Buad 304 Midterm

Group think

"a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." Cohesiveness or a sense of "we-ness" tends to override individual differences and motives.

consensus

"is reached when all members can say they either agree with the decision or have had their 'day in court' and were unable to convince the others of their viewpoint. In the final analysis, everyone agrees to support the outcome."

positivity effect

"is the attraction of all living systems toward positive energy and away from negative energy, or toward that which is life giving and away from that which is life depleting." Organizations that use positive practices are more likely to create an atmosphere of positive energy, which in turn fuels increased performance.

Positive deviance

"successful performance that dramatically exceeds the norm in a positive direction."

Foregiveness

"the capacity to foster collective abandonment of justified resentment, bitterness, and blame, and, instead, it is the adoption of positive, forward-looking approaches in response to harm or damage."

Communication

"the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved."6 It is a circular and dynamic process in which people interpret and make sense of the information they exchange. And it's a very important activity in both our personal and professional lives

Employee engagement

"the harnessing of organization members' selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance." The essence of this definition is the idea that engaged employees "give their all" at work. Further study identified its components as four feelings: Urgency Focus Intensity Enthusiasm

Four Steps in Rational Decision Making

(1) identify the problem, (2) generate alternative solutions, (3) evaluate alternatives and select a solution, and (4) implement and evaluate the solution

Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory: Five Levels of Needs

(bottom to top) tells us that a one size fits all approach will not work Physiological: most basic needs, food water air Safety: need to be safe from physical and psychological harm Love: need to love and be loved. belonging and affection Esteem: need for reputation, recognition and prestige from others. self-actualization: desire for self-fulfillment, to be the best you can be

On the Folly of Rewarding A, while Hoping for B (ARES)

- BE CAREFUL WHAT YOU REWARD Fouled Up Systems: reward systems that the types of behavior rewarded are those which the rewarder is trying to discourage, while the behavior desired is not being rewarded at all- zone of indifference: a person can and will accept a communication as authoritative only when at the time of his decision, he believes it to be compatible with his personal interests as a whole Causes:- fascination with objective criterion: seek to establish quantifiable means for all sections- Overemphasis on Highly Visible Behavior:easier to see things like scores than concepts like teamwork or creativity- Hypocrisy: rewarder may have been getting the desired behavior, notwithstanding claims that the behavior was not desired- Emphasis on Morality or Equity rather than Efficiency: sometimes consideration of other factors prevents the establishment of a system which rewards behavior desired by the rewarder*managers can alter the system by identifying what is being rewarded and then shifting it

Character strengths: research and practice (ARES)

- Values in Action (VIA) project, which classifies and measures 24 widely-recognized and valued strengths- 6 sections: WISDOM/ KNOWLEDGE (creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective); COURAGE (honesty, bravery, persistence, zest); HUMANITY (love, kindness, social intelligence); JUSTICE (fairness, leadership, teamwork); TEMPERANCE (forgiveness, modesty, prudence, self regulation); TRANSCENDENCE (appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, religiousness)- important to note that character strengths are plural not singular traits- use these findings to alter the importance of certain strengths in the school system; cultivate the development of an individual's strengths more than their academic record for psychologically better lives- influenced by both nurture and nature, dramatic events, and positive role models- create a change through targeting a character strength and designing a measurable goal (kindness - say hi to a new person every day)

Portrait on My Office Wall (ARES)

- We believe that when someone wants to do repeat business with us it is the highest form of praise -- Allowing your opponent in a transaction to walk away with his dignity, his humor and his hearing intact, and with a pretty good deal in his pocket, is the right way to do businessBusiness Principles:- do the right thing and don't hide your mistakes or possible negative discoveries- don't shout or scream and try to leave something beneficial for the other party too- make everyone your customer- stick to your principles, keep them tangible, and if they are violated in a form of work, learn to walk away

Trust the Evidence, Not Your Instincts (ARES)

- failure to consider sound evidence repeatedly inflicts unnecessary damage on employee well-being and group performance; an example is incentive pay where performance is rewarded but its ineffective- evidence shows that collaborative environment yield better work but managers still rotate employees to cut costs; hiring in unstructured face to face leads to bias on similarity and attractiveness; overconfidence creates poor decisions- A recent study at Google shows the power of accepting and acting on evidence, even when it clashes with ingrained beliefs: believed that technical expertise was the most important in a manager but actually ranked last after traits like caring about people and asking good questions -- this led to them shifting their focus to create better managers for the employees not based on their own beliefs of the important traits

Types of listening

Active—I'm fully invested. Active listeners are "all in." That is, they are motivated to listen and give full attention when others are talking. Involved—I'm partially invested. Involved listeners devote some, but not all, of their attention and energy to listening. Passive—It's not my responsibility to listen. Passive listeners are not equal partners in a speaking-listening exchange. Detached—I'm uninterested. Detached listeners tend to withdraw from the interaction

Managers need to know...

Apply different motivational tools Provide constructive feedback Develop and lead productive teams Understand and manage organizational culture and change

Job satisfaction attitude and behavior components

Attitudes: Motivation, Job involvement, Withdrawal cognitions, Perceived stress Behavior:Job performance, Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), Counterproductive work behavior (CWB),Turnover Organizational Level: Accounting/financial performance Customer service/satisfaction

Avoiding style

Avoiding: With an avoiding style, passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are common. We addressed the pitfalls of avoiding conflict earlier.

importance of exit interviews

Build employee engagement Highlight needed action. Help benchmark. make former employees into recruiters. Make former employees into customers or partners

Ethics

Concerned with behavior—right versus wrong, good versus bad, and the many shades of gray in between

Justice theory

Distributive justice: reflects the perceived fairness of the way resources and rewards are distributed or allocated. Procedural justice: is the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. Interactional Justice: describes the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented."

Dominating style

Dominating: Those with a dominating style have a high concern for self and low concern for others, often characterized by "I win, you lose" tactics. The other party's needs are largely ignored. This style is often called forcing because it relies on formal authority to force compliance.

Using equity and justice theory to motivate employees

Employee perceptions count Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them Employees should have an appeals process. Leader behavior matters A climate for justice makes a difference

Equity theory

Equity theory builds on the notion that satisfaction rests on how "fairly" an individual is treated at work. If we perceive that our work outcomes, relative to our inputs, compare favorably with someone else's outcomes and inputs, we will be satisfied. Research has strongly supported the theory behind this model.50 Managers thus are encouraged to monitor employees' fairness perceptions and to interact with employees in such a way that they feel equitably treated

Hard tactics

Exchange tactics Coalition tactics Pressure tactics Legitimating tactics exert overt pressure

The Elements of Vroom's Expectancy Theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

Expectancy: What are the chances of reaching my performance goal? Instrumentality: What are the chances of receiving various outcomes if I achieve my performance goals? Valence: How much do I value the outcomes i will receive by achieving my performance goals?

The self perception of motivation (ARES)

Extrinsic rewards can drive out intrinsic rewards. Action is a function of personal force + environmental force Intrinsic motivation: action due to personal force Extrinsic motivation: action due to environmental force Strength of extrinsic effects intrinsic motivation Self perception causes confusion If both are high or both are low, unclear what the clear motivation to do something is

Extrinsic rewards

Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment. If you work primarily to obtain rewards such as money or status, you are extrinsically motivated.

Locke and Latham's Goal Setting Theory

Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like "Do your best" or "Improve performance." Goal specificity means whether a goal has been quantified. Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work. Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work. Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction, which in turn motivates employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance.

Hard vs. Soft Skills

Hard skills are the technical expertise and knowledge required to do a particular task or job function, such as financial analysis, accounting, or operations. Soft skills relate to human interactions and include both interpersonal skills and personal attributes.

How to increase employee commitment

Hire people whose personal values align with the organization's. Make sure that management does not breach its psychological contracts. Treat employees fairly and foster trust between managers and employees.

Developing psycap

Hope development. Generate a work-related goal that is important to you and attainable yet challenging; create multiple plans for achieving this goal. Share these with others—coworkers or classmates—to get their feedback and recommendations. Efficacy development. Besides recommendations from Chapter 3, break your larger goal into smaller subgoals as discussed in Chapter 6. Create plans for achieving the subgoals and share them with others to get feedback and recommendations. Resilience development. Make a list of your personal talents, skills, and social networks; specify how these can help you achieve your goal; identify potential obstacles and decide how to avoid them or reduce their impact. Optimism development. Hope development bolsters your optimism, but it also is helpful to identify obstacles and negative expectations. On your own, check to see whether the obstacles you identify are valid, and then have others challenge your assumptions.

benefits of mindfulness

Increased physical, mental, and interpersonal effectiveness. Effectiveness increases because, when they are mindful, people are more aware of physical sensations, personal feelings, personal emotions, and the feelings and emotions of others. Mindfulness also promotes better sleep and helps reduce chronic pain. More effective communications and decision making. Mindfulness fosters more effective listening, greater use of empathy, and more attention to nonverbal cues during conversations. More balanced emotions. Paying attention to internal emotions and the emotions of others leads us to be more emotionally balanced and less reactive. This in turn helps reduce conflict with others. Performance and satisfaction. Mindfulness can increase productivity and job satisfaction

Reward power

Individuals or organizations have reward power if they can obtain compliance by promising or granting rewards. Pay-for-performance plans and positive reinforcement practices rely on reward power.

Organizing framework

Inputs: Personal factors, situation factors Processes: Individual level, group/team level, organizational level Outputs: Individual level, group/team level, organizational level

Integrating style

Integrating (also called problem solving): When using an integrating style, interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify it, generate and weigh alternatives, and select a solution.

Job Performance

Job satisfaction and performance are moderately related. This supports the belief that employee job satisfaction is a key workplace attitude managers should consider when attempting to increase employees' job performance. The relationship between them is complex. Researchers now believe both variables indirectly influence each other through a host of person factors and environmental characteristics contained in the Organizing Framework.

When considering alternative solutions

Keep in mind who will be supporters, who will resist, and necessary resources

Legitimate power

Legitimate power is what most people think of as authority and is anchored to a formal organizational position. Thus, managers who obtain compliance primarily because of their formal authority to make decisions have legitimate power. Legitimate power may be expressed either positively or negatively

Creating high quality connections

Make someone the only person in the room. Engage the other person by being present, attentive, and affirming. Act as if he or she is the only person in the room. Support. Do what you can to encourage the person and help him or her achieve a goal or attain success. Give trust. Believe you can depend on this person to meet your expectations, and let it show. Goof off. Play! Have no goals or intentions other than to goof off with others.

Program conflict

Managers can resort to programmed conflict. Experts in the field define programmed conflict as "conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers."

need fulfillment

Need fulfillment models propose that satisfaction is determined by the extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill her or his needs. Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. All of us have different needs, which means that managers need to learn about employees' needs if they want to increase employees' job satisfaction.

Obliging style

Obliging (also called smoothing): If you have an obliging style, you tend to show low concern for yourself and a great concern for others. Such people tend to minimize differences and highlight similarities to please the other party.

Anchoring bias

Occurs when decision makers are influence by the first information they receive about a decision, 433 occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information they receive about a decision, even if it is irrelevant. Initial information, impressions, data, feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent judgments and decisions

Harnessing the science of persuasion (ARES)

Only a select few people have the charisma to persuade people Hard to teach Leader needs to have it Need to master principles of Persuasion Liking: People like those who like them Uncover real similarities and offer genuine praise Find commonalities through casual conversation (sharing interests), and praising them even if it's untrue Reciprocity: People repay in kind Give what you want to receive Ex. smiling, giving gifts For managers: setting the example Social Proof: People follow the lead of similar others Use peer power whenever it's available Persuasion effective when it comes from peers/someone they respect Try to emulate the actions of people they know and like Consistency: People align with their clear commitments Make their commitments active, public, and voluntary People tend to stick to their commitments People live up to what they've written down (signatures) People want to appear consistent to others Authority: People defer to experts Expose your expertise; don't assume it's self evident People like to take expert advice, can mold their opinion's off expert opinion Need to know their credentials though Scarcity: People want more of what they can have less of Highlight unique benefits and exclusive information Less available=more valuable Potential losses much more important in manager's mind than potential gains Manager can say: i just got this report today, won't be officially released until next week to make people think it's more important Combination of these 6 factors=persuasion

Optimism

Optimists People who view successes as due to their personal, permanent, and pervasive causes, and negative events to external, temporary, and situation-specific ones, 275 often attribute successes to "personal, permanent, and pervasive causes, and negative events to external, temporary, and situation-specific ones."

Elements of equity theory

Outputs—"What do I perceive that I'm getting out of my job?" Inputs—"What do I perceive that I'm putting into my job?" Comparison—"How does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with those of relevant others?"

overconfidence bias

Overconfidence bias results in overestimating our skills relative to those of others, such as our driving ability, and overestimating the accuracy of our predictions.

6 dangerous myths about pay (ARES)

PAY IS NOT THE ONLY MOTIVATOR Myths:1. labor costs and labor rates are the same thing2. believing that cutting labor costs can be done by cutting labor rates3. labor costs are a significant portion of the total costs4. low labor costs are a potent competitive strategy5. most effective way to motivate people are through individual compensation incentive6. people work primarily for money- economic theory (behavior is rational)- agency theory (employees won't have the same goals as employers)- Transaction cost theory (make false or empty threats/promises to get a deal from another)-compensation-consulting industry (will change the pay system over the culture)- most pay systems absorb a lot of management time and make people unhappy- individuals struggle with compensating for good work causing organization to get involved; external rewards are messy as a result- pay isnt a substitute for a strong work environment

perceived organizational support

POS) reflects the extent to which employees believe their organization values their contributions and genuinely cares about their well-being. Your POS would be negative if you worked for a bad boss or a company that did not provide good health benefits or career opportunities.

Contributions to employee engagement

Person Factors Personality. Positive psychological capital. Human and social capital.33 Situation Factors Job characteristics. People are engaged when their work contains variety and when they receive timely feedback about performance. Leadership. People are more engaged when their manager is supportive and maintains a positive, trusting relationship with them.34 Organizational climate can range from positive and inspiring to negative and depleting. Positive climates obviously foster engagement. Stressors.

How to Identify the right problem

Person factors. Do your departing coworkers have something in common? Is there anything about their personalities that makes work difficult for them, such as a preference to work collaboratively rather than independently? What about their ages? Gender? Skills? Situation factors. Have there been changes in the job market, such as a sudden increase in employment opportunities at better wages? Have working conditions such as promotion opportunities become less attractive in your organization? Individual level. Has the job itself become boring and less meaningful or rewarding to the employees who quit? Group/team level. Have there been any changes to the work group, including the manager, that might make work less satisfying? How does turnover in your department compare to that in other departments in the organization? Why? Organizational level. Has the organization changed ownership, or rewritten company policies, or restructured such that the most desirable positions are now at the headquarters in another state?

Confirmation bias

Pertains to how we selectively gather information, 431 pertains to how we selectively gather information and has two components. The decision maker (1) subconsciously decides something even before investigating why it is the right decision

Personal power

Power you possess independent of your position or job. referent, expert

Intrinsic rewards

Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted.If you derive your primary reward from the task itself, or the feeling that your work is meaningful and gives you a sense of responsibility, then you are motivated by intrinsic rewards

Referent power

Referent power comes into play when our personal characteristics and social relationships are the reason for others' compliance. Charisma is commonly associated with referent power

Representative bias

Representativeness bias leads us to look for information that supports previously formed stereotypes.47 A manager, for example, may hire a graduate from a particular university because the past three people hired from this university turned out to be good performers

Empathy

Represents the ability to recognize and understand another personʼs feelings and thoughts,

3 responses to power

Resistance: You know what resistance is, but have you ever thought of the many forms and degrees? People can simply be indifferent, be passive-aggressive, or actively resist, to the extent of purposefully undermining or even sabotaging your efforts. The degree and form of resistance thus matter. Compliance:Those who comply do only what is expected, nothing more. They exert no extra effort and provide no extra input. Commitment: Those who are committed believe in the cause and often go above and beyond to ensure its success. Reward, coercive, and negative legitimate power tend to produce compliance (and sometimes resistance). Positive legitimate power, expert power, and referent power tend to foster commitment.

SMART goals

SMART applied to goals is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound.

Schwartz's Value Theory

Schwartz proposed that broad values motivate our behavior across any context. First Bipolar dimension: Self trancendence-Concern for the welfare and interests of others (universalism, benevolence). Self-enhancement-Pursuit of one's own interests and relative success and dominance over others (power, achievement). Second Bipolar dimension: Openness to change-Independence of thought, action, and feelings and readiness for change (stimulation, self-direction). Conservation-Order, self-restriction, preservation of the past, and resistance to change (conformity, tradition, security).

Selecting an affective solution

Selection criteria: Identify the criteria for the decision you must make Consequences: Consider the consequences of each alternative, especially trade-offs between the pros and the cons Choice process: Decide who will participate in choosing the solution. (If more than one person, agree on the method. Will you vote? Will the vote be public or secret? Unanimous or simple majority?):

Communication skills for presentations

Step 1. Frame your story. Step 2. Plan your delivery. Step 3. Develop your stage presence. Step 4. Plan your multimedia. Step 5. Put it together.

3 step problem solving approach

Step 1: define the problem. Step 2: Identify Possible Causes Using OB concepts and Theories Step 3: Make recommendations and (if aporpriate) take action

Perceived Stress

Stress has negative effects on many different OB-related outcomes. For instance, it is positively related to absenteeism, turnover, coronary heart disease, and viral infections. As you would expect, it also has a strong negative relationship to job satisfaction and employee engagement. Managers should attempt to reduce the negative effects of stress by improving job satisfaction and by encouraging employees to detach from work during off-job time

Coercive power

The ability to make threats of punishment and deliver actual punishment produces coercive power

3 components of attitude

The affective component—"I feel." The affective component of an attitude contains our feelings or emotions about a given object or situation. For example, how do you feel about people who talk on their cell phones in restaurants? If you feel annoyed with such people, you are experiencing a negative affect toward them. The cognitive component—"I believe." The cognitive component of an attitude reflects our beliefs or ideas about an object or situation. What do you think about people who talk on cell phones in restaurants? Your idea that such behavior is rude (or not) represents the cognitive component of your attitude. The behavioral component—"I intend." The behavioral component refers to the way we intend or expect to act toward someone or something. For example, how would you intend to respond to someone talking on a cell phone during dinner at a restaurant if this individual were sitting near you and your guest?

Compromising style

The compromising style is a give-and-take approach with a moderate concern for both self and others. Compromise is appropriate when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power.

Value Attainment

The idea underlying value attainment is that satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important values. Research consistently supports this perspective. Managers can enhance employee satisfaction by providing work assignments and rewards that reinforce employees' values.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X: A pessimistic view of employees: that they dislike work, must be monitored, and can only be motivated with rewards and punishment Theory Y: a modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work: They are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative.

USCCT

U: Uncover the various potential problems S: Select the most critical problems. Prioritize C: Create a multitude of potential solutions C: Choose the solution that has the most potential to be affective T: Translate your solution into an effective implementation plan.

Causes of political behavior

Unclear objectives. Vague performance measures. Ill-defined decision processes. Strong individual or group competition. Any type of change.

Expert power

Valued knowledge or information gives an individual expert power over those who need such knowledge or information.

Extinction

Weakening a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced is referred to as extinction

Hygiene factors

What makes employees dissatisfied? Job dissatisfaction was associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Herzberg hypothesized that such hygiene factors—including company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions—cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction.

Motivating factors (motivators)

What makes employees satisfied? Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with factors in the work content of the task being performed. Herzberg labeled these motivating factors or motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. He hypothesized that such motivating factors, or motivators—including achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement—cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction.

Coaching

a customized process between two or more people with the intent of enhancing learning and motivating change

The Delphi Technique

a group process that generates anonymous ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts in multiple rounds of brainstorming.

Holisitic hunch

a judgment based on the subconscious integration of information stored in memory. People using holistic intuition may not be able to explain why they want to make a certain decision except that the choice "feels right."

communication competence

a performance-based index of an individual's abilities to effectively use communication behaviors in a given context

Self-eficacy

a person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task

locus of control

a relatively stable personality characteristic that describes how much personal responsibility we take for our behavior and its consequences. internal when a person takes credit for good and blames themselves for bad external when believe things happen b/c of circumstance

Performance management

a set of processes and managerial behaviors that include defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations Step 1: Defining performance. Step 2: Monitoring and evaluating performance. Step 3: Reviewing performance. Step 4: Providing consequences.

Beware the Sirens of Management Pseudo-Science (ARES)

a successful business book is not about written about what is necessary right but based on the idea that here are all these companies and this thing they have in common is why they are successful- another formula is through the creation of a new management practice and the book shows how it was adopted early on and turned out successful through case studies (that are often exaggerated)- ultimately saying a lot of the business books are built on ideas of bs so don't get too distracted on their claims

Group decision making

advantages: Greater pool of knowledge, different approaches to a problem, greater commitment to a decision, better understanding of decision rationale disadvantages: social pressure, a few dominant participants, goal displacement, group think

Telecommuting

allows employees to do all or some of their work from home, using advanced telecommunications technology and Internet tools to send work electronically from home to the office, and vice versa.

Job Design

also referred to as job redesign or work design, refers to any set of activities that alter jobs to improve the quality of employee experience and level of productivity. historically has been top-down, recently it has been bottom-up, emerging is idiosyncratic in which employee and management design job

Negative reinforcement

also strengthens a desired behavior by contingently withdrawing something displeasing

Intention

an end point or desired goal you want to achieve. It sends a signal to the mind that guides its attentiveness and awareness during the meditative practice

Coalition

an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue

Impression management

any attempt to control or manipulate the images related to a person, organization, or idea

Incivility

any form of socially harmful behavior, such as aggression, interpersonal deviance, social undermining, interactional injustice, harassment, abusive supervision, and bullying

Values

are abstract ideals that guide our thinking and behavior across all situations. They stem from our parents' values, our experiences in childhood and throughout life, and our religious or spiritual beliefs. Values are relatively stable and can influence our behavior without our being aware of it.

stressors

are environmental characteristics that cause stress. Engagement is higher when employees are not confronted with a lot of stressors

prosocial behavior

are positive acts performed without the expectation of anything in return

Conflict processes

are the means by which team members work through task and relationship disagreements.

Organizational practices

are the procedures, policies, practices, routines, and rules that organizations use to get things done.

Resolving

arguably the most common action managers take and simply means choosing a satisfactory solution, one that works but is less than ideal. Putting on a "doughnut" or temporary spare tire fixes a flat, but it certainly is not ideal and is unlikely to last.

Devil's advocacy

assigns someone the role of critic (one part of program conflict)

self-determination theory

assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being—the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness Competence—"I need to feel efficacious." This is the desire to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable to complete an act, task, or goal. Autonomy—"I need to feel independent to influence my environment." This is the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it. Relatedness—"I want to be connected with others." This is the desire to feel part of a group, to belong, and to be connected with others.

Availability bias

availability heuristic is a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information readily available in memory. Because the information is recent, we overestimate its importance. The problem, of course, is that recent information is not necessarily the best or most accurate.

Operant behavior

behavior learned when we "operate on" the environment to produce desired consequences. Some call this view the response-stimulus (R-S) model

Dialect method

calls for managers to foster a structured dialogue or debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision (another part of program conflict)

Job rotation

calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another.

Contingency Approach

calls for using the OB concepts and tools that best suit the situation, instead of trying to rely on "one best way." This means there is no single best way to manage people, teams, or organizations. A particular management practice that worked today may not work tomorrow. What worked with one employee may not work with another. The best or most effective course of action instead depends on the situation.

Social media and OB

can increase employee productivity, but can also sometimes be a distraction. need clear guidelines for use at work (social media policy)

Withdrawal Cognitions

capture this thought process by representing an individual's overall thoughts and feelings about quitting. Low job satisfaction is believed to be one of the most significant contributors to thoughts of quitting.

Judgemental Heuristics

cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simplify the process of making decisions

Functional conflict

commonly referred to as constructive or cooperative conflict, is characterized by consultative interactions, a focus on the issues, mutual respect, and useful give-and-take. In such situations people often feel comfortable disagreeing and presenting opposing views. Positive outcomes frequently result

nonverbal communication

communication without words. According to communication experts "it includes observable behaviors such as facial expressions, eyes, touching, and tone of voice, as well as less obvious messages such as dress, posture, and spatial distance between two or more people."

Emotions

complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular target, such as a person, information, experience, or event. They also change psychological and/or physiological states

Satisficing

consists of choosing a solution that meets some minimum qualifications and thus is "good enough."

Empowerment

consists of efforts to "enhance employee performance, well-being, and positive attitudes.

Organizational climate

consists of employees' perceptions "of formal and informal organizational policies, practices, procedures, and routines."

Intuition

consists of judgments, insights, or decisions that "come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues.

intermitent reinforcement

consists of reinforcement of some but not all instances of a target behavior

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

defined as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization."64 This definition highlights two key points: OCBs are voluntary. OCBs help work groups and the organization to effectively achieve goals.

motivation

describes the psychological processes "that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought."

Different communication b/c of gender/generation

different genders and generations best respond to differing mediums, so alter appropriately

Decision making styles

directive style: have a low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and technical concerns when making decisions analytical style: have a much higher tolerance for ambiguity and tend to overanalyze a situation. conceptual style: have a high tolerance for ambiguity and tend to focus on the people or social aspects of a work situation. behavioral style: the most people-oriented of the four. People with this style work well with others and enjoy social interactions in which opinions are openly exchanged.

Dysfunctional conflict

disagreements that threaten or diminish an organization's interests.6 This danger highlights the valuable role of management, and your own actions, in determining whether conflict is positive

Crucial conversations

discussions between two or more people where (1) the stakes are high, (2) opinions vary, and (3) emotions run strong."

steps in the communication process

encoding, selecting a medium, decoding and creating meaning, feedback, noise:anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message

Total rewards

encompass not only compensation and benefits, but also personal and professional growth opportunities and a motivating work environment that includes recognition, job design, and work-life balance.

Decision making

entails identifying and choosing from among alternate solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs.

explicit knowledge

expertise, information that can easily be put into words

Nonrational models of decision making

explain how managers actually make decisions. These models typically build on assumptions that decision making is uncertain, that decision makers do not possess complete information, and that managers struggle to make optimal decisions. The choice to text while driving is an example of nonrational decision making.

rational model of decision making

explains how managers should make decisions. It assumes that managers are completely objective and possess all information for their decisions. In this model, decisions thus demonstrate excellent logic and promote the organization's best interests.

Flextime

flexible scheduling, covering either the time when work must be completed (deadlines) or the limits of the workday (9-5, 10-4, or any time today).

Positive OB

focuses on positive human characteristics that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement.

attentional hyperactivity

happens when our minds are racing or wandering, resulting in compulsive daydreaming or fantasizing. This is also called rumination. Rumination is "the uncontrollable repetitive dwelling on causes, meanings, and implications of negative feelings or events in the past."

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)

harms other employees, the organization as a whole, and/or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholders.

Resilience

have the capacity to consistently bounce back from adversity and to sustain yourself when confronted with challenges

brainstorming

helps groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems

Expectancy theory

holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes

Integrative negotiation

in which a host of interests are considered, resulting in an agreement that is satisfactory for both parties.

Upward Spirals of Positivity

in which your positive behaviors, feelings, and attitudes generate the same in others in a continually reinforcing process.

360º feedback

individuals compare perceptions of their own performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers.

emotional stability

individuals with high levels of emotional stability tend to be relaxed, secure, unworried, and less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure.

positive psychological capital (PsyCap)

individuals with it possess considerable hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism (HERO). These traits are characterized by the following: H-Hope. Persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths in order to succeed. E-Efficacy. Having the confidence to take on challenging tasks and put in the effort necessary to succeed. R-Resilience. When beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond to attain success. O-Optimism. Making a positive attribution about succeeding now and in the future.7

feedback

information about individual or collective performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation. others, task, self Can be positive or negative

Tacit knowledge

information we gain through experience that is difficult to express and formalize.

Organizational politics

intentional acts in pursuit of self-interests that conflict with organizational interests.

Personality conflict

interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike or disagreement

Scientific Management

is "that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning."

Mindfulness

is "the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment."

Problem

is a difference or gap between an actual and a desired state or outcome. Problems arise when our goals (desired outcomes) are not being met (actual situation)

Equity theory

is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. According to this theory, people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and their behavior. Perceived inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance (or psychological discomfort), which in turn motivates corrective action. When we feel victimized by unfair social exchanges, the resulting cognitive dissonance prompts us to correct the situation.

Flextime

is a policy of giving employees flexible work hours so they can come and go at different times, as long as they work a set number of hours.

Temperance

is a shared belief in showing restraint and control when faced with temptation and provocation.

Compassion

is a shared value that drives people to help others who are suffering.

Opportunity

is a situation in which results that exceed goals and expectations are possible

Mindlessness

is a state of reduced attention. It is expressed in behavior that is rigid," or thoughtless

job satisfaction

is an affective or emotional response toward various facets of your job

Social support

is the amount of perceived helpfulness we derive from social relationships. There are four types. Esteem support: reassurance that a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies. Informational support: help defining, understanding, and coping with problems. Social companionship: time spent with others in leisure and recreational activities. Instrumental support: financial aid, material resources, or needed services

Solving

is the optimal or ideal response. For instance, you could buy a new, high-quality, full-size spare to keep in your trunk (not the typical doughnut or the "run-flats" that manufacturers frequently provide).

Meaningfulness

is the sense of "belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self."

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)

it "uses faster, more user-friendly methods of dispute resolution, instead of traditional, adversarial approaches, such as unilateral decision making or litigation."

Things to keep in mind when negotiating

know who you are, manage outcome expectations, consider the other person's outcome, adhere to standards of justice, remember your reputation. also make sure to manage your emotions

Corporate corruption

leads to bankruptcy, destruction of lives, and enormous losses

6 principles of persuasion

liking, reciprocity, social proof, consistency, authority, scarcity

emotional display norms

manage negative emotions at work. rules that dictate which types of emotions are expected and appropriate for their members to show

monitoring performance

means measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate outcomes.

Optimizing

means solving problems by producing the best possible solution based on a set of highly desirable conditions

Media richness

measures the capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding. Media vary from rich to lean. The richer a medium, the better it is at conveying information.

job enrichment

modifies a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.

Constraints to problem solving

most people lack the time, knowledge, or access to data to routinely follow such a rigorous procedure. Therefore, your selection most often requires you to consider various constraints—on time, money, your own authority, and information—that can occur at different levels.

Intrinsic motivation

occurs when an individual is inspired by "the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to work effectively." We create our own intrinsic motivation by giving ourselves intrinsic rewards such as positive emotions, satisfaction, and self-praise

Crowdsourcing

occurs when companies invite nonemployees to contribute to achieving particular goals and manage the input process via the Internet.

Minority dissent

occurs when group members feel comfortable disagreeing with other group members

Hindsight bias

occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier. The danger of this bias is that, in retrospect, we get overconfident about our foresight, which leads to bad decisions.

Conflict

occurs when one "party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.

Defensiveness

occurs when people perceive they are being attacked or threatened

Work-family conflict

occurs when the demands or pressures from work and family domains are mutually incompatible.41 Work-family conflict can take two distinct forms: work interference with family and family interference with work

Goal displacement

occurs when the primary goal is overridden by a secondary goal.

Psychological empowerment

occurs when we feel a sense of: Meaning—Belief that our work values and goals align with those of our manager, team, or employer. Competence—Our personal evaluation of our ability to do our job. Self-determination—Sense that we have control over our work and its outcomes. Impact at work—Feeling that our efforts make a difference and affect the organization.

Voice climate

one in which employees are encouraged to freely express their opinions and feelings

Weaknesses of Common Sense

over reliance on hindsight, lack of rigor, lack of objectivity

Flow

part of engagement. "is the state of being completely involved in an activity for its own sake."

Amplifying effect

positive practices from one individual result in additional positive practices by others, which spur positivity in others, which generate other positive outcomes

learning goal

promotes enhancing your knowledge or skill

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets ofPage 170 factors—satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors

job enlargement

puts more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.

Soft tactics

rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, personal appeals "soft" tactics because they are friendly and not coercive

Restorative justice

reflects "a shared belief in the importance of resolving conflict multilaterally through the inclusion of victims, offenders, and all other stakeholders." Organizations that subscribe to restorative justice tend to resolve conflict by giving all parties a chance to express their thoughts and feelings.

Organizational commitment

reflects the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals. (personal values match company culture) Committed individuals tend to display two outcomes: Likely continuation of their employment with the organization. Greater motivation toward pursuing organizational goals and decisions.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (paid when you make a sale)

Framing bias

relates to the manner in which a question is posed or framed. It leads us to change the way we interpret alternatives. For example, customers have been found to prefer meat that is framed as "85 percent lean" instead of "15 percent fat," although, of course, the two mean the same thing.

Psychological contracts

represent an individual's perception about the reciprocal exchange between him- or herself and another party. In a work environment, the psychological contract represents an employee's beliefs about what he or she is entitled to receive in return for what he or she provides to the organization.

Attitudes

represent our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects and range from positive to negative

Met expectations

represent the difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and promotional opportunities, and what she or he actually receives. When expectations are greater than what is received, a person will be dissatisfied. On the other hand, he or she will be satisfied when outcomes are above and beyond expectations. Research strongly supports the conclusion that met expectations are significantly related to job satisfaction.

Virtuous leadership

represents "what individuals and organizations aspire to be when they are at their very best."

Automated experience

represents a choice based on a familiar situation and a partially subconscious application of learned information related to it.

psychological safety climate

represents a shared belief among team members that it is safe to engage in risky behaviors, such as questioning current practices without retribution or negative consequences

Job crafting

represents employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics.

Flourishing

represents the extent to which our lives contain PERMA

Bounded rationality

represents the notion that decision makers are "bounded" or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions.

cognitive dissonance

represents the psychological discomfort a person experiences when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, or emotions) Reduce by: change your attitude and/or behavior. Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior. Find consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones

Dissolving

requires changing or eliminating the situation in which the problem occurs. Keeping with our example, the city you live in could build and utilize effective public transportation and thus remove the necessity of having cars (and tires) altogether

Extrinsic motivation

results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards. Extrinsic rewards such as recognition, money, or a promotion represent a payoff we receive from others for performing a particular task

4 key workplace attitudes

savy managers track these: Organizational commitment Employee engagement Perceived organizational support Job satisfaction

conflict states

shared perceptions among team members about the target and intensity of the conflict. Targets can be either tasks (goals or ideas) or relationships.

Ethical Dilemma

situations with two choices, neither of which resolves the situation in an ethically acceptable manner. Such situations surround us at work and school. They highlight the fact that choosing among available options is not always a choice between right and wrong.

Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland)

states that three needs—for achievement, affiliation, and power—are the key drivers of employee behavior. Need for achievement, the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others. Need for affiliation, the desire to maintain social relationships, be liked, and join groups. Need for power, the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve.

Flex space

such as telecommuting, occurs when policies enable employees to do their work from different locations besides the office (coffee shops, home, or the beach)

contact hypothesis

suggests that the more members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience

Escalation of conflict

tactics change, number of issues grows, issues move from specific to general, number of parties grows, goals change

performance goal

targets a specific end result

emotional intelligence

the ability to monitor your own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide your thinking and actions

Well-being

the combined impact of five elements—positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA).

Power

the discretion and the means to enforce your will over others

Voice

the discretionary or formal expression of ideas, opinions, suggestions, or alternative approaches directed to a specific target inside or outside of the organization with the intent to change an objectionable state of affairs and to improve the current functioning of the organization

Attentional deficit

the inability to focus vividly on an object. This deficit can easily occur in a classroom when students feel bored, listless, or uninterested. Multitasking on digital devices is another key contributor.

Pay for performance

the popular term for monetary incentives that link at least some portion of pay directly to results or accomplishments.

Listening

the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. It requires cognitive attention and information processing; simply hearing does not. There is general consensus that listening is a cornerstone skill of communication competence

Evaluating performance

the process of comparing performance at some point in time to a previously established expectation or goal.

Evidence-based decision making

the process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions. It holds the promise of helping avoid the decision-making biases discussed above and improving performance while reducing costs.

positive reinforcement

the process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing

Punishment

the process of weakening behavior through either the contingent presentation of something displeasing or the contingent withdrawal of something positive.

Position power

the source of influence is associated with a particular job or position within an organization. legitimate, reward, and coercive

escalation of commitment bias

the tendency to hold to an ineffective course of action even when it is unlikely the bad situation can be reversed. Would you invest more money in an old or broken car?

Hope

to have hope you need to have a goal and the determination to achieve it—willpower—and you also need to see one or more paths to achieve your goal, even when faced with adversity—waypower.

Structural empowerment

transfers authority and responsibilities from management to employees.

Respondent behavior

unlearned reflexes or stimulus-response (S-R) connections respondent behavior

Job Characteristics Model

used to promote high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics. Skill variety:The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. Task identity:The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. Task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result. Task significance:The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. Autonomy:The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. Feedback:The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job

Cyberloafing

using the Internet at work for personal use

Distributive negotiation

usually concerns a single issue—a "fixed pie"—in which one person gains at the expense of another

Law of effect

which says behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear

Self-esteem

your general belief about your own self-worth.