor gene

- can lead to a tumor if mutated - slows down cell cycle - codes for proteins that examine DNA during cell cycle

benign tumors

- cells resemble those of surrounding tissues - they have not invaded surrounding tissues - localized to 1 tissue type

cancer immunotherapy?

- convinces body that cancer cells are foreign invaders - uses immune system to find and destroy cancer cells

concerning enzymes?

- function best under specific conditions - activity influenced by temperature

explain how changes to the cell cycle can lead to cancer

- genetic mutations - genes that control the cell cycle

normal cells

- have smaller nuclei, comparatively - looks lighter under microscope, comparatively - have nuclei with the same size and shape

what is considered when staging cancer?

- if tumor has begun to invade surrounding tissue - if tumor has moved into lymph nodes - if cancer has spread to other organs - size of tumor

malignant tumors

- invade other tissues - cells don't resemble each other - do not resemble surrounding tissues

how does a cell prepare for division during interphase?

- it doubles its organelles - it grows - it replicates DNA

cancer cells

- may have different sized nuclei - have larger nuclei comparatively - looks dark under microscope comparatively

how might mutations accumulated by a cancer cell affect its nucleus?

- might increase nucleus size - might change size of nucleus - might increase amount of DNA in nucleus

cancer cells are capable of

- moving through the circulatory system - stimulating blood vessels to grow toward them - moving through the lymphatic vessels

The characteristics that define life include the ability to

- reproduce - adapt to the environment - acquire materials & energy

Which of these mechanisms might you list when explaining how mutations change the contents of DNA molecules?

- they exchange 1 nucleotide for another - they insert additional nucleotides - they remove 1 or more nucleotides

chemotherapy can be defined as

- treatment of a disease with a drug - drug used to treat cancer or to control/reduce the symptoms of cancer

defining features of systemic radiation?

- use of radiation compound bound to a targeting molecule - use of targeting molecules that interact via specific proteins on the surface of the cell - use of specific radioactive elements like iodine in treatment of thyroid cancer

Components of a DNA nucleotide

-5 carbon sugar - phosphate group - nitrogen containing base

Formation of cancer

1) a cell or group of cells begins to divide uncontrollably 2) an excess number of cells forms tumors and/or increases the number of cells in the blood 3) the spread/ increase in the number of cancer cells causes physiological changes that interfere with the normal function of tissues and organs

gene expression

1. a gene is copied into an mRNA molecule in the nucleus 2. an mRNA molecule is processed to remove unneeded regions 3. an mRNA molecule is read one codon at a time on a ribosome in the cytoplasm 4. a chain of amino acids (polypeptide) assembles

Levels of human organization

1. cells 2. tissues 3. organs 4. organ systems 5. organism

order of something idk what

1. removed 2. exposed 3. integrate the antigen 4. returned 5. present tumor antigen 6. cytotoxic T cells attack

Best description for cancer

A disease that begins in a single cell or group of cells that can spread to tissues and organs, disrupting the normal functions of body structures.

Why doesn't cancer function like a normal cell?

Because changes to cancer cell DNA result in changes or loss of function of proteins and enzymes in the cell

If a physician waned to look for signs of cancer, such as elevated white blood cell count, abnormal protein, or elevated liver enzymes, what sort of test would they perform?

CBC and blood marker test

Flow of info during gene expression:

DNA -> RNA -> protein

the basic mechanism behind radiation is

DNA damage using energy waves or particles

In which of these ways do cancer cells and healthy cells differ?

Healthy cells are specialized based on their genetic instructions, while cancer cells disregard these instructions and lose specialization though they continue to divide

What happens to a cancer cell that allows it to divide uncontrollably?

It disregards its genetic programming and becomes less specialized, altering its ability to function in a tissue or organ

high risk cancer patients should receive an

MRI

The enzyme that unwinds the DNA molecule and helps to produce a complimentary RNA copy during transcription is called

RNA polymerase

chromosomes are copied in

S phase

Which is the best explanation of how the activities of a cell are controlled?

The activities of a cell are under the control of the cell's DNA, which contains the instructions for the cell.

Which is true of the 100 trillion cells in the adult body that is not true of the body's very first cell?

They are specialized to form tissues & organs

_______________ passes genetic info from DNA to RNA molecule that can leave the nucleus

Transcription

Often the first indications of cancer result from tissue or organ function changes, but the disease actually begins when

a cell or group of cells begins to divide uncontrollably

What is the expected outcome of changes to the DNA in a cancer cell?

a change in the function of the cell

CT scan

a computerized x-ray that takes pictures of organs from different angles

cancer begins with

a mutation that allows a cell to divide more quickly

angiogenesis

a process in which tumor cells release growth factors that cause local capillaries to grow toward the tumor

What is a gene?

a sequence of genetic information that contains instructions used to make a protein

a cell with a mutation that allows it to divide more quickly frequently

accumulates more mutations as it rapidly divides

Characteristics of living things: the ability to _________ to and ____________ to the environment

adapt, respond

stage 3

affect surrounding tissue; swelling, inflammation, ulcers

which chemotherapy drugs are mitotic inhibitors, which disrupt the cell cycle but do not directly interact with the cell's DNA?

alkaloids and taxanes

interfere with cell division but not DNA

alkaloids, taxanes

which class of chemotherapeutic drugs integrates into and breaks DNA at specific points?

alkylating agents

interact directly with DNA

antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, alkylating agents

cancer cells lose specialization

as they accumulate mutations

usually targeted by immune system ?

bacteria and viruses

Changes in body chemistry which disrupt homeostasis, can be detected using

blood tests

increase blood calcium

body chemistry

cancer occurs at a cellular level

cancer begins with the body's inability to control cell division in a cell or a group of cells

how does cancer that starts out in one location in the body end up in others?

cancer cells can move in the body using the body's own transport systems

Centrioles generally function in _____ _________________ when they divide genetic material and the contents of a reproducing cell.

cell division

proteins control each of the check points that regulate _____ ____________________

cell division

When the body sustains an injury that damages tissue, what happens in a normal, healthy body?

cell division produces new cells to replace the damaged cells and thus repairs the tissue

Tissues are groups of ________ with similar functions.

cells

consequences associated with the accumulation of mutations in cancer cells

change in appearance, tumor growth, loss of specialization

this cancer treatment works better for metastatic cancer, comparatively

chemotherapy

guanine ---->

cytosine

which of the following could be a DNA nucleotide?

deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and adenine

stage 0

detected early, not invasive

DNA sequencing is a process that

determines the order of nucleotides in a segment of DNA

the appearance of cancer cells is

different from the cells around them, including other cancer cells

cancer cells

divide endlessly

stage 4

fully metastasized

gene expression is a process that produces ____________ _____________ from segments of DNA in the nucleus

functional proteins

a sequence of information in the genome, which provides the instructions for forming a protein of enzyme is called a

gene

interferes with balance

homeostasis

the pattern of bonding we see at the interior of a DNA molecule can be attributed to

hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs

When each homologus chromosome is copied, an ___________ structure called a _______ _______________ is formed

identical, sister chromatid

because it produces antibodies called immunoglobins in response to cancer, the __________- system can indicate cancer in the body

immune

proto-oncogenes

interacts with growth hormones to increase the rate of cell division

brachytherapy is

internal radiation therapy

______________ is the longest part of the cell cycle

interphase

a cell spends the most time in

interphase

stage 2

invasive, still entirely in breast

what does metastasis mean?

it is the process by which tumor cells move to other parts of the body and form new tumors

how does radiation therapy work?

it uses the movement of energy to slow or stop cell division

the nucleus of a cancer cell is __________ compared to a normal cell

larger

white blood cells in bone marrow (cancer)

leukemia

A cell can be characterized as the smallest biological unit that has all the characteristics of _______.

life

cells and tissues in the immune system (cancer)

lymphoma

G1 checkpoint

make sure DNA is not damaged

cells with damaged genetic material

may become cancerous

skin cancer

melanoma

Which 2 types of cancer can originate in the cells of our skin?

melanoma & carcinoma

diagnostic mammogram

next step if cancer has been indicated by a suspicious lump/ abnormal blood test

Genetic information is stored in the order of the __________ _________ that form in the interior of the DNA double-helix

nitrogen bases

The _________ contains DNA

nucleus

cancer takes up space

organ function

Information is stored in the ________ __ __________ of a DNA molecule

pattern of nucleotides

tumor supressor genes are responsible for

preventing unregulated cell growth

what is cytokinesis?

process that pinches the plasma membrane in and results in 2 daughter cells

PMAT

prophase metaphase anaphase telophase

G2 checkpoint

proteins find DNA has not been replicated properly

energy waves and particles are used to damage DNA in a cancer therapy called

radiation

because they need oxygen and nutrients from the body to grow, tumor cells

release growth factors that cause capillaries to grow toward them

what is a biopsy?

remove small samples of cell from tumor or surrounding lymph nodes

Damaged cells and worn out, old cells are __________ by new cells. Damaged tissues are ___________ by the production of new cells.

replaced, repaired

MRI

scan that uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed pictures of the body for screening and diagnosis

Prokaryotic cells

simple

stage 1

small area, begun to invade surrounding tissue

Cells are able to form tissues and organs that serve specific purposes in the body because they are

specialized

Eukaryotic cells

specialized because they contain organelles

chemotherapy works by targeting the characteristics of fast-growing cancer cells. This means it targets

specific points of the cell to stop cell division

variation on internal radiation therapy administered via injection or injestion

systemic radiation therapy

outcome of genome editing?

targeting genetic mutations to change nucleotide sequences and as a result reduce tumor size

chemotherapy functions to combat cancer because it

targets the characteristics of fast growing cancer cells

Translation achieves

the conversion of the information found in DNA to create a specific chain of amino acids

sum of all genetic info in a cell

the genome

seeds is the term used to describe

the radioactive deposits used for internal radiation therapy

cells are

the smallest living unit of biological organization

what is a carcinogen?

they cause DNA mutations associated with cancer

Normal cellular reproduction results in only the correct numbers of cells because

this process is regulated by signals, like hormones, and genetic mechanisms

a malignant timor is _____________ to the body

threatening

adenine ---->

thymine

A single muscle cell combines with others to form muscle _________, which can function in a unit called an organ within an organ _______ along with other organs.

tissue, system

Purpose of transcription?

to produce an intermediate molecule that can carry the genetic information from nucleus to ribosome

purpose of translation?

to translate the info in an mRNA transcript into the amino acid language of proteins

radiation and chemotherapy are often used

together to maximize effectiveness

the transfer of info from DNA to RNA is

transcription

2 stages of gene expression

transcription and translation

The info in a sequence of DNA called a gene is copied into an mRNA molecule during __________________, then it's interpreted to synthesize a protein during ___________________.

transcription, translation

transfer of info from RNA into a protein is known as

translation

how do cancer cells get the oxygen & nutrients they require to continuously grow?

tumors cause blood vessels to grow by releasing growth factors

Cancer is a physiological disease

tumors or excess cells in the blood interfere with the normal function of tissues or organs

PET scan

uses sugar with radioactive tracer to measure cell activity

how can vaccines be used to treat cancer?

white blood cells can be engineered to present tumor antigens to the immune cells that trigger an immune response

normal cells

will eventually die