Ch 18

Brazil produced a total of 1000 tons of _________ in the eighteenth century, a welcome bonanza for Portugal at a time of low agricultural prices.

Gold

As part of the complex hierarchical administrative system established by the Spaniards in the New World, the municipal councils, or _________, were set up in towns and cities to serve as elective bodies under the supervision of appointed inspectors.

cabildos

After the demise of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and in an effort to regain control over Spain's American possessions, the new French-descended Bourbons put into practice a series of reforms aimed at _________.

improving Spain's naval connections and administrative control in the New World

The Spaniards would not take full control of the Inca Empire until ________.

1572

The "conquistadors" Francisco Pizarro, Hernán Cortés, and Alonso Ortíz all originated in the Spanish region of __________.

Estremadura

Between _________, it is estimated that Spanish America produced 150,000 tons of silver (including gold converted into silver weight), corresponding roughly to 85% of the world production and underlying the extraordinary role of American silver in the money economies of Spain, Europe, the Middle East and Asia, especially China.

1550-1750

Of the approximately 144,000 estimated Native Americans in New England in 1600, fewer than 15,000 remained by ______.

1620

An estimated __________ Spaniards emigrated from Europe to the Americas between 1500 and 1800.

300,000

Agriculture in the New World was ___________ during the sixteenth century.

Peripheral to the economy of the Spanish empire

The main impulse for the revivalist movement known as the "Great Awakening" of the 1730s and 1740s was:

The tour of the Methodist preachers John and Charles Wesley through Georgia.

Hernán Cortés established __________ as a base for further inland exploration.

Veracruz

The Spanish quest for the mythical ____________ or "golden city" was fruitless.

El Dorado

The earliest settlement in the northeastern coast of North America was:

Jamestown

When the Portuguese conquered Brazil, the indigenous population was estimated to be nearly _________ inhabitants.

500,000

Dubbed Doña Marina, Malinche was:

A Nahuatl-speaking woman who acted as translator for Hernán Cortés.

A crucial factor which aided in the fall of the Incan Empire to the Spaniards was the protracted war of succession between _________ and his half-brother Huáscar.

Atahualpa

From the middle of the seventeenth century, the pueblos de indios were fully functional, self-administering units, with councils (________), churches, schools, communal lands, and family parcels.

Cabildos

The Spaniards' primary justification for their conquest of the New World was:

Christ's command to convert the heathen populations in the newly discovered lands

_________ were American-born descendants of European settlers, primarily of Iberian ancestry.

Creoles

The Columbian Exchange characterizes the transfer of plants, animals, and ________ between the Americas and the rest of the world

Diseases

The original English colonies in North America went from being merely English to being part of a "British" empire after the _________.

English-Scottish union of 1707

A Native American reported an appearance of Our Lady of _________ in 1531, in a place where the native goddess Tonantzin used to be venerated.

Guadalupe

By the early seventeenth century, a powerful elite of Spanish who ___________, called Creoles, was in place to assist the Spanish administrators.

Had been born in the Americas.

Leading a motley force of about 530 Spanish men, _________ defeated a much larger indigenous force at Tabasco in 1518.

Hernán Cortés

In the second half of the 1600s, the ___________ drove many smaller groups westward into the Great Lakes region and Mississippi plains.

Iroquois

When the city of ___________ was captured in November 1519, the emperor Moctezuma II was forced to swear allegiance to Emperor Charles V.

Tenochtitlán

The overseas ministry in Lisbon encouraged the manufacture of ________ in Brazil in an effort to render the province independent from British imports.

Textiles

One of the indicators of the success of Portuguese settlements in the Brazilian interior was:

The intermarriage of settlers with surrounding indigenous chieftain families.

After meeting Pizarro at the town square of Cajamarca in 1532, Atahualpa:

Was murdered, together with his unarmed retainers.

Colonial cities and Jesuits in Portuguese Brazil repeatedly clashed over the slave raids of the _________, or "pioneers/slave traders," in village territories.

bandeirantes

By means of land-labor grants called __________, Spanish entrepreneurs were entitled to use forced indigenous or imported slave labor to exploit natural resources in the New World.

Encomiendas

The largest of the Atlantic port cities in the British colonies of North America was _________, followed closely by New York.

Philadelphia

The primary mining centers in colonial Spanish America were _______ in southeastern Peru (today's Bolivia) and Zacatecas and Guanajuato in northern Mexico.

Potosí

The term "casta" originated in the desire of the Iberian and Creole settlers to draw distinctions among degrees of ___________.

Racial mixture

In the 1540s the Spanish government introduced ___________ called repartimientos, which was a continuation of the mit'a system devised by the Inca for taxation.

Rotating labor assignments

In Brazil, black freedmen and mulattoes:

Were equal in percentage of the population to Creoles.

Cortés captured the last emperor of the Aztecs, ________, in 1521 and executed him in 1525.

Cuauhtémoc

The most successful _________ settlement in North America was in the subtropical district at the mouth of the Mississippi River in what is now Louisiana, where some 300 settlers and 4000 African slaves founded sugar plantations

French

For 200 years after its founding in 1545, Potosí in modern ___________ produced over half of the silver of Spanish America.

Bolivia

Juana Inés de la Cruz secretly studied Latin, Greek, and _________ in her maternal grandfather's library.

Nahuatl

Muñoz Camargo, Fernando Alvarado Tezózomoc, and Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala were only a few of the many:

Native American and mestizo chroniclers, historians, and commentators.

The British colony of Georgia was founded in 1733 as:

A bulwark against Spanish Florida.

Having laid waste to Cuzco, Pizarro founded a new Andean capital at __________ in 1535.

Lima

Losses to the Spanish empire came in the mid-seventeenth century, beginning with:

The capture of Jamaica by the British in 1655.

The English and French colonies of North America, lacking a sustainable native industry at first, moved further south in order to develop an agricultural base following the plantation system for growing _________, thus joining the Spanish and Portuguese exploitation of America's sub-tropical agricultural resources.

indigo and rice

Ethnic combinations of Europeans and Native Americans and Europeans and Africans were collectively called castas, or "castes," a term originating out of a desire on the part of Iberian and Creole settlers to draw distinctions among degrees of racial mixture in hopes of counterbalancing the vast masses of Native Americans and Africans. The two most important castes were mestizos (Spanish) /mestiços (Portuguese), born of Iberian fathers and Native American mothers, and _________, born of Iberian fathers and Black mothers.

mulatos

The exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world is known as the _________.

Columbian Exchange

To support the mining centers and administrative cities, the Spanish colonial government ___________ the development of agricultural estates (haciendas).

Encouraged

Based on the "Patterns of Evidence" documents following chapter 18, which of the following general conclusions is most accurate?

Footnotes in our text indicate that each of these sources was previously published in another book.

__________ was the first institution of higher learning in North America, devoted to teaching the "correct" balanced Calvinist Protestantism.

Harvard College

The establishment of the _________ in Virginia in 1619 was an indication that the British would not follow the same policy in the New World as their Spanish counterparts

House of Burgesses

Anne Hutchinson was famous for:

Preaching an antinomian position in defiance of the General Court of Massachusetts.

Portuguese colonial cities and Jesuits repeatedly clashed over the ____________ of the "pioneers" (bandeirantes) into the Brazilian interior.

Slave raids

Between 250,000 and 1 million Taínos were killed when the Spanish came due to:

The Native Americans' lack of immunity against smallpox

The tour of the Methodist preachers John and Charles Wesley through Georgia.

The Native Americans' lack of immunity against smallpox

As in Spain, the only income tax in New Spain was the __________.

Tithe paid to the church, which the administration, at times, used for its own purposes.

In the early 17th century, the French, English and Dutch started occupying smaller unclaimed Caribbean islands which they then used to launch raids on Spanish colonies in order to disrupt Spain's monopoly on shipping between Europe and its Caribbean possessions, eventually taking some of these Spanish outposts. Most notable among these conquered Spanish outposts was Jamaica, taken by the English, and _________, taken by the French.

Western Hispaniola

The Seven Years' War in the New World was ultimately won by the superiority and tactical maneuvering of _________ over the French forces.

the British navy