Ch. 19 APUSH Safe for Democracy: the US and WWI

The wartime rhetoric of economic democracy and freedom helped to inspire the era's greatest labor uprising, the ___ ___ __. Centered in Chicago, it united some 365,000 mostly immigrant workers in demands for union recognition, higher wages, and an eight-hour workday. Before 1917, the steel mills were little __ where managers arbitrarily established wages and working conditions and suppressed all efforts at union organizing. During the war, workers Mooded into the ___ Association, the union that had been nearly destroyed by its defeat at Homestead a generation earlier. By the end of 1918, they had won an ___-hour day. Employers' anti-union activities resumed following the ___ that ended the fighting. "For why this war?" asked one Polish immigrant ___ at a union meeting. "For why we buy Liberty bonds? For the mills? No, for freedom and America-for everybody. No more [work like a] horse and wagon. For an eight-hour day.

1919 steel strike autocracies Amalgamated eight armistice steelworker

By far the largest non-white group, ___ were excluded from nearly every Progressive definition of freedom described in Chapter 18. After their disenfranchisement in the South, few could participate in American __. Barred from joining most unions and from skilled employment, black workers had little access to "____ freedom." A majority of adult black women worked outside the home, but for wages that offered no hope of ___. Predominantly domestic and agricultural workers, they remained unaffected by the era's __ regulating the hours and conditions of female labor. Nor could blacks, the majority desperately __, participate fully in the emerging consumer economy, either as employees in the new department stores (except as janitors and cleaning women) or as purchasers of the consumer goods now flooding the marketplace.

African-Americans democracy industrial independence laws poor

Europeans were fascinated by ____ ingenuity and mass production techniques. Many feared American products and culture would ____ their own. "What are the chief new features of London life?" one British writer asked in 1901. "They are the telephone, the portable camera, the phonograph, the electric street car, the automobile, the typewriter. ... In every one of these the American ____ is supreme." Meanwhile, hundreds of thousands of Americans ____ abroad each year in the early twentieth century. And American racial and ethnic groups became heavily engaged in overseas ____. Through fraternal, religious, and political _____ based in their ethnic and racial communities, Irish-Americans supported Irish independence, American Jews protested the treatment of their co-religionists in Russia, and black Americans hoped to uplift Africa. American influence was growing throughout the world.

American overwhelm maker traveled politics organizations

The 250,000 members of the newly formed __ __ ___ (APL) helped the justice Department identify radicals and critics of the war by spying on their neighbors and carrying out "__ raids" in which thousands of men were stopped on the streets of major cities and required to produce draft registration cards. Many __ groups seized upon the atmosphere of repression as a weapon against domestic opponents. Employers cooperated with the government in crushing the ___ ___ ___ __ (IWW), a move long demanded by business interests. In July 1917, vigilantes in ___, Arizona, rounded up some 1,200 striking copper miners and their sympathizers, herded them into railroad boxcars, and transported them into the desert, where they were abandoned. Few ever returned to Bisbee. In August, a crowd in Butte, Montana, lynched IWW leader Frank Little. The following month, operating under one of the broadest warrants in American history, federal ___ swooped down on IWW offices throughout the country, arresting hundreds of leaders and seizing files and publications.

American Protective League slacker private Industrial Workers of the World Bisbee agents

Upon establishing Panama's independence, _____ signed a treaty giving the United States both the right to construct and operate a canal and _____ over the Panama Canal Zone, a ten-mile-wide strip of land through which the route would run. A remarkable feat of engineering, the canal was the largest ____ project in American history to that date. Like the building of the transcontinental railroad in the 1860s and much construction work today, it involved the widespread use of __ labor. Most of the 60,000 workers came from the ____ islands of Barbados and Jamaica, but others hailed from Europe, Asia, and the United States. In keeping with American ____ policies, the best jobs were reserved for white Americans, who lived in their own communities complete with schools, churches, and libraries. The project also required a massive effort to eradicate the ___ that carried the tropical diseases responsible, in part, for the failure of earlier efforts. When completed in 1914, the canal reduced the sea voyage between the East and West Coasts of the United States by ___ miles. "I took the Canal Zone," Roosevelt exulted. But the manner in which the canal had been initiated, and the continued American rule over the Canal Zone, would long remain a source of ____. In 1977, as a symbol of a new, noninterventionist U,S, attitude toward Latin America, President Jimmy Carter negotiated ____ that led to turning over the canal's operation and control of the Canal Zone to Panama in the year 2000 (see Chapter 26).

Bunau-Varilla sovereignty construction immigrant Caribbean segregation mosquitoes 8,000 tension treaties

In April 1917, the Wilson administration created the ____ __ ___ ___ (CPI) to explain to Americans and the world, as its director, George Creel, put it, "the __ that compelled America to take arms in defense of its liberties and free institutions." Enlisting academics, journalists, artists, and advertising men, the CPI flooded the country with ___ propaganda, using every available medium from pamphlets (of which it issued 75 million) to posters, newspaper advertisements, and motion pictures. It trained and dispatched across the country 75,000 __ Men, who delivered brief standardized talks (sometimes in Italian, Yiddish, and other immigrant languages) to audiences in movie theaters, schools, and other public venues.

Committee on Public Information cause pro war Four-Minute

Dozens of blacks were killed during a 1917 riot in __ __ __, Illinois, where employers had recruited black workers in an attempt to __ unions (most of which excluded blacks from membership). In 1919, more than 250 persons died in riots in the urban __. Most notable was the violence in Chicago, touched off by the drowning by white bathers of a black __ who accidentally crossed the unofficial dividing line between black and white beaches on Lake Michigan. The riot that followed raged for five days and involved pitched __ between the races throughout the city, By the time the National Guard restored order, 38 persons had been killed and more than 500 injured.

East St. Louis weaken North teenager battles

"Who is the real patriot?" ___ __ asked while on trial for conspiring to violate the Selective Service Act. She answered, those who "love America with open eyes," who were not blind to "the wrongs committed in the name of patriotism." But from the federal government to local authorities and private groups, patriotism came to be equated with support for the ___, the war, and the American economic system, while antiwar sentiment, labor radicalism, and sympathy for the __ Revolution became "un-American." Local authorities formally ___ residents who failed to subscribe to Liberty Loans. Throughout the country, schools revised their course offerings to ensure their ___ and required teachers to sign loyalty ___.

Emma Goldman government Russian investigated patriotism oaths

The most prominent victim was ____ __ ___, convicted in 1918 under the Espionage Act for delivering an antiwar speech. Before his sentencing, Debs gave the court a lesson in the history of American freedom, tracing the tradition of dissent from ___ ___ to the abolitionists, and pointing out that the nation had never engaged in a war without internal opposition. Germany sent socialist leader ___ ___ to prison for four years for opposing the war; in the United States, Debs's sentence was __ years. After the war's end, Wilson rejected the advice of his attorney general that he commute Debs's sentence. Debs ran for ___ while still in prison in 1920 and received 900,000 votes. It was left to Wilson's successor, Warren G. ___, to release Debs from prison in 1921.

Eugene V. Debs Thomas Paine Karl Liebknecht ten president Harding

In June 1914, a Serbian nationalist assassinated Archduke ___ _____, heir to the throne of the Austro Hungarian empire, in Sarajevo. (Today, Sarajevo is the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina.) This deed set in motion a ___ of events that plunged Europe into the most devastating war the world had ever seen. In the years before 1914, European nations had engaged in a scramble to obtain ___ possessions overseas and had constructed a shifting series of ____ seeking military domination within Europe. In the aftermath of the assassination, Austria-Hungary, the major power in eastern Europe, declared war on Serbia. Within a little more than a month, because of the European powers' interlocking ___ alliances, Britain, France, Russia, and Japan (the Allies) found themselves at war with the ___ Powers--Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire, whose holdings included modern-day Turkey and much of the Middle East.

Franz Ferdinand chain colonial alliances military Central

___ forces quickly overran Belgium and part of northern France. The war then settled into a prolonged ___, with bloody, indecisive battles succeeding one another. New military ___--submarines, airplanes, machine guns, tanks, and poison gas-produced unprecedented slaughter. In one five-month battle at ___, in 1916, 600,000 French and German soldiers perished--nearly as many deaths as in the entire American ___ War. By the time the war ended, an estimated ___ million soldiers and uncounted millions of civilians, had perished.

German stalemate technologies Verdun Civil 10

__ bore the brunt of forced Americanization. The first wave of German immigrants had arrived before the __ War. By 1914, German- Americans numbered nearly 9 million, including immigrants and persons of German parentage. They had created thriving ethnic __ including clubs, sports associations, schools, and theaters. On the eve of the war, many Americans admired German ___ in literature, music, and philosophy, and one-quarter of all the high school students in the country studied the German language. But after American entry into the war, the use of German and expressions of German culture became a __ of pro war organizations. In Iowa, Governor William L. Harding issued a proclamation requiring that all __ communication in schools, public places, and over the telephone be conducted in English Freedom of speech, he declared, did not include "the right to use a language other than the language of the __."

German-Americans Civil institutions traditions target oral country

Popular best-sellers like The Passing of the ___ __, published in 1916 by Madison ___, president of the New York Zoological Society, warned that the influx of new immigrants and the low birthrate of native white women threatened the ___ of American civilization. The new science of ___, which studied the alleged mental characteristics of different races, gave anti-immigrant sentiment an air of professional expertise. If democracy could not flourish in the face of vast inequalities of economic power, neither, most Progressives believed, could it survive in a nation permanently ___ along racial and ethnic lines.

Great Race Grant foundations eugenics divided

To many people around the world, the __ __ destroyed European claims that theirs was a higher civilization, which gave them the right to rule over more barbaric peoples. In this sense, it helped to heighten the international ___ of the United States, a latecomer to the war. Like the ideals of the American Revolution, the Wilsonian rhetoric of self-determination reverberate across the __, especially among colonial peoples seeking independence. In fact, they took Wilson's rhetoric more seriously than he did. Despite his belief in self-determination, he believed that colonial peoples required a long period of ___ before they were ready for independence.

Great War prestige globe tutelage

The war led to further growth of the Southwest's ___ population. Wartime demand for ___ from the area's mine owners and large farmers led the government to exempt Mexicans temporarily from the __ test enacted in 1917. Mexicans were legally classified as white, and many Progressive reformers viewed the growing Mexican population as ___ for Americanization. Teachers and religious missionaries sought to instruct them in __, convert them to Protestantism, and in other ways promote their assimilation into the mainstream culture. Yet public officials in the Southwest treated them as a group apart. ___, by law and custom, was common in schools, hospitals, theaters, and other institutions in states with significant Mexican populations. By 1920, nearly all Mexican __ in California and the Southwest were educated in their own schools or classrooms. Phoenix, Arizona, established __ public schools for Indians, Mexicans, blacks, and whites. Although in far smaller numbers than blacks, Mexican-Americans also suffered ____--over 200 between 1880 and 1930. Discrimination led to the formation of La Grán Liga Mexicanista de Beneficencia y Protección, which aimed to improve the ____ of Mexicans in the United States and "to strike back at the hatred of some bad sons of Uncle Sam who believe themselves better than the Mexicans."

Mexican labor literacy candidates English Segregation children separate lynchings conditions

Wilson's major preoccupation in Latin America was ____, where in 1911 a revolution led by Francisco Madero overthrew the government of dictator ___ ____. Two years later, without Wilson's knowledge but with the backing of the U.S. ambassador and of American companies that controlled Mexico's oil and mining industries, military commander ____ ____ assassinated Madero and seized power.

Mexico Porfirio Diaz Victorian Huerta

Roosevelt's successor, William Howard Taft, landed marines in ___ to protect a government friendly to American economic interests. In general, however, Taft emphasized ___ investment and loans from American banks, rather than direct military intervention, as the best way to spread American ____. As a result, his foreign policy became known as ___ Diplomacy. In Honduras, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, and even Liberia, the West African nation established in 1816 as a home for freed American slaves, Taft pressed for more efficient ____ collection, stable government, and access to land and labor by American companies.

Nicaragua economic influence Dollar revenue

In his first major action in the region, Roosevelt engineered the separation of _____ from Colombia in order to facilitate the construction of a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The idea of a canal across the fifty-one-mile-wide Isthmus of Panama had a long ____. In 1879-1881, the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps attempted to construct such a ___ but failed because of inadequate funding and the toll exacted on his workers by yellow fever and malaria. Roosevelt had long been a proponent of American ____ development. He was convinced that a canal would facilitate the movement of naval and commercial vessels between the two oceans. In 1903, when Colombia, of which Panama was a part, refused to ___ land for the project, Roosevelt helped to set in motion an uprising by conspirators led by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a representative of the Panama Canal Company. An American _______ prevented the Colombian army from suppressing the rebellion.

Panama history waterway naval cede gunboat

Almost without exception, ___ intellectuals and reformers, joined by prominent labor leaders and native-born socialists, rallied to Wilson's support. The roster included ___ like John Dewey, ___ such as Walter Lippmann and Herbert Croly, AFL head ___ ___, ___ writers like Upton Sinclair, and prominent ___ including Florence Kelley and Charlotte Perkins Gilman. In The New Republic, Dewey urged Progressives to recognize the "__ possibilities of war." The crisis, he wrote, offered the prospect of attacking the "immense __ of power" within the United States, thus laying the foundation for Americans to enjoy "effective __."

Progressive intellectuals journalists Samuel Gompers socialist reformers social inequality freedom

The CPI couched its appeal in the ___ language of social cooperation and expanded democracy. Abroad, this meant a __ based on the principle of national self-determination. At home, it meant improving "industrial __." A Progressive journalist, Creel believed the war would accelerate the movement toward solving the "age-old ___ of poverty, inequality, oppression, and unhappiness." He took to heart a warning from historian Carl Becker that a simple contrast between German tyranny and American democracy would not seem plausible to the __ worker: "You talk to him of our ideals of liberty and he thinks of the shameless exploitation of labor and of the ridiculous gulf between wealth and poverty." CPI pamphlets foresaw a postwar society complete with a "universal __-hour day" and a living __ for all.

Progressive peace democracy problems average eight wage

The war gave a powerful impulse to other campaigns that had engaged the energies of many women in the ___ era. Ironically, efforts to stamp out ___ and protect soldiers from ___ disease led the government to distribute birth-control information and devices-the very action for which _____ ____ had recently been jailed, as noted in the previous chapter.

Progressive prostitution venereal Margaret Sanger

In some ways, Du Bois was a typical ___ who believed that investigation, exposure, and education would lead to solutions for social problems. As a professor at Atlanta University, he projected a grandiose plan for decades of scholarly study of black life in order to make the country aware of __ and point the way toward its elimination. But he also understood the necessity of __ action. In 1905, Du Bois gathered a group of black leaders at __ Falls (meeting on the Canadian side since no American hotel would provide accommodations) and organized the Niagara movement, which sought to reinvigorate the ___ tradition. "We claim for ourselves," Du Bois wrote in the group's manifesto, "every single right that belongs to a freeborn American, political, civil, and social; and until we get these rights we will never cease to protest and assail the ears of America." The __ _ __ adopted at Niagara Falls called for restoring to blacks the right to vote, an end to racial segregation, and complete equality in economic and educational opportunity. These would remain the cornerstones of the black __ for racial justice for decades to come. Four years later, Du Bois joined with a group of mostly white reformers, shocked by a lynching in Springfield, Illinois (Lincoln's adult home), to create the _____. The NAACP, as it was known, launched a long struggle for the enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.

Progressive racism political Niagara abolitionist Declaration of Principles struggle National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

___, a movement inherited from the nineteenth century that had gained new strength and militancy in Progressive America, finally achieved __ success during the war. Numerous impulses flowed into the renewed campaign to ban ___ liquor. Employers hoped it would create a more disciplined labor force. Urban reformers believed that it would promote a more __ city environment and undermine urban political ___ that used saloons as places to organize. Women reformers hoped Prohibition would protect wives and children from husbands who engaged in __ violence when drunk or who squandered their wages at saloons. Many native-born Protestants saw Prohibition as a way of imposing "American" values on ___.

Prohibition national intoxicating orderly machines domestic immigrants

Roosevelt' actions in Panama anticipated the full-fledged implementation of a principle that came to be called the ___ ___ to the Monroe Doctrine. This held that the United States had the right to exercise "an international ____ power" in the Western Hemisphere-a significant expansion of Monroe's pledge to defend the hemisphere against European ____. Early in Roosevelt's administration, British, Italian, and German naval forces blockaded Venezuela to ensure the payment of __ to European bankers. Roosevelt persuaded them to withdraw, but the incident convinced him that financial ____ in the New World would invite intervention from the Old. In 1904, Roosevelt ordered American forces to ___ the customs houses of the Dominican Republic to ensure payment of that country's debts to European and American investors. He soon arranged an "executive ____" giving a group of American banks control over Dominican finances. In 1906, he dispatched troops to Cuba to oversee a disputed ____; they remained in the country until 1909. Roosevelt also encouraged investment by American ______ like the United Fruit Company, whose huge banana plantations soon dominated the economies of Honduras and Costa Rica.

Roosevelt Corollary police intervention debts instability seize agreement election corporations

Clemenceau won for France the right to occupy the __ __ and Rhineland--iron- and coal-rich parts of Germany. The treaty placed strict limits on the size of Germany's future __ and navy. __ __ persuaded Wilson to agree to a clause declaring Germany morally responsible for the war and setting ___ reparations payments (they were variously estimated at between $33 billion and $56 billion), which crippled the German economy

Saar Basin army Lloyd George astronomical

The strike wave began in January 1919 in ___, where a walkout of shipyard workers mushroomed into a general strike that for once united AFL, unions and the IWW. For five days, a committee of labor leaders oversaw city ___, until federal troops arrived to end the strike. In September, ___ policemen struck for higher wages and shorter working hours. Declaring "there is no right to strike against the public safety," Massachusetts governor ___ __ called out the National Guard to patrol the city and fired the entire police force. In the nation's coalfields, a company manager observed, wartime ___ had raised unrealistic expectations among workers, who took the promise of "an actual emancipation" too "literally" When the war ended, miners demanded an end to company ___. Their strike was ended by a court injunction obtained by Attorney General Palmer.

Seattle services Boston Calvin Coolidge propaganda absolutism

In 1902, ___ ____ published a short volume with the arresting title The Americanization of the World, or the Trend of the Twentieth Century. Stead was a sensational writer whose writings included an ___ of London prostitution, Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon. He would meet his death in 1912 as a passenger on the __, the ocean liner that foundered after striking an iceberg in the North Atlantic. Impressed by Americans' "exuberant energies," Stead predicted that the United States would soon emerge as "the greatest of ___-powers." But what was most striking about his work was that Stead located the source of American power less in the realm of military might or territorial acquisition than in the country's single-minded commitment to the "pursuit of ___" and the relentless international spread of American _____--art, music, journalism, even ideas about religion and gender relations. He foresaw a future in which the United States promoted its interests and values through an unending ____ in the affairs of other nations. Stead proved to be an accurate prophet.

W. T. Stead exposé Titanic world wealth culture involvement

The son of a Presbyterian minister, _____ ___, brought to the presidency a missionary zeal and a sense of his own and the nation's moral righteousness. He appointed as secretary of state _____ _____ Bryan, a strong anti-imperialist. Wilson repudiated Dollar Diplomacy and promised a new ____ policy that would respect Latin America's independence and free it from foreign economic domination. But Wilson could not abandon the conviction that the United States had a responsibility to teach other peoples the lessons of ___. Moreover, he believed, the export of American manufactured goods and investments went hand in hand with the spread of democratic ___. To Wilson, expanding American economic influence served a higher purpose than mere ____. _____, he told a group of businessmen in 1916, were "meant to carry liberty and justice" throughout the world. "Go out and sell goods," he urged them, "that will make the world more comfortable and happy, and convert them to the ____ of America."

Woodrow Wilson William Jennings foreign democracy ideals profit Americans principles

The Great War, or ___ as it came to be called, dealt a severe blow to the optimism and self-confidence of Western ____. For decades, philosophers, reformers, and politicians had hailed the ___ of reason and human progress. Despite increasingly bitter ___ between European powers, especially Germany and Britain, as they competed for political and military dominance at home and carved up ___ and Africa into rival empires, mankind seemed to have moved beyond the time when ___ were settled by war. The conflict was also a shock to European socialist and labor ____. Of the two great ideologies that had arisen in the nineteenth century, nationalism and ______, the former proved more powerful. ____ ___ had called on the "workers of the world" to unite against their oppressors. Instead, they marched off to __ each other.

World War I civilization triumph rivalries Asia disputes movements socialism Karl Marx kill

In March 1917, British spies intercepted and made public the ___ Telegram, a message by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman calling on ___ to join in a coming war against the United States and promising to help it recover ___ lost in the Mexican War of 1846-1848. A revolution in __ that same month overthrew the czar and established a constitutional government, making it more plausible to believe that the United States would be fighting on the side of ___. On April 2, Wilson went before Congress to ask for a declaration of __ against Germany. "The world," he proclaimed, "must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundation of political liberty." The war resolution __ the Senate 82-6 and the House 373-50.

Zimmerman Mexico territory Russia democracy war passed

The ___ of civil liberties in early 1920 was so severe that Palmer came under heavy criticism from Congress and much of the press. Secretary of Labor Louis Post began releasing imprisoned immigrants, and the Red Scare collapsed. Even the ___ of a bomb outside the New York Stock Exchange in September 1920, which killed forty persons, failed to rekindle it. (The perpetrators of this terrorist explosion, the worst on American soil until the Oklahoma City bombing of 1995, were never identified.) The reaction to the Palmer Raids planted the seeds for a new appreciation of the importance of civil ___ that would begin to flourish during the 1920s. But in their immediate impact, the events of 1919 and 1920 dealt a devastating setback to radical and labor organizations of all kinds and kindled an intense ___ of patriotic Americanism with support for the political and economic status quo. The IWW had been effectively __, and many moderate unions lay in disarray. The Socialist Party crumbled under the weight of governmental ___ the New York legislature expelled five Socialist members, and Congress denied __ __ the seat to which he had been elected from Wisconsin) and internal differences over the Russian Revolution.

abuse explosion liberties identification destroyed repression Victor Berger

Although the Fourteen Points had called for "open covenants openly arrived at," the negotiations were conducted in secret. The resulting Versailles Treaty did ___ some of Wilson's goals. It established the ___ ___ ___, the body central to his vision of a new international order. It applied the principle of ____ to eastern Europe and redrew the map of that region. From the ruins of the Austro-Hungarian empire and parts of Germany and czarist Russia, new European nations ___ from the war--Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Yugoslavia. Some enjoyed ethno-linguistic unity, while others comprised unstable combinations of ___ nationalities. Despite Wilson's pledge of a peace without territorial acquisitions or vengeance, the __ Treaty was a harsh document that all but guaranteed future conflict in Europe.

accomplish League of Nations self-determination emerged diverse Versailles

Puerto Ricans also occupied an ___ position within American society. On the eve of American entry into World War I, Congress terminated the status "citizen of Puerto Rico" and conferred American ___ on residents of the island. The aim was to dampen __ for Puerto Rican independence and to strengthen the American hold on a strategic outpost in the Caribbean. The change did not grant islanders the right to __ for president, or __ in Congress. Puerto Rican men, nonetheless, were subject to the draft and fought overseas. __ __ __, the Speaker of the House of the island's legislature, wrote the president in 1917 asking that Puerto Rico be granted the democracy the United States was fighting for in Europe. Even more restrictive were policies toward ___. In 1906, the San Francisco school board ordered all Asian students confined to a single public school. When the Japanese government protested, president Theodore Roosevelt persuaded the city to ___ the order. He then negotiated the __ Agreement of 1907 whereby Japan agreed to end migration to the United States except for the wives and children of men already in the country. In 1913, California barred all __ incapable of becoming naturalized citizens (that is, all Asians) from owning or leasing land.

ambiguous citizenship support vote representation José de Diego Asian-Americans rescind Gentlemen's aliens

Many Progressives hoped to see the wartime __ of economic planning continue after 1918. The Wilson administration, however, quickly ___ the agencies that had established controls over industrial production and the labor market, although during the 1930s they would serve as ___ for some policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. Wartime repression of dissent, however, continued. It reached its peak with the ___ __ of 1919-1920, a short-lived but intense period of political intolerance inspired by the postwar strike wave and the social tensions and fears ___ by the Russian Revolution.

apparatus dismantled models Red Scare generated

Even as Americanization programs sought to __ immigrants into American society, the war strengthened the conviction that certain kinds of undesirable persons ought to be __ altogether. The new immigrants, one advocate of restriction declared, appreciated the values of democracy and freedom far less than "the ___," as evidenced by their attraction to "extreme political doctrines" like anarchism and socialism. Stanford University psychologist __ __ introduced the term "IQ" (intelligence quotient) in 1916, claiming that this single number could measure an individual's mental capacity. Intelligence tests administered to recruits by the army seemed to confirm ___ that blacks and the new immigrants stood far below native white Protestants on the IQ scale, further ___ demands for immigration restriction.

assimilate excluded Anglo-Saxon Lewis Terman scientifically spurring

The Progressive presidents shared prevailing attitudes concerning __. Theodore Roosevelt shocked white opinion by inviting __ __ to dine with him in the White House and by appointing a number of blacks to federal offices. But in 1906, when a small group of black soldiers shot off their guns in Brownsville, Texas, killing one resident, and none of their fellows would name them, Roosevelt ordered the __ discharge of three black companies-156 men in all, including six winners of the Congressional Medal of __. Roosevelt's ingrained belief in Anglo-Saxon racial __ (he called Indians "savages" and blacks "wholly unfit for the suffrage") did nothing to lessen Progressive intellectuals' enthusiasm for his New Nationalism. Even __ __, one of the few Progressives to take a strong interest in black rights and a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), went along when the Progressive Party convention of 1912 rejected a civil rights plank in its platform and barred black ___ from the South.

blacks Booker T. Washington dishonorable Honor destiny Jane Addams delegates

Just as they expanded the powers of the federal government in domestic affairs, the Progressive presidents were not reluctant to project American power outside the country's ___. At first, they confined their interventions to the ___ Hemisphere, whose affairs the United States had claimed a special right to oversee ever since the ___ Doctrine of 1823. Between 1901 and 1920, U.S. marines landed in Caribbean countries more than twenty times. Usually, they were dispatched to create a welcoming ____ environment for American companies that wanted stable access to raw materials like bananas and sugar, and for bankers nervous that their loans to local governments might not be repaid.

borders Western Monroe economic

These agencies generally saw themselves as partners of __ as much as regulators. They guaranteed government suppliers a high rate of __ and encouraged cooperation among former business rivals by suspending ___ laws. At the same time, however, the War Labor Board, which included representatives of government, industry, and the American Federation of Labor, pressed for the ___ of a minimum wage, eight-hour workday, and the right to form unions. During the war, __ rose substantially, working conditions in many industries __, and ___ membership doubled. To finance the war, corporate and individual income ___ rose enormously. By 1918, the wealthiest Americans were paying 60 percent of their __ in taxes. Tens of millions of Americans answered the call to demonstrate their patriotism by purchasing __ bonds. Once __ arrived, the wartime state quickly withered away. But for a time, the federal government seemed well on its way to fulfilling the Progressive __ of promoting economic rationalization, industrial justice, and a sense of common national purpose.

business profit antitrust establishment wages improved union taxes income Liberty peace vision

Wilson was appalled. The United States, he announced, would not extend recognition to a "government of ____." He would "teach" Latin Americans, he added, "to elect ___ men" When civil war broke out in Mexico, Wilson ordered American troops to land at ___ ___ to prevent the arrival of weapons meant for Huerta's forces. But to Wilson's surprise, Mexicans greeted the marines as invaders rather than ___. Vera Cruz, after all, was where the forces of the conquistador _ __ had landed in the sixteenth century and those of ____ ____ during the Mexican War. More than 100 Mexicans and 19 Americans died in the fighting that followed.

butchers good Vera Cruz liberators Hernán Cortés Winfield Scott

At the same time, a new generation of ___ activists, organized in the National Woman's Party, pressed for the right to vote with militant tactics many older suffrage advocates found scandalous. The party's leader, __ __, had studied in England between 1907 and 1910 when the British suffrage movement adopted a ___ that included arrests, imprisonments, and vigorous denunciations of a male-dominated political system. How could the country fight for democracy abroad, Paul asked, while denying it to __ at home? She compared Wilson to the __, and a group of her followers chained themselves to the White House fence, resulting in a __ prison sentence. When they began a hunger strike, the prisoners were ___.

college-educated Alice Paul strategy women kaiser seven-month force-fed

The enlistment of "democracy" and "freedom" as ideological war weapons inevitably inspired ___ for their expansion at home. In 1916, Wilson had cautiously endorsed votes for ___. America's entry into the war threatened to tear the ___ movement apart, since many advocates had been associated with opposition to American involvement. Indeed, among those who voted against the declaration of war was the first woman member of Congress, the staunch pacifist ___ ___ of Montana. "I want to stand by my country, but I cannot vote for war," she said. Although defeated in her reelection bid in 1918, Rankin would return to __ in 1940. She became the only member to oppose the declaration of war against ___ in 1941, which ended her political career. In 1968, at the age of eighty-five, Rankin took part in a giant march on Washington to protest the war in ___

demands women suffrage Jeannette Rankin Congress Japan Vietnam

Convinced that episodes like the steel strike were part of a worldwide ___ conspiracy, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in November 1919 and January 1920 dispatched federal agents to raid the offices of ___ and labor organizations throughout the country. They carried search warrants so broad that they reminded those with a sense of history of the writs of ___ against which James Otis had eloquently protested as being destructive of liberty in 1761. The ___ ___ were overseen by the twenty-four-year-old director of the Radical Division of the Justice Department, J. Edgar Hoover. More than 5,000 persons were __, most of them without warrants, and held for months without charge. The government deported hundreds of immigrant radicals, including Emma Goldman. Hoover also began compiling files on thousands of Americans ___ of holding radical political ideas, a practice he would later continue as head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

communist radical assistance Palmer Raids arrested suspected

No matter how coercive, Americanization programs assumed that European immigrants and especially their children could eventually adjust to the ___ of American life, embrace American __, and become productive citizens enjoying the full blessings of American __. This assumption did not apply to non-white immigrants or to blacks. Although the melting-pot idea envisioned that newcomers from Europe would leave their ___ enclaves and join the mainstream, American non-whites confronted ever-present __ of exclusion

conditions ideals freedom ethnic boundaries

America's burgeoning ____ with the outside world led to increasing military and political involvement. In the two decades after 1900, many of the basic principles that would guide American foreign policy for the rest of the century were formulated. The "___ ___"-the free flow of trade, investment, information, and culture- emerged as a key principle of American ____ relations. "Since the manufacturer insists on having the world as a market," wrote Woodrow Wilson, "the flag of his nation must follow him and the doors of nations which are closed against him must be battered down."

connections open door foreign

Nonetheless, Wilsonian ideals quickly spread around the globe-not simply the idea that government must rest on the __ of the governed, but also Wilson's stress on the "equality of nations," large and small, and that international disputes should be settled by __ means rather than armed conflict. These stood in sharp contrast to the __ ideas and practices of Europe. In Eastern Europe, whose people sought to carve new, independent nations from the ruins of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, many considered Wilson a "popular __." The leading Arabic newspaper, ___, published in Egypt, then under British rule, gave extensive coverage to Wilson's speech asking Congress to declare war in the name of __, and to the Fourteen Points, and translated the Declaration of Independence into Arabic for its readers. In Beijing, students demanding that China free itself of foreign domination gathered at the American __ shouting, "Long live Wilson." Japan proposed to include in the charter of the new League of Nations a clause recognizing the __ of all people, regardless of race. Hundreds of letters, petitions, and declarations addressed to President Wilson made their way to the Paris headquarters of the American delegation to the ___ conference. Few reached the president, as his private secretary, Gilbert Close, carefully screened his mail.

consent peaceful imperial saint Al-Ahram democracy embassy equality peace

In many respects, Progressivism was a precursor to major ___ of the twentieth century-the New Deal, the Great Society, the socially active state. But in accepting the idea of "___" as a permanent, defining characteristic of individuals and social groups, Progressives bore more resemblance to ___ __ than to later twentieth-century liberals, with whom they are sometimes compared.

developments race nineteenth-century thinkers

As war engulfed Europe, Americans found themselves sharply ___. British-Americans sided with their nation of ___, as did many other Americans who associated Great Britain with liberty and democracy and Germany with ____ government. On the other hand, German-Americans identified with Germany. Irish-Americans bitterly opposed any aid to the ___, a sentiment reinforced in 1916 when authorities in London suppressed the ___ Rebellion an uprising demanding Irish independence, and executed several of its leaders. Immigrants from the Russian empire, especially Jews, had no desire to see the United States aid the czar's ___. Indeed, the presence of Russia, the world's largest despotic state, as an ally of Britain and France made it difficult to see the war as a clear-cut ___ between democracy and autocracy. Many feminists, pacifists, and social reformers, moreover, had become convinced that ___ was essential to further efforts to enhance social justice at home. They lobbied vigorously against American involvement. So did large numbers of religious leaders, who viewed war as a barbaric throwback to a less Christian era.

divided origin repressive British Easter regime battle peace

The United States threw its ___ resources and manpower into the war. When American troops finally arrived in Europe, they turned the tide of ___. In the spring of 1918, they helped to repulse a German ___ near Paris and by July were participating in a major Allied counteroffensive. In September, in the ___ campaign, American soldiers under the command of General John J. Pershing, fresh from his campaigns in Mexico, helped to push back the German army. With 1.2 million American soldiers taking part and well over 100,000 dead and wounded, Meuse-Argonne, which lasted a month and a half, was the main American ___ of the war and one of the most significant and deadliest battles in American history. It formed part of a massive __ offensive involving British, French, and Belgian soldiers and those from overseas European possessions. With his forces in full retreat, the German kaiser ___ on November 9. Two days later, Germany sued for peace. More than 100,000 Americans had died, a substantial numbed but they were only 1 percent of the 10 million soldiers killed in the Great War.

economic battle advance Meuse-Argonne engagement Allied abdicated

As during the Civil War, however, most leaders of woman suffrage organizations enthusiastically ___ in the effort. Women sold ___ bonds, organized ___ rallies, and went to work in war ___ jobs. Some 22,000 served as clerical workers and __ with American forces in Europe. Many believed wartime service would earn them __ rights at home.

enlisted war patriotic production nurses equal

Black leaders struggled to find a strategy to rekindle the national commitment to ___ that had flickered brightly, if briefly, during Reconstruction. No one thought more deeply, or over so long a period, about the black condition and the challenge it posed to American democracy than the scholar and activist __ ___. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1868, and educated at Fisk and Harvard universities, Du Bois lived to his __ year. The unifying theme of his career was Du Bois's effort to reconcile the __ between what he called "American freedom for whites and the continuing subjection of Negroes." His book The Souls of Black Folk (1903) issued a clarion call for blacks dissatisfied with the accommodationist policies of Booker T. Washington to press for __ rights. Du Bois believed that educated African-Americans like himself--the "talented tenth" of the black community-must use their education and training to _ inequality.

equality W. E. B. Du Bois ninety-fifth contradiction equal challenge

Even before American participation in World War I, what contemporaries called the "race problem"-the tensions that arose from the country's increasing ___ diversity-had become a major subject of public concern. "Race" referred to far more than ___ relations. The Dictionary of Races of Peoples, published in 1911 by the U.S. ____ Commission, listed no fewer than forty-five immigrant "races," each supposedly with its own inborn characteristics. They ranged from Anglo- Saxons at the top down to Hebrews, Northern Italians, and, lowest of all, ___ ___-supposedly violent, undisciplined, and incapable of assimilation.

ethnic black-white Immigration Southern Italians

Huerta resigned in 1914 and ___ the country. Meanwhile, various Mexican ___ turned on one another. A peasant ____ in the southern part of the country, led by Emiliano Zapata, demanded land reform. The Wilson administration offered support to ____ ____, a leader more devoted to economic modernization. In 1916, the war spilled over into the United States when several hundred men loyal to Francisco "Pancho" ___, the leader of another peasant force, raided Columbus, New Mexico, a few miles north of the border, leading to the death of seventeen Americans. With Carranza's approval, Wilson ordered ____ troops under the command of General John J. Pershing on an expedition into Mexico that ____ sought to arrest Villa. Chaos in Mexico continued--within the next few years, Zapata, Carranza, and Villa all fell victim to ____. Mexico was a warning that it might be more difficult than Wilson assumed to use American might to reorder the internal affairs of other nations, or to apply moral certainty to ___ policy.

fled factions uprising Venustiano Carranza Villa 10,000 unsuccessfully assassination foreign

With President Wilson declaring that some Americans "born under ___ flags" were guilty of "disloyalty and must be absolutely crushed," the federal and state governments demanded that immigrants demonstrate their unwavering ____ to the United States. The Committee on Public Information renamed the Fourth of July, 1918, __ Day and asked ethnic groups to participate in patriotic pageants. New York City's celebration included a ___ of 75,000 persons with dozens of floats and presentations linking immigrants with the war effort and highlighting their contributions to American society. Leaders of ethnic groups that had suffered __ saw the war as an opportunity to gain greater rights. Prominent Jewish leaders promoted __ and expressions of loyalty. The Chinese-American press insisted that even those born abroad and barred from citizenship should __ for the draft, to "bring honor to the people of our race."

foreign devotion Loyalty procession discrimination enlistment register

By 1919, the vast majority of the states had enacted laws restricting the teaching of __ languages. Popular words of German origin were changed: "hamburger" became "liberty sandwich," and "sauerkraut" "liberty cabbage." Many communities banned the playing of German __. The government jailed __ __, the director of the Boston Symphony and a Swiss citizen, as an enemy alien after he insisted on including the works of German composers like Beethoven in his concerts. The war dealt a crushing blow to German-American __. By 1920, the number of German-language newspapers had been __ to 276 (one-third the number twenty years earlier), and only __ percent of high school pupils still studied German. The Census of 1920 reported a 25 percent drop in the number of Americans admitting to having been __ in Germany.

foreign music Karl Muck culture reduced 1 born

The war experience, commented Walter Lippmann, demonstrated "that the traditional liberties of speech and opinion rest on no solid ___." Yet while some Progressives protested _____ excesses, most failed to speak out against the broad suppression of freedom of expression. ___ liberties, by and large, had never been a major concern of Progressives, who had always viewed the national state as the embodiment of democratic purpose and insisted that freedom flowed from ___ in the life of society, not standing in opposition. Strong believers in the use of national power to improve social conditions, Progressives found themselves ill prepared to develop a defense of ___ rights against majority or governmental tyranny. From the AFL to New Republic intellectuals, moreover, supporters of the war saw the elimination of ___ and alien radicals as a necessary prelude to the integration of labor and immigrants into an ___ society, an outcome they hoped would emerge from the war.

foundation individual Civil participating minority socialists ordered

Blacks subject to disenfranchisement and segregation were understandably skeptical of the nation's claim to embody __ and fully appreciated the ways the symbols of __ could coexist with brutal racial violence. In one of hundreds of ___ during the Progressive era, a white mob in Springfield, Missouri, in 1906 falsely accused three black men of rape, hanged them from an electric light pole, and burned their bodies in a public orgy of violence. Atop the pole stood a replica of the ___ __ __.

freedom liberty lynchings Statue of Liberty

Among black Americans, the wartime language of ___ inspired hopes for a radical change in the country's racial system. With the notable exception of William Monroe Trotter, most black leaders saw American participation in the war as an opportunity to make real the promise of ___. To Trotter, much-publicized German atrocities were no worse than American __; rather than making the world safe for democracy, the government should worry about "making the South safe for the Negroes." Yet the black __ rallied to the war. Du Bois himself, in widely reprinted editorials, called on African-Americans to enlist in the army to help "make our own America a real __ of the free."

freedom freedom lynchings press land

The world economy at the dawn of the twentieth century was already highly _____. An ever-increasing stream of goods, investments, and people ____ from country to country. Although Britain still dominated world ____ and the British pound remained the major __ of international trade, the United States had become the leading industrial power. By 1914, it produced more than ____ of the world's manufactured goods. Already, Europeans complained of an "American ____" of steel, oil, agricultural equipment, and consumer goods. ____ of American culture like movies and popular music were not far behind.

globalized flowed banking currency one-third invasion Spearheads

Never before had an agency of the federal ___ attempted the "conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses," in the words of young Edward Bernays, a member of Creel's staff who would later create the modern profession of ___ ___. The CPI's activities proved, one adman wrote, that it was possible to sway the ideas of whole ___, change their habits of life, create belief, practically universal in any policy or idea." In the 1920s, advertisers would use what they had learned to sell ___. But the CPI also set a precedent for governmental efforts to shape __ opinion in later international conflicts, from World War Il to the Cold War and Iraq.

government public relations populations goods public

Many motives sustained the Great Migration -___ wages in northern factories than were available in the South (even if blacks remained confined to menial and unskilled positions), __ for educating their children, escape from the __ of lynching, and the prospect of exercising the right to __. Migrants spoke of a Second __, of "crossing over Jordan," and of leaving the realm of pharaoh for the Promised Land. One group from Mississippi stopped to sing, "I am bound for the land of Canaan," after their train crossed the Ohio River into the North.

higher opportunities threat vote Emancipation

The combination of militant ___ for social change and disappointment with the war's outcome was evident far beyond the black community. In the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (or Soviet Union), as Russia had been renamed after the revolution, Lenin's government had nationalized landholdings, banks, and factories and proclaimed the socialist dream of a workers' government. The Russian Revolution and the democratic ___ unleashed by World War I sent tremors of hope and fear throughout the world. Like 1848 and, in the future, 1968, 1919 was a year of worldwide social and political upheaval. Inspired by Lenin's call for __, communist-led governments came to power in Bavaria (a part of Germany) and Hungary. General __ demanding the fulfillment of wartime promises of "industrial democracy" took place in Belfast, Glasgow, and Winnipeg. In Spain, anarchist __ began seizing land. Crowds in __ challenged British rule, and nationalist movements in other colonies demanded independence. "We are living and shall live all our lives in a revolutionary world,;" wrote Walter Lippmann.

hopes aspirations revolution strikes peasants India

The beating back of demands for fundamental social change was a severe rebuke to the __ with which so many Progressives had enlisted in the war effort. Wilson's ___ to achieve a just peace based on the Fourteen Points compounded the sense of ___. Late in 1918, the president traveled to France to attend the ___ peace conference. Greeted by ecstatic Paris crowds, he declared that American soldiers had come to Europe "as crusaders, not merely to win a war, but to win a cause . . . to lead the world on the way of liberty." But he proved a less adept ___ than his British and French counterparts, David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau.

hopes inability failure Versailles negotiator

Progressive intellectuals, social scientists, labor reformers, and suffrage advocates displayed remarkable ___ to the black condition. Israel Zangwill did not include blacks in the melting-pot idea _____ by his Broadway play. Walter Weyl waited until the last fifteen pages of The New Democracy to introduce the "__ problem." His comment, quoted in the previous chapter, that the chief obstacles to freedom were ___, not political, revealed little appreciation of how the denial of voting rights underpinned the comprehensive system of __ to which southern blacks were subjected.

indifference popularized race economic inequality

By the war's end, many Americans believed that the country stood on the verge of what Herbert Hoover called "a new ___ order." Sidney Hillman, leader of the garment workers' union, was one of those caught up in the utopian dreams inspired by the war and reinforced by the ___ Revolution. "One can hear the footsteps of the Deliverer." he wrote. "__ will rule and the World will be free." In 1919, more than 4 million workers engaged in strikes--the greatest wave of labor __ in American history. There were walkouts, among many others, by textile workers, telephone operators, and Broadway actors. Throughout the country, workers appropriated the ___ and rhetoric of the war, parading in army uniforms with Liberty buttons, denouncing their employers as "__," and demanding "freedom in the workplace." They were met by an unprecedented ___ of employers, government, and private patriotic organizations.

industrial Russian Labor unrest imagery kaisers mobilization

The Spanish-American War had established the United States as an ____ empire. Despite the conquest of the Philippines and Puerto Rico, however, the country's overseas holdings remained ____ compared to those of Britain, France, and Germany. And no more were added, except for a strip of land surrounding the ____ Canal, acquired in 1903, and the ___ Islands, purchased from Denmark in 1917. In 1900, Great Britain ruled over more than __ million people in possessions scattered across the globe, and France had nearly ___ million subjects in Asia and Africa. Compared with these, the American presence in the world seemed very small. As Stead suggested, America's empire differed significantly from those of European countries--it was economic, cultural, and intellectual, rather than ______.

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Wilson's policies toward the Soviet Union revealed the contradictions within the liberal ___ vision. On the one hand, in keeping with the principles of the Fourteen Points and its goal of a worldwide economic open door, Wilson hoped to foster trade with the new ___. On the other, fear of communism as a source of international ___ and a threat to private property inspired military ___ in Russia. The Allies did not invite the Soviet Union to the Versailles __ conference, and Wilson refused to extend diplomatic recognition to Lenin's government. The Soviet regime survived, but in the rest of the world the tide of __ receded. By the fall, the mass strikes had been suppressed and conservative governments had been installed in central Europe. Anti Communism would remain a __ of twentieth-century American foreign policy.

internationalist government instability intervention peace change pillar

Not until the spring of 1918 did American forces arrive in Europe in ___ numbers. By then, the world situation had taken a turn. In November 1917, a ___ revolution headed by Vladimir Lenin overthrew the Russian government that had come to power the previous spring. Shortly after, Lenin ___ Russia from the war and published the secret treaties by which the Allies had agreed to divide up ___ territory after the war-an embarrassment for ___, who had promised a just peace.

large communist withdrew conquered Wilson

The NAACP's __ strategy won a few victories. In __ _ __ (1911), the Supreme Court overturned southern "peonage" laws that made it a crime for sharecroppers to break their labor contracts. Six years later, it ruled ___ a Louisville zoning regulation excluding blacks from living in certain parts of the city (primarily because it interfered with whites' right to sell their property as they saw fit). Overall, however, the Progressive era witnessed virtually no progress toward racial __.

legal Bailey v. Alabama unconstitutional justice

In 1917, over Wilson's veto, Congress required that immigrants be ___ in English or another language. The war accelerated other efforts to upgrade the American ___. Some were inspired by the idea of improving the human race by discouraging ___ among less "desirable" persons. Indiana in 1907 had passed a law authorizing doctors to sterilize insane and "feeble-minded" inmates in __ institutions so that they would not pass their "defective" genes on to children. Numerous other states now followed suit. In ___ (1927), the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of these laws. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes's opinion included the famous statement, "Three generations of __ are enough." By the time the practice ended in the 1960s, some 68,000 persons had been involuntarily ___.

literate population reproduction mental Buck v. Bell imbeciles sterilized

In response to the strike, steel ___ launched a concerted counterattack. Employers appealed to anti-immigrant sentiment among native-born workers, many of whom returned to work, and conducted a ___ campaign that associated the strikers with the IWW, communism, and disloyalty. "Americanism vs. ___" was the issue of the strike, declared the New York Tribune. With middle-class opinion having turned against the labor movement and the police in Pittsburgh assaulting workers on the streets, the strike __ in early 1920.

magnates propaganda Alienism collapsed

The black ___, mostly young men and women, carried with them "a new vision of opportunity, of social and economic freedom," as Alain Locke explained in the preface to his influential book The __ Negro (1925). Yet the migrants encountered vast __- severely restricted __ opportunities, exclusion from __, rigid housing __, and outbreaks of __ that made it clear that no region of the country was free from racial hostility. More white southerners than blacks moved north during the war, often with similar __ aspirations. But the new black presence, coupled with demands for change inspired by the war, created a racial tinderbox that needed only an incident to trigger an __.

migrants New disappointments employment unions segregation violence economic explosion

World War I kindled a new spirit of __. The East St. Louis riot of 1917 inspired a widely publicized __ __ __ on New York's Fifth Avenue in which 10,000 blacks silently carried placards reading, "Mr. President, Why Not Make America Safe for Democracy?" In the new densely populated black __ of the North, widespread support emerged for the Universal Negro __ Association, a movement for African independence and black self-reliance launched by __ __, a recent immigrant from Jamaica Freedom for Garveyites meant national self-determination. Blacks, they insisted, should enjoy the same __ recognized identity enjoyed by other peoples in the aftermath of the war. "Everywhere we hear the cry of freedom," Garvey proclaimed in 1921. "We desire a freedom that will lift us to the common standard of all men,. freedom that will give us a chance and __ to rise to the fullest of our ambition and that we cannot get in countries where other men rule and dominate." Du Bois and other established black __ viewed Garvey as little more than a demagogue. They applauded when the government deported him after a conviction for __ fraud. But the massive following his movement __ testified to the sense of betrayal that had been kindled in black communities during and after the war.

militancy Silent Protest Parade ghettos Improvement Marcus Garvey internationally opportunity leaders mail achieved

At least in rhetoric, the United States ventured abroad--including intervening ___ in the affairs of other nations -not to pursue strategic goals or to make the world safe for American economic interests, but to ___ liberty and democracy. A supreme faith in America's historic destiny and in the righteousness of its ideals enabled the country's leaders to think of the United States simultaneously as an emerging great __ and as the worldwide embodiment of _____.

militarily promote power freedom

Wilson's moral imperialism produced more ___ interventions in Latin America than the foreign policy of any president before or since. In 1915, he sent ____ to occupy Haiti after the government refused to allow American banks to oversee its financial dealings. In 1916, he established a military ____ in the Dominican Republic, with the United States controlling the country's customs collections and paying its debts. American soldiers remained in the Dominican Republic until 1924 and in Haiti until 1934. They ___ roads and schools, but did little or nothing to promote ____. Wilson's foreign policy underscored a paradox of modern American history: the presidents who spoke the most about _____ were likely to _____ most frequently in the affairs of other countries.

military marines government built democracy freedom intervene

A __ of Progressives questioned Americanization efforts and insisted on respect for immigrant subcultures. At Hull House, teachers offered English-language instruction but also encouraged immigrants to value their ___ heritage. Probably the most penetrating critique issued from the pen of Randolph Bourne, whose 1916 essay "___ America" exposed the fundamental flaw in the Americanization model. "There is no distinctive American __," Bourne pointed out. __ between individuals and groups had produced the nation's music, poetry, and other cultural expressions. Bourne envisioned a democratic, cosmopolitan society in which immigrants and natives alike submerged their group ___ in a new "trans- national" culture.

minority European Trans-National culture Interaction identities

The combination of women's patriotic service and widespread outrage over the __ of Paul and her fellow prisoners pushed the administration toward full-fledged support for woman suffrage. "We have made partners of the women in this war," Wilson proclaimed. "Shall we admit them only to a partnership of suffering and sacrifice and toil and not to a partnership of privilege and right?" In 1920, the long struggle ended with the ratification of the ___ Amendment barring states from using sex as a qualification for the suffrage. The United States became the ___ country to allow women to vote.

mistreatment Nineteenth twenty-seventh

While "democracy" served as the key term of wartime ___, "freedom" also took on new significance. The war, a CPI advertisement proclaimed, was being fought in "the great cause of ___." Thousands of persons, often draftees, were enlisted to pose in giant human tableaus representing symbols of ___. One living representation of the Liberty Bell at Fort Dix, New Jersey, included 25,000 people. The most common visual image in wartime propaganda was the ___ __ ___, employed especially to rally support among immigrants. "You came here seeking Freedom," stated a caption on one Statue of Liberty poster. "You must now help __ it." Buying Liberty bonds became a demonstration of ___. Wilson's speeches cast the United States as a land of liberty fighting alongside a "concert of free people" to secure self-determination for the ___ peoples of the world. The idea of freedom, it seems, requires an antithesis, and the CPI found one in the German ___ and, more generally, the German nation and people. Government propaganda whipped up hatred of the wartime foe by portraying it as a nation of barbaric Huns.

mobilization freedom liberty Statue of Liberty preserve patriotism oppressed kaiser

During the Civil War, it had been left to private agencies--Union Leagues, the Loyal Publication Society, and others--to __ pro war public opinion. But the Wilson administration decided that patriotism was too important to leave to the __ sector. Many Americans were skeptical about whether democratic America should enter a struggle between ___ empires. Some vehemently opposed American ___, notably the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and the bulk of the _____ Party, which in 1917 condemned the declaration of war as "a crime against the people of the United States" and called on "the workers of all countries" to refuse to fight. As the major national organization to oppose Wilson's policy, the Socialist Party became a rallying point for ___ sentiment. In mayoral elections across the country in the fall of 1917, the Socialist vote averaged ___ percent, far above the party's previous total.

mobilize private rival participation Socialist antiwar 20

Partly to assure the country that the war was being fought for a _____ cause, Wilson in January 1918 issued the __ __, the clearest statement of American war aims and of his vision of a new international order. Among the key ____ were self-determination for all nations, freedom of the seas, free trade, open diplomacy (an end to secret treaties), the readjustment of colonial claims with colonized people given "equal weight" in deciding their futures, and the creation of a "general association of nations" to preserve the peace. Wilson envisioned this last ___, which led to the establishment after the war of the League of Nations, as a kind of global counterpart to the ___ commissions Progressives had created at home to maintain social harmony and prevent the powerful from exploiting the weak. Although purely an American program, not endorsed by the other Allies, the Fourteen Points established the agenda for the __ conference that followed the war.

moral Fourteen Points principles provision regulatory peace

Somehow, the very ___ of politics and economic life served to heighten awareness of ethnic and racial difference and spurred demands for "___"-the creation of a more homogeneous national culture. A 1908 play by the Jewish immigrant writer Israel Zangwill, The Melting Pot, gave a popular name to the process by which newcomers were supposed to merge their ___ into existing American nationality. Public and private groups of all kinds--including educators, employers, labor leaders, social reformers, and public officials-took up the task of Americanizing new __. The Ford Motor Company's famed ___ department entered the homes of immigrant workers to evaluate their clothing, furniture, and food preferences and enrolled them in English-language courses. Ford fired those who ___ to adapt to American standards after a reasonable period of time. Americanization programs often targeted __ as the bearers and transmitters of culture. In Los Angeles, teachers and religious missionaries worked to teach English to Mexican-American women so that they could then ___ American values. Fearful that adult newcomers remained too stuck in their Old World ways, public schools paid great attention to Americanizing immigrants' __. The challenge facing schools, wrote one educator, was "to implant in their children, so far as can be done, the Anglo-Saxon conception of righteousness, law and order, and popular government."

nationalization Americanization identity immigrants sociological failed women assimilate children

When war broke out in 1914, President Wilson proclaimed American ___. But as in the years preceding the War of 1812, naval warfare in Europe ____ in the United States. Britain declared a naval blockade of Germany and began to stop American merchant ____. Germany launched ___ warfare against ships entering and leaving British ports. In May 1915, a German submarine sank the British liner ____ (which was carrying a large cache of arms) off the coast of Ireland, causing the death of 1,198 passengers, including ___ Americans. Wilson composed a note of protest so strong that ___ resigned as secretary of state, fearing that the president was laying the foundation for military intervention. Bryan had advocated warning Americans not to travel on the ships of belligerents, but Wilson felt this would represent a ___ from the principle of freedom of the seas.

neutrality reverberated vessels submarine Lusitania 124 Bryan retreat

The sinking of the Lusitania outraged American public ___ and strengthened the hand of those who believed that the United States must prepare for possible ___ into the war. These included longtime advocates of a stronger ___ establishment, like Theodore Roosevelt, and businessmen with close economic ties to ___, the country's leading trading partner and the recipient of more than $2 billion in wartime ___ from American banks. Wilson himself had strong pro-British sympathies and viewed Germany as "the natural foe of ___" By the end of 1915, he had embarked on a policy of "___"- a crash program to expand the American army and navy.

opinion entry military Britain loans liberty preparedness

Black ___ in the Civil War had helped to secure the destruction of slavery and the achievement of ___. But during World War I, closing ranks did not bring significant gains. The navy barred blacks entirely, and the segregated army confined most of the 400,000 blacks who served in the war to supply __ rather than combat. Wilson feared, as he noted in his diary, that the overseas experience would "go to their ___." And the U.S. Army campaigned strenuously to persuade the French not to treat black soldiers as __--not to eat or socialize with them, or even shake their hands. Contact with African colonial soldiers fighting alongside the British and French did widen the __ of black American soldiers. But while colonial troops marched in the victory parade in Paris, the Wilson administration did not allow black Americans to __.

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On January 22, 1917, Wilson called for a "___ without victory" in Europe and outlined his vision for a world order including freedom of the __, restrictions on __, and self- ___ for nations great and small. Almost immediately, however, Germany announced its intention to resume __ warfare against ships sailing to or from the British Isles, and several American merchant vessels were sunk. The German government realized that its actions would probably lead Wilson to __, but German strategists gambled that the blockade would strangle Britain economically before the arrival of ___ troops.

peace seas armaments determination submarine intervene American

Like the Civil War, World War I created, albeit temporarily, a national state with unprecedented powers and a sharply increased ___ in Americans' everyday lives. Under the ___ __ Act of May 1917, 24 million men were required to register with the draft, and the army soon swelled from 120,000 to 5 million men. The war seemed to bring into being the New ___ state that Theodore Roosevelt and so many Progressives had desired. New federal agencies moved to ___ industry, transportation, labor relations, and agriculture. Headed by Wall Street financier ___ __, the War Industries Board presided over all elements of war production from the distribution of raw materials to the prices of manufactured goods. To spur efficiency, it established standardized ___ for everything from automobile tires to shoe colors (three were permitted--black, brown, and white). The ___ Administration took control of the nation's transportation system, and the __ Agency rationed coal and oil. The __ Administration instructed farmers on modern methods of cultivation and promoted the more efficient preparation of meals. Its director, ___ _, mobilized the shipment of American food to the war-devastated Allies, popularizing the slogan "__ will win the war."

presence Selective Service Nationalist regulate Bernard Baruch specifications Railroad Fuel Food Herbert Hoover Food

In 1917, Randolph Bourne ridiculed Progressives who believed they could mold the war according to their own "liberal ___." The conflict, he predicted, would empower not reformers but the "least ___ forces in American life." The accuracy of Bourne's prediction soon become apparent. Despite the administration's ___ language of democracy and freedom, the war inaugurated the most intense ___ of civil liberties the nation has ever known. Perhaps the very nobility of wartime ___ contributed to the massive suppression of dissent. For in the eyes of Wilson and many of his supporters, America's goals were so virtuous that disagreement could only reflect ___ to the country's values.

purposes democratic idealistic repression rhetoric treason

More than any other individual, Woodrow Wilson articulated this vision of America's ___ to the rest of the world. His foreign policy, called by historians ___ internationalism, rested on the conviction that economic and political progress went hand in hand. Thus, greater worldwide freedom would follow inevitably from ______ American investment and trade abroad. Frequently during the twentieth century, this conviction would serve as a __ for American power and self-interest. It would also inspire sincere efforts to bring ____ to other peoples. In either case, liberal internationalism represented a shift from the nineteenth-century tradition of promoting ___ primarily by example, to active ____ to remake the world in the American image.

relationship liberal increased mask freedom freedom intervention

Even more extreme ____ took place at the hands of state governments and private groups. Americans had long displayed the __ (and used it in advertisements for everything from tobacco products to variety shows). But during World War I, attitudes toward the American flag became a test of ___. Persons suspected of disloyalty were forced to ___ the flag in public; those who made statements critical of the flag could be imprisoned. During the war, ___ states outlawed the possession or display of red or black flags (symbols, respectively, of communism and anarchism), and ___ outlawed a newly created offense, "criminal syndicalism," the advocacy of unlawful acts to accomplish political change or a change in industrial ownership.

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American involvement in World War I provided the first great test of Wilson's belief that American power could "make the world ___ for democracy." Most Progressives embraced the country's ____ in the war, believing that the United States could help to spread ___ values throughout the world. The government quickly came to view critics of American involvement not simply as citizens with a different set of opinions, but as ___ of the very ideas of democracy and freedom. As a result, the war produced one of the most sweeping repressions of the right to dissent in all of American history. Rather than bringing Progressivism to other peoples, the war )))) it at home.

safe participation Progressive enemies destroyed

World War I raised questions already glimpsed during the Civil War that would trouble the nation again during the McCarthy era and in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 2001: What is the balance between __ & ___? Does the Constitution protect citizens' rights during ___? Should dissent be equated with lack of ___? The conflict demonstrated that during a war, traditional civil ___ are likely to come under severe pressure.

security and freedom wartime patriotism liberties

Most settlement-house reformers accepted __ as natural and equitable, assuming there should be white settlements for white neighborhoods and black settlements for black. White leaders of the woman suffrage movement said little about black ___. In the South, members of upper-class white women's clubs sometimes raised __ for black schools and community centers. But suffrage leaders insisted that the vote was a racial __, a "badge and synonym of freedom," in the words of Rebecca Felton of Georgia, that should not be denied to "free-born white women." During Reconstruction, women had been denied ___ recognition because it was "the Negro's hour." Now, World War I's "__ hour" excluded blacks. The amendment that achieved woman suffrage left the states free to ___ voting by poll taxes and literacy tests, Living in the South, the vast majority of the country's black women still could not vote.

segregation disenfranchisement funds entitlement constitutional woman's limit

Woodrow Wilson, a native of Virginia, could speak without irony of the South's "genuine representative government" and its exalted "standards of liberty" His administration imposed racial __ in federal departments in Washington, D.C., and dismissed numerous black federal ___. Wilson allowed D. W. Griffith's film Birth of a Nation, which glorified the Ku Klux Klan as the defender of white civilization during Reconstruction, to have its __ at the White House in 1915. "Have you a 'new freedom' for white Americans and a new slavery for your African-American fellow citizens?" ___ ___ __, the militant black editor of the Boston Guardian and founder of the all-black National Equal Rights League, asked the president.

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Violence was not confined to the North. In the year after the war ended, ___ persons were lynched in the South, including several returning black __ wearing their uniforms: In __ __, Arkansas, attacks on striking black sharecroppers by armed white vigilantes left as many as 200 persons dead and required the __ of the army to restore order. The worst race riot in American history occurred in __, Oklahoma, in 1921, when more than 300 blacks were killed and over 10,000 left __ after a white mob, including police and National Guardsmen, burned an all-black section of the city to the ground. The Tulsa riot erupted after a group of black veterans tried to __ the lynching of a youth who had accidentally tripped and fallen on a white female elevator operator, causing rumors of __ to sweep the city.

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For the first time since the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, the federal government enacted laws to restrict freedom of __. The ___ Act of 1917 prohibited not only spying and interfering with the draft but also "false statements" that might impede military success. The postmaster general barred from the mails numerous newspapers and magazines ____ of the administration. The victims ranged from virtually the entire ___ press and many ____ publications to The Jeffersonian, a newspaper owned by ex-Populist leader Tom Watson, which criticized the draft as a violation of states' rights. In 1918, the ___ Act made it a crime to make spoken or printed statements that intended to cast "contempt, scorn, or disrepute" on the "form of government," or that advocated interference with the war effort. The government charged more than ___ persons with violating these laws. Over half were convicted. A court sentenced Ohio farmer ___ ___ to twenty-one months in prison for saying that the murder of innocent women and children by German soldiers was no worse than what the United States had done in the Philippines in the war of 1899-1903.

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Like the suffrage movement, Prohibitionists first concentrated on __ campaigns. By 1915, they had won victories in __ southern and midwestern states where the immigrant and Protestant population was denominations like Baptists and Methodists strongly opposed drinking. But like the suffrage movement, Prohibitionists came to see national ___ as their best strategy. The war gave them added __. Many prominent breweries were owned by German-Americans, making beer seem unpatriotic. The Food Administration insisted that __ must be used to produce food, not distilled into beer and liquor. In December 1917, Congress passed the __ Amendment, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor. It was ratified by the states in 1919 and went into effect at the beginning of 1920.

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Looking back on American participation in the European conflict, Randolph Bourne summed up one of its lessons; "War is the health of the ___." Bourne saw the expansion of ___ power as a danger, but it struck most Progressives as a golden ___. To them, the war offered the possibility of reforming American society along ___ lines, instilling a sense of ___ unity and self-sacrifice, and expanding social ___. That American power could now disseminate Progressive values around the globe heightened the war's ___.

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In May 1916, Germany announced the ____ of submarine warfare against noncombatants Wilson's preparedness program seemed to have succeeded in securing the right of Americans to travel ___ on the high seas without committing American forces to the conflict. "He kept us __ of war" became the slogan of his campaign for reelection. With the Republican Party reunited after its split in 1912, the election proved to be one of the ___ in American history. Wilson defeated Republican candidate Charles Evans __ by only twenty-three electoral votes and about 600,000 popular votes out of more than 18 million cast. Partly because he seemed to promise not to send American ___ to Europe, Wilson carried ten of the twelve states that had adopted women's __. Without the votes of women, Wilson would not have been __.

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Just as he distinguished between good and bad ____, Theodore Roosevelt divided the world into "civilized" and "uncivilized" ___. The former, he believed, had an obligation to establish order in an __ world. Roosevelt became far more active in ____ diplomacy than most of his predecessors, helping, for example, to negotiate a settlement of the __ War of 1905, a feat for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Closer to home, his policies were more aggressive. "I have always been fond of the West African proverb," he wrote, "'Speak softly and carry a big ____." And although he declared that the United States "has not the slightest desire for ____ aggrandizement at the expense of its southern neighbors," Roosevelt pursued a policy of intervention in Central America

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In the United States, I9l9 also brought unprecedented __. It seemed all the more disorienting for occurring in the midst of a worldwide __ epidemic that killed over 20 million persons, including nearly 700,000 Americans. Racial __, as noted above, was widespread. In June, bombs exploded at the homes of prominent Americans, including the attorney general, A. Mitchell Palmer, who escaped uninjured. Among aggrieved American workers, wartime language linking __ with democracy and freedom inspired hopes that an era of social justice and economic empowerment was at hand. In 1917, Wilson had told the __, "While we are fighting for freedom, we must see to it among other things that labor is free." __ took him seriously-more seriously, it seems, than Wilson intended. The ___, as one machinist put it, had "proclaimed to the World that the freedom and democracy we are fighting for shall be practiced in the industries of America."

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The worldwide revolutionary __ produced a countervailing mobilization by opponents of radical change. Even as they fought the Germans, the Allies viewed the Soviet government as a dire __ and attempted to overturn it. In the summer of 1918, Allied ____ forces- British, French, Japanese, and Americans--landed in Russia to aid Lenin's opponents in the civil war that had ___ the country. The last of them did not leave until 1920.

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