Ch. 15 and 32 - Indian Art

How does Bichitr's miniature Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaykh to Kings reflect this statement: "Jahangir looks inwardly toward the dervishes"?

"The miniature portrays Jahangir seated in profile, contemplating the Sufi shaykh who is placed immediately above portraits of the Turkish sultan and James I of England. Jahangir's father, Akbar, went to the Sufi shaykh to pray for an heir. His prayers were answered. Jahangir is depicted as the equal to his Turkish and English counterparts, yet he is humble enough to seek spiritual guidance from the holy man. The final portrait in this miniature is the artist himself, witnessing Jahangir's preference for spiritual power rather than worldly power."

Bodhisattva

("those whose essence is wisdom") are on the brink of achieving buddahood but have vowed to help others achieve buddhahood before crossing over themselves

Mohenjo-Daro

- (means place/hill of the dead) and Harrapa (both excavated in the 1920s) were the two major cities as well as artistic centers -the population of Mohenjo-Daro peaked at around 50,000 -evidence has been found of monumental architecture, houses (2 stories, mud-brick and more durable baked brick), sewage systems, granary, huge waterproofed tank or bath (the so-called Great Bath), bronze and copper tools, large painted vases (made on a wheel and fired), as well as sculptures of terra cotta, copper, and stone -the Great Bath, 39'L x 23'W x 8'D, was surrounded by a paved courtyard and sealed watertight with bitumen (like tar) - its purpose could have been associated with a bathing ritual since similar constructions in current Indian villages are used for retaining monsoon rains as well as practical and ritual bathing

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi - Hinduism

- For Hindu worshipers, the concept of bhakti is important. Bhakti is the devotion, honor and love one has for god. The physical actions, which one takes to express one's bhakti can be done in a number of ways such as through darshan and puja. - Within the Hindu pantheon are a number of gods, goddesses and deities; however, one entity is supreme, Brahman. - Unlike Christianity or Buddhism, Hinduism did not develop from the teachings of a single founder. Moreover, it has diverse traditions, owing to its long history and continued development over the course of more than 3000 years.

Harrapa

-streets were laid out according to a grid -ruins of a citadel suggest a need for defensive architecture -so far there is no evidence of religious or royal architecture (temples, tombs, palaces) -no monumental paintings are known from the Indus Valley civilization -existence of writing along with advanced urban planning distinguishes the Indus Valley society -Indus Valley civilization declined around the middle of the 18th century B.C.E. perhaps due to a combination of floods, invasions, and political over extension

Jahangir Seated on an Hourglass Throne

Bichitr, Jahangir Seated on an Hourglass Throne, gouache on paper, 1' 6 7/8" x 1' 1", ca 1615-18 Paintings for the reign of Jahangir present a different tone. Like his father (Akbar), Jahangir admired painting and may have paid even more attention to his workshop of painters. He boasted that he could identify the hand of each of his artists. Paintings produced for him reflected his subdued and refine tastes and his admiration for realistic detail. Both Akbar and Jahangir were known for their interest in things foreign, and many foreigners flocked to the courts of these open-minded rulers. This next video is all about the materials used by Mughal artists. If you are interested in the pigments used to make paint this is a great quick overview of this. (My favorite is Indian Yellow)

Shiva as Lord of Dance

Hindu

Radha and Krishna in the Grove

Outside of the Mughal strongholds at Delhi and Agra, much of northern India was governed regionally by local Hindu princes, who were allowed to keep their lands in return for allegiance to the Mughals. These Rajput princes frequently supported painters at their courts. At this time there was an outpouring of poetic literature devoted to Krishna the popular human incarnation of the god Vishnu. Most renowned is the Gita Govinda, a cycle of rhapsodic poems about the love between God and humans expressed metaphorically through the love between the young Krishna and the cowherd Radha. Here are two different miniatures that depict the blue god Krishna with Radha.

The architect of the Taj Mahal achieved a balance between the verticality and horizontality of the structure by maintaining which of the following?

A strict system of proportions

Fasting Buddha

Fasting Buddha, Gandhara, 1st century CE, gray schist, 2' 4"

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is probably the best known work of architecture from India. This is actually a mausoleum for the favorite wife of Shah Jahan. The film below talks about the influence of the Islam in India. Earlier Indian architecture had been based on post-and-lintel construction. Islamic architects brought with them construction based on the arch and the dome. The film is 44 min. but if you if you are pressed for time you can jump to 21:15 where they talk about the influence of Shah Jahan on architecture and even the stone cutting techniques used. It goes on to talk specifically about the Taj Mahal and its gardens.

The caves of Ajanta provide evidence for ___

an early Indian painting tradition

Meditating Buddha

from Gandhara, 2nd century CE, gray schist This Buddha was created in the Gandhara region. There is some Greco-Roman influence in the representation of Buddha. The toga-like robe, how the robe is draped, even the facial detailing with the sharpened features and how the brow and forehead are linked together. His hair looks think and wavy. The Greeks under Alexander the Great had reached the borders of India. Gandhara was also positioned near the East-West trade routes so they had exposure to Roman culture as well.

The Gandhara region is the home of many portrayals of ____.

the Buddha in human form

Siddhartha Gautama - Buddhism

- Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, lived from about 566 to 480 B.C.E. -at his birth seers foretold he would become either a "world-conquering ruler" or a "fully enlightened being" -he was son of a warrior-king and led an extravagant life through early adulthood with privileges of his social caste -Siddhartha's father tried to surround his son with pleasure and shield him from pain -eventually he bored of the indulgences of his royal life and instead wandered into the world in search of understanding -he encountered an old man, an ill man, a corpse and an ascetic and became convinced that suffering lay at the end of all existence -he became deeply troubled by the human condition and at the age of 29 decided to renounce his princely title (palace, family, inheritance), and instead became a monk in the wilderness, depriving himself of worldly possessions -after 6 years of meditation it all culminated beneath a tree when he attained complete enlightenment and understood how to be free from suffering and achieve salvation -after this epiphany, Gautama was known as the Buddha, meaning the "Enlightened One" -following his enlightenment the Buddha gave his first teaching in the Deer Park at Sarnath where he explained the foundation of Buddhism: the Four Noble Truths -the Buddha spent the remainder of his life teaching others what he had come to understand -after Buddha's death at the age of 80 his many disciples developed his teachings and established the world's oldest monastic institutions -a buddha is not a god but rather someone who fully understands the nature of the world and is no longer subject to samsara (the cycle of birth, death, & rebirth that holds us in its grip)

Karama

-Karma refers to good or bad actions a person takes during his or her lifetime -good actions such as generosity, righteousness, and meditation, bring about happiness in the long run -bad actions, such as lying, stealing or killing, bring about unhappiness in the long run -the significance of each action is determined by five conditions: frequent, repetitive action; determined, intentional action; action performed without regret; action against extraordinary persons; and action toward those who have helped one in the past

Seals

-Seals, Mohenjo-daro, ca. 2600 - 1900 BCE, coated steatite, 1 3/8" x 1 3/8" -remain the most impressive and enigmatic artifacts from this civilization -small steatite (soapstone) intricately carved seals that range from ¾" to 1 ½" square -exhibit a keen sense of observation and craftsmanship -seals are square and held by a knob at the back -they were stamped face down to make an impression -seals were carved in relief so that their stamped images were indented -seal were coated with an alkali and then fired to produce a lustrous, white surface -several seals have a script that has to be deciphered -2,000 seals have been discovered depicting a range of subjects (bulls, elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, composite animals) especially those symbolic of power and fertility -there are several examples that include iconography of the bull in connection with human figures in a seated meditative yoga pose - these seals are highly important for many reasons including that it represents the first anthropomorphic representation of a deity as well as the concept of yoga

Seals pt. 2

-once specific seal shows a central figure seated upon a low throne in a yogic position - the figure appears to have a multiple visage (3 faces or maybe a mask?), is crowned with a large horned head-dress, its arms, covered with bangles, extend over the knees and possible fertility symbolism is emphasized by the prominent display of the figure's penis.

Noble Eightfold Path

-this notion of suffering is not intended to be negative but instead deals with the world as it is with an attempt to remedy it -the concept of pleasure is not denied but fleeting -pursuit of pleasure only continues wants that can never be satisfied -only aging, sickness, and death are certain and unavoidable -the Four Noble Truths are a plan for dealing with physical and mental suffering -desire (yearning for pleasure, material goods, & immortality) and ignorance (not seeing the world as it actually is) are the root of suffering -vices, such as greed, envy, hatred and anger, derive from ignorance -when one achieves Nirvana (a transcendent state free from suffering and our worldly cycle of birth and rebirth) spiritual enlightenment has been reached -steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration

In Krishna and Radha in a Pavilion, which of the following would be a setting for the lovers' tryst?

A lush garden at night with lightning flashes

wall cave painting in cave 1, Ajanta, India

Because of the climate in India there are many artworks that did not survive. Particularly if they were made of materials that were delicate. The paintings on the cave walls at Ajanta allow us to catch a rare glimpse of surviving artwork. The Gupta style can also be seen in paintings. Some of the finest are found in a large vihara hall, with monks' chambers around the sides and a large Buddha shrine in the back. The walls of the central court are covered with fresco, these were done in the fresco secco technique where the paint is applied to dry plaster rather than the buon fresco method used by Giotto and Michelangelo. The colors used were locally sourced except for blue, which was imported all the way from Afghanistan. Some of these paintings depicted scenes from the Buddha's past lives. Flanking the entrance to the shrine are two large bodhisattvas. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who postpone their nirvana in order to help other achieve enlightenment. You can identify bodhisattvas because they are shown wearing crowns, jewels, large earrings. They are also often shown large in size compared to others because of their spiritual power. You can see the same treatment of the body that we looked at with the sculpture of Buddha from the Gupta period. Emphasizing the soft texture of the human body and the subtle nuances of muscular form. The paintings naturalistic style balances outline and softly graded color tones. The outlines are typical of Indian paintings. The lines clearly define the shape of the bodhisattva while the tonal gradation suggest three-dimensional forms. Lighter tones are used on the nose, brows, shoulders and chest muscles. The jewels and crown are shown with detail in contrast to the large areas of tone used for the body. Bodhisattva Padmapani holds his attribute, a blue lotus flower.

Great Stupa at Sanchi

Buddhist architecture in South Asia consist mainly of stupas and temples, often at monastic complexes containing viharas, monks' cells and common areas. Stupas are solid mounds enclosing a reliquary and are fundamental to Buddhism. All follow the plan of a mandala, the diagram of the cosmos as imagined by Buddhists. The very first stupas were built to house the remains of the Buddha. There were eight stupas, and people paid homage by walking around the stupa in a clockwise direction. Eventually the original eight stupas were opened and divided the relics among many other stupas.

The Lotus Mahal exemplifies the stylistic crosscurrents that typify Indian architecture in the second millennium. Which of the following elements supports this statement?

Distinctive multilobed arches

Akbar and the Elephant Hawai

During the British Colonial Period (1857-1947), art and architecture in the subcontinent shows a blend of Asian and Western styles, a typical example being the Victoria Terminus in Mumbai. After India and Pakistan gained independence in 1947, artists continued traditional and modern practices reflecting both native and Western influence. Miniature Paintings Baswan & Chatar Muni, Akbar and the Elephant Hawai, gouache on paper, 1' 17/8" x 8 3/4", ca 1590 Each illustration becomes a miniature masterpiece and a visual narrative of his life stories. In this image Akbar is shown in the process of bringing an elephant under control. This represents his strength, courage, and agility as a ruler. The energy exuded by the figures is characteristic of painting under Akbar.

A yakshi is the personification for which of the following?

Fertility and vegetation

The small seal discovered at Mohenjo-daro reveals an interesting iconography. Which of the following depictions from that seal supports the Indian practice of meditation?

Figure is in a suggested yogic posture

Robed Male Figure

Location: Mohenjo-daro ca. 2600-1900 South Asia -most remarkable of all known Harappan creations -may represent a leader or ancestor figure (sometimes called the "priest-king") -carefully barbered beard, upper lip shaved and hair gathered in a bun behind the head -low forehead, broad nose, thick lips, and long slit eyes -wide headband has a flat circular ornament in the center which is repeated on the bangle worn high in the right arm -eyes were originally inlaid with shell -his robe (or toga) is decorated with trefoil (three-lobed) designs and falls diagonally across his chest with the right shoulder left bare -the trefoil shapes and the spaces around them would have originally been filled with colored paste to suggest fabric (the trefoil symbol was known and used as a sacred sign in Egypt, Crete, & Mesopotamia - representing deities and celestial bodies) -combination of compact monumentality, stylization (beard, hair, ears, & drapery pattern), and organic quality (structure of face, lips, nose, heavy-lidded gaze) -formal pose and simplified, geometric form conveys a commanding human presence

Male Torso

Male Torso, Harappa, c. 2000 B.C.E., red sandstone, 3 ¾" -compact (less than 4 inches high) -contrasting naturalistic style -date disputed by some -quality of prana (concept of yogic breath control that gives the sense the image itself is filled with living breath - typical of South Asian sculpture) gives the feeling of inner life and vitality -has the aesthetic of a much larger work - monumentality suggests life size or even larger -prominent belly is another Indian element that symbolizes physical and spiritual well-being -meaning and function not known nor is the purpose of the small circles in the shoulders to which arms may have been attached (drill-holes? accommodate inlay decoration? crude later attempt to rework for new purpose?)

Mudras (Buddhism)

Mudras - Mudras are ancient symbolic hand gestures seen primarily in Buddhist art, where they function ichnographically. Mudras are regarded as physical expressions of different states of being and are used during meditation to release these energies. Following are the most common mudras in Asian art.

How does the Rajput painting style differ from the Mughal painting style?

Mughal painting normally were tradition scenes, also upper class and very valued art and Rajput were typically paintings of cultures and traditional and romantic. "The major difference between the Rajput painting style and the Mughal painting style is Rajput painters are anonymous, perhaps an inheritance from their Indian past. Yet both styles have many similarities; both styles owe a debt to Persian painting as well."

Seated Buddha Preaching First Sermon

Seated Buddha Preaching First Sermon, Sarnath, 5th century CE, The last style we will focus on is from the Gupta period. This was considered the golden age in India, and the rulers at this time supported the arts commissioning many works art and literature. Buddhism reached its greatest influence at this time, but the Gupta monarchs supported both Buddhism and Hinduism that was becoming more popular at this time. The Seated Buddha Preaching First Sermon, is an excellent example of the Gupta period. The body of the Buddha is clearly visible through a clinging robe, in fact only the folds between the legs of the Buddha and the lines at the neck, wrists and ankles suggest that he is wearing a robe. The perfect form of the body is like that of the Mathura style. The Buddha's face is smooth and ovoid, with refined elegance, even the long earlobes hang gracefully, accentuating his neck. The texture of the hair looks like tight little curls, covering the top of his head and the ushnisha. Behind the head is a large circular halo, that is carved with foliage and ornate patterns that contrast dramatically with the plain surfaces of the figure. The Buddha's eyes are downcast, and he holds his hands in front of him in the Wheel-turning gesture, he is shown teaching his first sermon. Below the pedestal he is seated on is a relief that shows the Wheel of the Law with two deer on either side of it. This symbolizes Deer Park at Sarnath where the Buddha taught his first sermon.

Seated Buddha on Lion Throne

Seated Buddha on Lion Throne, Mathura, 2nd century CE, red sandstone, 2' 3 ½" The Seated Buddha on Lion Throne is typical of the second major school of Buddhism in India. This style evolved from the images of yakshas, the Indian male nature deities. Revealing the soft texture of the human body and the subtle nuances of muscular form similar to the Nude male torso from Harappa, Pakistan. Accompanying the Buddha are two attendants and hovering above him are two celestial beings. The Buddha is seated on a pedestal supported by lions. He is seated in a yogic pose with his right hand raised in a gesture that means "have no fear". On his palms and feet, you can see the imprint of a wheel, the symbol is known as a chakra.

Who commissioned the Taj Mahal?

Shah Jahan

Standing Buddha

Standing Buddha, Gupta period, 5th century CE, red sandstone, 33" x 16"

How is the story about the wild elephant from the Akbarnama an allegory about Akbar's early years as ruler?

Take charge of an unruly state

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths -the Four Noble Truths comprise the essence of Buddha's teachings: 1 - life is suffering (identifies the presence of suffering) 2 - this suffering has a cause, which is ignorance (seeks to determine the cause of suffering) 3 - this ignorance can be overcome and extinguished (dual meaning - either the end of suffering in this life or in the spiritual life, through achieving Nirvana) 4 - the way to overcome this ignorance is by following the Noble Eightfold Path

Great Stupa at Sanchi pt. 2

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the most famous Buddhist structures. The only with sculptural ornament are the toranas. These have elaborate carvings that depict the life of Buddha and his past lives, known as the jatka tales. There are all kinds of plants and animals that decorate both sides of the posts. The capital area of the posts contains carvings of elephants on the north and east gate, or dwarfs on the south and west gates. These capitals support a three-tiered structure of post and cross bars that are carved with more symbols, yakshis and yakshas, riders on animals and the Buddhist wheel. Yakshi and yaksha are spirts that are associated with the productive forces of nature. There are however no images of the Buddha, instead he is referenced with symbols such as his footstep, and empty throne/seat, or a stupa. Be sure to watch the video about the stupa at the end of this section. Buddhist rock-cut halls, began when Buddhist monks carved out caves for their own use. The exteriors and interiors were carved from top to bottom like great pieces of sculpture. The chaitya was usually created to enshrine a stupa, while the vihara, were the monks' living quarters.

Vishvanatha Temple

The Northern style temples the tower, known as the shikhara, is a beehive shape and capped with a ribbed like cushion form, that is to resemble an amala fruit that is believed to have medicinal uses. The image below is Vishvanatha, at Khajuraho, India, c. 1000 CE. It is an example of a Northern style temple.

Humayun persuaded two Persian masters to move to his imperial court and teach which of the following?

The art of painting

Standing Buddha

The figure here is very symmetrical. This is referred to as relieved symmetry because it is perfectly balanced but not exact. You will notice the hands are in the Dhyana mudra, gesturing upward and he is posed in a meditative state. The halo behind the Buddha is plain and smooth, this is typical of the Gandhara style.

Buddha Identification

There are three main schools of representation that developed in India, in the northwest is the Gandhara region, Mathura in central India, and the Amaravati, in the south. The other style we will look at is from the Gupta period. There are some basic features, iconography, that will help you to identify the figures as Buddha. It is important that you know what these are because these continue to be used by the different schools in India as well as other cultures as they are converted to Buddhism. Buddha wears a monk's robe called a sanghati, a long length or cloth draped over the shoulder and around the body. His body is idealized, emphasizing the soft texture of the human body and the subtle nuances of muscular form, not the more athletic male ideal developed in ancient Greece. Often, he will have long arms that reach to his knees. Because he was a prince in his youth and had worn the customary heavy earrings his earlobes are usually shown elongated, he no longer wears earrings. The top of his head is said to have had a protuberance called an ushnisha, which often resembles a bun or topknot and symbolizes his enlightenment. He will have a large circular halo behind his head. You may also see the urna, a tuft of white hair between his eyebrows. This is often shown as a dot. A few images show him with an imprint of a wheel on his palms or soles of his feet. This symbol is known as a chakra, an ancient sun symbol, the wheel symbolizes both the, wheel of life, and the Buddhist doctrine, the wheel of the law. A chakra's exact meaning depends on how many spokes it has.

What is the meaning of this bronze sculpture of Shiva Nataraja?

This is a sculpture of Shiva the Lord of Dance. It is a sacred sculpture. "It does show him as Lord of the Dance but what is the meaning behind this. He is the "Lord of the Dance." He is balanced on one leg atop a dwarf, ignorance, which Shiva stamps out as he dances. He creates the universe to the rhythm of the drumbeat, while the small fire represents destruction; he points to his raised foot as a place of refuge for the worshiper. The worshiper can also find enlightenment at the foot of the god; his hand gesture indicates acceptance, telling the worship to come forward without fear."

How do the toranas of Sanchi reflect Buddhism?

Toranas are sculptures and elaborate carvings that are at the entrance of Buddhist temples. They symbolism the cardinal directions. "You have the basic idea but also that they have images that symbolize Buddha and his past lives. They serve as the four entrance gates to the stupa and mark the cardinal points. The Sanchi toranas depict the life of Buddha in relief; they show his past lives leading to enlightenment, a common belief. The gates never show the Buddha in human form; he is represented by a symbol, for example, a parasol, footsteps, or an empty seat. It is thought this is a marker indicating to the viewer the path Buddha followed to enlightenment, and therefore the viewer could also follow that path."