CH. 12 - Sex and Gender

The Dichotomous View of Gender

(the notion that someone is either male or female) is specific to certain cultures and is not universal.

sexuality:

a person's capacity for sexual feelings

social construction of sexuality:

socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality

functionalist standpoint

homosexuality cannot be promoted on a large-scale as an acceptable substitute for heterosexuality. If this occurred, procreation would eventually cease. Thus, homosexuality, if occurring predominantly within the population, is dysfunctional to society.

Queer Theory

is an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society's rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation.

Sexuality

is viewed as a person's capacity for sexual feelings.

First-wave feminism

was a period of feminist activity and thought, that occurred within the time period of the 19th and early 20th century throughout the world. It focused on legal issues, primarily on gaining women's suffrage (the right to vote).

U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia

wrote in a 1994 briefing, "The word gender has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics (as opposed to physical characteristics) distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male" (J.E.B. v. Alabama, 144 S. Ct. 1436 [1994]).

Conflict Theory

According to conflict theory, society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources.

Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is a type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues. It uses the conflict approach to examine the maintenance of gender roles and inequalities.

Symbolic Interactionism

Interactionists focus on the meanings associated with sexuality and with sexual orientation.

Theoretical Perspectives on Gender

Sociological theories help sociologists to develop questions and interpret data.

transgender:

an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex

double standard:

the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men

Which of the following is the best example of the role peers play as an agent of socialization for school-aged children? A) Children can act however they wish around their peers because children are unaware of gender roles. B) Peers serve as a support system for children who wish to act outside of their assigned gender roles. C) Peers tend to reinforce gender roles by criticizing and marginalizing those who behave outside of their assigned roles. D) None of the above

C) Peers tend to reinforce gender roles by criticizing and marginalizing those who behave outside of their assigned roles.

gender identity:

a person's deeply held internal perception of his or her gender

sexual orientation:

a person's physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)

gender:

a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female

Symbolic Interactionism

aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction.

heterosexism:

an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations

heteronormative society:

assumes sexual orientation is biologically determined and unambiguous

What is considered "normal"

in terms of sexual behavior is based on the mores and values of the society. Societies that value monogamy, for example, would likely oppose extramarital sex. Individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion. Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behavior in most societies, but in more recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest influences, particularly among U.S. teens (Potard, Courtois, and Rusch 2008). Let us take a closer look at sexual attitudes in the United States and around the world.

Gender

is a person's deeply held internal perception of their behavior and attitudes based social expectations, accompanying physiological aspects of sex.

In 1960, the Food and Drug Administration approved

the combined oral contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961. The administration of President Kennedy made women's rights a key issue of the New Frontier, and named women (such as Esther Peterson) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.

doing gender:

the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves

To which theoretical perspective does the following statement most likely apply: Women continue to assume the responsibility in the household along with a paid occupation because it keeps the household running smoothly, i.e., at a state of balance? A) Conflict theory B) Functionalism C) Feminist theory D) Symbolic interactionism

B) Functionalism

What Western country is thought to be the most liberal in its attitudes toward sex? A) United States B) Sweden C) Mexico D) Ireland

B) Sweden

The terms "masculine" and "feminine" refer to a person's _________. A) sex B) gender C) both sex and gender D) none of the above

B) gender

Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by the age of A) four or five. B) two or three C) three or four

B) two or three

Which theoretical perspective stresses the importance of regulating sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability? A) Functionalism B) Conflict theory C) Symbolic interactionalism D) Queer theory

A) Functionalism

Sex Education

One of the biggest controversies regarding sexual attitudes is sexual education in U.S. classrooms. Unlike in Sweden, sex education is not required in all public school curricula in the United States.

Which of the following is the best example of a gender stereotype? A) Women are typically shorter than men. B) Men do not live as long as women. C) Women tend to be overly emotional, while men tend to be levelheaded. D) Men hold more high-earning, leadership jobs than women.

C) Women tend to be overly emotional, while men tend to be levelheaded.

gender dysphoria:

a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces "gender identity disorder"

berdache

refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as a different gender.

Sex

refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity.

Conflict Theory

sexuality is another area in which power differentials are present and where dominant groups actively work to promote their worldview as well as their economic interests.

gender role:

society's concept of how men and women should behave

berdache

The practice has been noted among certain Native American tribes. The more current term used by indigenous people in the United States is "Two-Spirit" Also, in this regard, some of these indigenous groups believe that there are at least four genders.

Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg

Viewing the words as synonymous, she freely swapped them in her briefings so as to avoid having the word "sex" pop up too often. It is thought that her secretary supported this practice by suggestions to Ginsberg that "those nine men" (the other Supreme Court justices), "hear that word and their first association is not the way you want them to be thinking" (Case 1995). This anecdote reveals that both sex and gender are actually socially defined variables whose definitions change over time.

Radical feminism

considers the role of the family in perpetuating male dominance. In patriarchal societies, men's contributions are seen as more valuable than those of women.

In 1963 Betty Friedan

influenced by Simone De Beauvoir's book "The Second Sex," wrote the bestselling book "The Feminine Mystique" in which she explicitly objected to the mainstream media image of women, stating that placing women at home limited their possibilities, and wasted talent and potential.

Second-wave feminism

is a period of feminist activity and thought that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s.

Third-wave feminism

refers to several diverse strains of feminist activity and study, whose exact boundaries in the history of feminism are a subject of debate, but are generally marked as beginning in the early 1990s and continuing to the present. The movement arose partially as a response to the perceived failures of and backlash against initiatives and movements created by second-wave feminism during the 1960s, '70s, and '80s, and the perception that women are of "many colors, ethnicities, nationalities, religions, and cultural backgrounds". This wave of feminism expands the topic of feminism to include a diverse group of women with a diverse set of identities.

Contemporary conflict theorists

suggest that when women become wage earners, they can gain power in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the home, although they may still carry the majority of the domestic burden, as noted earlier.

Prior to 1973

the American Psychological Association (APA) defined homosexuality as an abnormal or deviant disorder. Interactionist labeling theory recognizes the impact this has made. Before 1973, the APA was powerful in shaping social attitudes toward homosexuality by defining it as pathological. Today, the APA cites no association between sexual orientation and psychopathology and sees homosexuality as a normal aspect of human sexuality.

biological determinism:

the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology

sexism:

the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another

transsexuals:

transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy

Frederick Douglass

was heavily involved in both movements and believed that it was essential for both to work together in order to attain true equality in regards to race and sex.

The First Women's Rights Convention

was held in Seneca Falls, New York (now known as the Seneca Falls Convention) from July 19-20, 1848, and advertised itself as "a convention to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of woman". While there, 68 women and 32 men—100 out of some 300 attendees, signed the Declaration of Sentiments, also known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments. The principal author of the Declaration was Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who based it on the form of the United States Declaration of Independence. She was a key organizer of the convention along with Lucretia Coffin Mott, and Martha Coffin Wright. Charlotte Woodward, alone among all 100 signers, was the only one still alive in 1920 when the Nineteenth Amendment passed. Woodward was not well enough to vote herself.

Compared to most Western societies, U.S. sexual attitudes are considered _______. A) conservative B) liberal C) permissive D) free

A) conservative

The term _______ refers to society's concept of how men and women are expected to act and how they should behave. A) gender role B) gender bias C) sexual orientation D) sexual attitudes

A) gender role

Functionalists Talcott Parsons

(1955) have long argued that the regulation of sexual activity is an important function of the family. Social norms surrounding family life have, traditionally, encouraged sexual activity within the family unit (marriage) and have discouraged activity outside of it (premarital and extramarital sex). From a functionalist point of view, the purpose of encouraging sexual activity in the confines of marriage is to intensify the bond between spouses and to ensure that procreation occurs within a stable, legally recognized relationship. This structure gives offspring the best possible chance for appropriate socialization and the provision of basic resources.

feminist movement

(also known as the women's liberation movement, the women's movement, or simply feminism) refers to a series of political campaigns for reforms on issues such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment, and sexual violence, all of which fall under the label of feminism and the feminist movement.

There is a long history of gender stratification in the United States. When looking to the past, it would appear that society has made great strides in terms of abolishing some of the most blatant forms of gender inequality (see timeline below) but underlying effects of male dominance still permeate many aspects of society.

-Before 1809—Women could not execute a will -Before 1840—Women were not allowed to own or control property -Before 1920—Women were not permitted to vote -Before 1963—Employers could legally pay a woman less than a man for the same work -Before 1973—Women did not have the right to a safe and legal abortion (Imbornoni 2009)

A person's ________ is their physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex, such as male or female. A) sexual orientation B) gender role C) gender

A) sexual orientation

There are two key dimensions to the debate over same-sex marriage—one ideological and the other economic

1. Dominant groups (in this instance, heterosexuals) wish for their worldview—which embraces traditional marriage and the nuclear family—to win out over what they see as the intrusion of a secular, individually driven worldview. On the other hand, many gay and lesbian activists argue that legal marriage is a fundamental right that cannot be denied based on sexual orientation and that, historically, there already exists a precedent for changes to marriage laws: the 1960s legalization of formerly forbidden interracial marriages is one example. 2. From an economic perspective, activists in favor of same-sex marriage point out that legal marriage brings with it certain entitlements, many of which are financial in nature, like Social Security benefits and medical insurance (Solmonese 2008). Denial of these benefits to gay couples is wrong, they argue. Conflict theory suggests that as long as heterosexuals and homosexuals struggle over these social and financial resources, there will be some degree of conflict.

________ refers to a system in which groups of people experience unequal access to basic, yet highly valuable, social resources. A) Gender stratification B) Gender stereotypes C) Genderism

A) Gender stratification

What is considered "normal" in terms of sexual behavior is based on the mores and values of the society. Individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes A) by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion. B) by personal preference individually devised. C) through biological concerns.

A) by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion

Queer theorist Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick

Argued against U.S. society's monolithic definition of sexuality and its reduction to a single factor: the sex of someone's desired partner.

According to national surveys, most U.S. parents support which type of sex education program in school? A) Abstinence only B) Abstinence plus sexual safety C) Sexual safety without promoting abstinence D) No sex education

B) Abstinence plus sexual safety

Only women are affected by gender stratification. A) True B) False

B) False

Cross-national research on sexual attitudes in industrialized nations reveals that normative standards differ across the world. For example, several studies have shown that ________ students are more tolerant of premarital sex than are________ students. A) Iran; France B) Scandinavian; U.S. C) China; India

B) Scandinavian; U.S.

Research indicates that individuals are aware of their sexual orientation _______. A) at infancy B) in early adolescence C) in early adulthood D) in late adulthood

B) in early adolescence

A person who is biologically female but identifies with the male gender and has undergone surgery to alter her body is considered _______. A) transgender B) transsexual C) a cross-dresser D) homosexual

B) transsexual

________serves as a significant agent of gender socialization when in television and movies, women tend to have less significant roles and are often portrayed as wives or mothers. A) Cross-cultural selection B) Stereotypical socialization C) Mass media

C) Mass media

________ stress the importance of regulating sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability A) Social conflict theorists B) Symbolic interaction theorists C) Structural functionalist theorists

C) Structural functionalist theorists

The term________ refers to society's concept of how men and women are expected to look and how they should behave. These are based on norms, or standards, created by society. A) sex B) deviance C) gender role

C) gender role

The term sociologists use to describe physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary and secondary sex characteristics is referred to as a person's A) gender B) sterotypes C) sex

C) sex

Which of following is correct regarding the explanation for transgenderism? A) It is strictly biological and associated with chemical imbalances in the brain. B) It is a behavior that is learned through socializing with other transgender individuals. C) It is genetic and usually skips one generation. D) Currently, there is no definitive explanation for transgenderism.

D) Currently, there is no definitive explanation for transgenderism.

Sociologists associate sexuality with _______. A) heterosexuality B) homosexuality C) biological factors D) a person's capacity for sexual feelings

D) a person's capacity for sexual feelings

According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, we "do gender": A) during half of our activities B) only when they apply to our biological sex C) only if we are actively following gender roles D) all of the time, in everything we do

D) all of the time, in everything we do

DOMA:

Defense of Marriage Act, a 1996 U.S. law explicitly limiting the definition of "marriage" to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states

Sex and Sexuality

Each society, however, interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways. Many societies around the world have different attitudes about premarital sex, the age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, and other sexual behaviors (Widmer, Treas, and Newcomb 1998). At the same time, sociologists have learned that certain norms are shared among most societies. The incest taboo is present in every society, though which relative is deemed unacceptable for sex varies widely from culture to culture.

"Two-Spirit"

Native American tribes believe that there are at least four genders.

Fa'afafine

Samoan culture accepts what Samoans refer to as a "third gender." which translates as "the way of the woman," is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits.

Indonesian Minangkabau (2004)

Sanday's study revealed that in societies some consider to be matriarchies (where women comprise the dominant group), women and men tend to work cooperatively rather than competitively regardless of whether a job is considered feminine by U.S. standards. The men, however, do not experience the sense of bifurcated consciousness under this social structure that modern U.S. females encounter.

Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick

Sedgwick identified dozens of other ways in which people's sexualities were different, such as: - Even identical genital acts mean very different things to different people. -Sexuality makes up a large share of the self-perceived identity of some people, a small share of others'. -Some people spend a lot of time thinking about sex, others little. -Some people like to have a lot of sex, others little or none. -Many people have their richest mental/emotional involvement with sexual acts that they don't do, or don't even want to do. -Some people like spontaneous sexual scenes, others like highly scripted ones, others like spontaneous-sounding ones that are nonetheless totally predictable. -Some people, homo- hetero- and bisexual, experience their sexuality as deeply embedded in a matrix of gender meanings and gender differentials. Others of each sexuality do not (Sedgwick 1990).

Theoretical Perspectives on Sex

Sociologists representing all three major theoretical perspectives study the role sexuality plays in social life today. Scholars recognize that sexuality continues to be an important and defining social location and that the manner in which sexuality is constructed has a significant effect on perceptions, interactions, and outcomes.

Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism has provided one of the most important perspectives of sociological research in the twentieth century and has been a major influence on research in the social sciences, including gender studies. Viewing the family as the most integral component of society, assumptions about gender roles within marriage assume a prominent place in this perspective. Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home.

Friedrich Engels

a German sociologist, studied family structure and gender roles. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force is also seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. This is due to women's dependence on men for the attainment of wages, which is even worse for women who are entirely dependent upon their spouses for economic support.

sex:

a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females