Ch. 2 Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492-1650

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Dominican friar, Las Casas had been one of the earliest Spanish settlers in the Spanish West Indies. In his early life in the Americas, he owned Indian slaves and was the recipient of an encomienda. However, after witnessing the savagery with which encomenderos (recipients of encomiendas) treated the native people, he reversed his views. In 1515, Las Casas released his native slaves, gave up his encomienda, and began to advocate for humane treatment of native peoples. He lobbied for new legislation, eventually known as the New Laws, which would eliminate slavery and the encomienda system

What did Europeans bring with them in the Atlantic exchange?

As Europeans traversed the Atlantic, they brought with them plants, animals, and diseases that changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean. These two-way exchanges between the Americas and Europe/Africa are known collectively as the Columbian Exchange

Explain John Cabot's significance

As early as 1497, Henry VII of England had commissioned John Cabot, an Italian mariner, to explore new lands. Cabot sailed from England that year and made landfall somewhere along the North American coastline. For the next century, English fishermen routinely crossed the Atlantic to fish the rich waters off the North American coast. However, English colonization efforts in the 1500s were closer to home, as England devoted its energy to the colonization of Ireland.

Bermuda Origins

Bermuda's origins trace back to the early 16th century when Spanish explorer Juan de Bermúdez discovered the islands around 1503. However, it was not until 1609 that the first deliberate settlement was established by the English Virginia Company. The Sea Venture, en route to Jamestown, Virginia, was shipwrecked on Bermuda, leading to the accidental discovery and subsequent deliberate colonization of the islands. The survivors, including Sir George Somers, utilized the natural resources of Bermuda to repair their ship, and upon their departure in 1610, a small group remained. Recognizing Bermuda's strategic importance, the Virginia Company claimed the islands in 1612, marking the formal beginning of English colonization. Over time, Bermuda evolved into a British colony, with its economy shifting from tobacco to maritime activities. Today, it stands as a British Overseas Territory known for its vibrant culture, tourism, and offshore finance.

What is the signifcance of probanza de mérito?

Columbus's 1493 letter, known as the probanza de mérito, played a crucial role in generating enthusiasm throughout Europe about his purported "discovery" of the New World. These probanzas de méritos, letters crafted by Spaniards in the Americas to secure favor from the Spanish crown, serve as both primary sources and historical challenges. While acknowledging their inherent distortions and fabrications, historians must navigate the biases and subjectivity of the conquistadors who wrote them, considering the cultural context. Columbus sent two copies of his probanza de mérito to the Spanish monarchs and their finance minister, Luis de Santángel, a key supporter of his expedition. Widely circulated in Europe, the letter fueled the fascination with the newly found land. Columbus's subsequent voyages, along with Spain's first New World settlement on Hispaniola, ignited a wave of European exploration driven by the prospect of wealth through westward navigation.

Black Legend

Concept that Spanish conquerors merely tortured and murdered Indians, stole gold and infected them with smallpox, leaving nothing of benefit

How did the rise of Calvinism and the struggle for independence from Catholic Spain influence the Dutch entrance into the Atlantic World during the early modern era, and what were the key factors driving their colonial efforts?

Dutch entrance into the Atlantic World is part of the larger story of religious and imperial conflict in the early modern era. In the 1500s, Calvinism, one of the major Protestant reform movements, had found adherents in the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlan ds. During the sixteenth century, these provinces began a long struggle to achieve independence from Catholic Spain

What was the outcome of Sir Walter Raleigh's attempt to establish a colony at Roanoke in 1584, and what mysterious circumstances surround the fate of the colonists?

Elizabeth did sanction an early attempt at colonization in 1584, when Sir Walter Raleigh, a favorite of the queen's, attempted to establish a colony at Roanoke, an island off the coast of present-day North Carolina. The colony was small, consisting of only 117 people, who suffered a poor relationship with the local Indians, the Croatans, and struggled to survive in their new land. Their governor, John White, returned to England in late 1587 to secure more people and supplies, but events conspired to keep him away from Roanoke for three years. By the time he returned in 1590, the entire colony had vanished. The only trace the colonists left behind was the word Croatoan carved into a fence surrounding the village. Governor White never knew whether the colonists had decamped for nearby Croatoan Island (now Hatteras) or whether some disaster had befallen them all. Roanoke is still called "the lost colony."

To what extent did joint stock companies, as precursors to modern corporations, influence the establishment and management of the colonies?

English promoters of colonization pushed its commercial advantages and the religious justification that English colonies would allow the establishment of Protestantism in the Americas. Both arguments struck a chord. In the early 1600s, wealthy English merchants and the landed elite began to pool their resources to form joint stock companies. In this novel business arrangement, which was in many ways the precursor to the modern corporation, investors provided the capital for and assumed the risk of a venture in order to reap significant returns. The companies gained the approval of the English crown to establish colonies, and their investors dreamed of reaping great profits from the money they put into overseas colonization.

What shaped the Dutch Republic's influence and approach to Atlantic colonialism and global trade during the seventeenth century?

Established in 1581 but not recognized as independent by Spain until 1648, the Dutch Republic, or Holland, quickly made itself a powerful force in the race for Atlantic colonies and wealth. The Dutch distinguished themselves as commercial leaders in the seventeenth century and their mode of colonization relied on powerful corporations: the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1602 to trade in Asia, and the Dutch West India Company, established in 1621 to colonize and trade in the Americas.

How did the demand for labor in the American colonies lead to the Spanish practice of granting encomiendas, and what were the implications of this system for the native populations and the colonial economy?

Everywhere in the Americas, a crushing demand for labor bedeviled Europeans because there were not enough colonists to perform the work necessary to keep the colonies going. Spain granted encomiendas—legal rights to native labor—to conquistadors who could prove their service to the crown.

What were the key contributions and achievements of Samuel de Champlain in establishing the French presence in the New World, and how did his efforts impact the history of the Atlantic World?

Explorer Samuel de Champlain occupies a special place in the history of the Atlantic World for his role in establishing the French presence in the New World. Champlain explored the Caribbean in 1601 and then the coast of New England in 1603 before traveling farther north. In 1608 he founded Quebec, and he made numerous Atlantic crossings as he worked tirelessly to promote New France

What is Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's significance?

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was born into a noble family and went to Mexico, then called New Spain, in 1535. He presided as governor over the province of Nueva Galicia, where he heard rumors of wealth to the north: a golden city called Quivira. Between 1540 and 1542, Coronado led a large expedition of Spaniards and native allies to the lands north of Mexico City, and for the next several years, they explored the area that is now the southwestern United States. During the winter of 1540-41, the explorers waged war against the Tiwa in present-day New Mexico. Rather than leading to the discovery of gold and silver, however, the expedition simply left Coronado bankrupt.

What led to the mourning wars and how did this phenomenon evolve and expand in response to the increasing toll from disease?

In eastern North America, some native peoples interpreted death from disease as a hostile act. Some groups, including the Iroquois, engaged in raids or "mourning wars," taking enemy prisoners in order to assuage their grief and replace the departed. In a special ritual, the prisoners were "requickened"—assigned the identity of a dead person—and adopted by the bereaved family to take the place of their dead. As the toll from disease rose, mourning wars intensified and expanded.

What was the Spanish belief regarding the native peoples' obligation to work for them, and what was the reciprocal promise made by the Spanish in return?

The Spanish believed native peoples would work for them by right of conquest and in return, the Spanish would bring them Catholicism

How did the introduction of African labor change the labor dynamics in the Americas during the sixteenth century and what served as a rationale for their enslavement?

Indians were not the only source of cheap labor in the Americas; by the middle of the sixteenth century, Africans formed an important element of the labor landscape, producing the cash crops of sugar and tobacco for European markets. Europeans viewed Africans as non-Christians, which they used as a justification for enslavement.

What is the significance of the Mayflower Compact in the founding of Plymouth, and how does it reflect democratic ideals? Additionally, what led to the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, and who were its early settlers?

Like Jamestown, Plymouth occupies an iconic place in American national memory. The tale of the 102 migrants who crossed the Atlantic aboard the Mayflower and their struggle for survival is a well-known narrative of the founding of the country. Their story includes the signing of the Mayflower Compact, a written agreement whereby the English voluntarily agreed to help each other. Some interpret this 1620 document as an expression of democratic spirit because of the cooperative and inclusive nature of the agreement to live and work together. In 1630, a much larger contingent of Puritans left England to escape conformity to the Church of England and founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the following years, thousands more arrived to create a new life in the rocky soils and cold climates of New England.

What were the motivations behind France's early exploration of North America, as exemplified by Jacques Cartier, and how did their efforts compare to the outcomes of other European explorations in the region?

Like Spain, France was a Catholic nation and committed to expanding Catholicism around the globe. In the early sixteenth century, it joined the race to explore the New World and exploit the resources of the Western Hemisphere. Navigator Jacques Cartier claimed northern North America for France, naming the area New France. From 1534 to 1541, he made three voyages of discovery on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River. Like other explorers, Cartier made exaggerated claims of mineral wealth in America, but he was unable to send great riches back to France. Due to resistance from the native peoples as well as his own lack of planning, he could not establish a permanent settlement in North America.

Jamestown's origins

Many of Jamestown's settlers were desperate men; although they came from elite families, they were younger sons who would not inherit their father's estates. The Jamestown adventurers believed they would find instant wealth in the New World and did not actually expect to have to perform work.

How did native peoples introduce Europeans to chocolate, and what were the cultural and ceremonial significance of chocolate? What were the Spaniards thoughts?

Native peoples also introduced Europeans to chocolate, made from cacao seeds and used by the Aztec in Mesoamerica as currency. Mesoamerican Indians consumed unsweetened chocolate in a drink with chili peppers, vanilla, and a spice called achiote. This chocolate drink—xocolatl—was part of ritual ceremonies like marriage and an everyday item for those who could afford it. Chocolate contains theobromine, a stimulant, which may be why native people believed it brought them closer to the sacred world. ---Spaniards in the New World considered drinking chocolate a vile practice; one called chocolate "the Devil's vomit." In time, however, they introduced the beverage to Spain. At first, chocolate was available only in the Spanish court, where the elite mixed it with sugar and other spices. Later, as its availability spread, chocolate gained a reputation as a love potion.

Who established the early transatlantic slave trade and how?

Portuguese led the way in the evolving transport of slaves across the Atlantic; slave "factories" on the west coast of Africa, like Elmina Castle in Ghana, served as holding pens for slaves brought from Africa's interior. In time, other European imperial powers would follow in the footsteps of the Portuguese by constructing similar outposts on the coast of West Africa. The Portuguese traded or sold slaves to Spanish, Dutch, and English colonists in the Americas, particularly in South America and the Caribbean, where sugar was a primary export

What was Queen Elizabeth's primary concern regarding England's involvement in the Atlantic World, and how did she address it?

Queen Elizabeth favored England's advance into the Atlantic World, though her main concern was blocking Spain's effort to eliminate Protestantism. Indeed, England could not commit to large-scale colonization in the Americas as long as Spain appeared ready to invade Ireland or Scotland. Nonetheless, Elizabeth approved of English privateers, sea captains to whom the home government had given permission to raid the enemy at will. These skilled mariners cruised the Caribbean, plundering Spanish ships whenever they could.

How did Spain's adherence to mercantilist economic principles manifest in the extraction of vast quantities of gold and silver from the New World?

Spain's mercantilist ideas guided its economic policy. Every year, slaves or native workers loaded shipments of gold and silver aboard Spanish treasure fleets that sailed from Cuba for Spain. These ships groaned under the sheer weight of bullion, for the Spanish had found huge caches of silver and gold in the New World. In South America, for example, Spaniards discovered rich veins of silver ore in the mountain called Potosí and founded a settlement of the same name there. Throughout the sixteenth century, Potosí was a boom town, attracting settlers from many nations as well as native people from many different cultures

What was the process of commodification in the New World and how did this process contribute to the development of early commercial capitalism during the 16th and early 17th centuries?

The 1500s and early 1600s also introduced the process of commodification to the New World. American silver, tobacco, and other items, which were used by native peoples for ritual purposes, became European commodities with a monetary value that could be bought and sold. Before the arrival of the Spanish, for example, the Inca people of the Andes consumed chicha, a corn beer, for ritual purposes only. When the Spanish discovered chicha, they bought and traded for it, turning it into a commodity instead of a ritual substance. Commodification thus recast native economies and spurred the process of early commercial capitalism. New World resources, from plants to animal pelts, held the promise of wealth for European imperial powers.

What was the name of the Dutch colony in North America, and what was its primary economic function?

The Dutch named their colony New Netherlands, and it served as a fur-trading outpost for the expanding and powerful Dutch West India Company. With headquarters in New Amsterdam on the island of Manhattan, the Dutch set up several regional trading posts, including one at Fort Orange—named for the royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau—in present-day Albany

Explain the English Puritans colonization of the Americas

The English Puritans' colonization of the Americas in the early 17th century was primarily motivated by their desire for religious freedom and the opportunity to establish a society based on their interpretation of Christianity. Facing religious persecution and seeking to reform what they perceived as corrupt practices within the Church of England, the Puritans set sail for North America on ships like the Mayflower, eventually establishing colonies such as Plymouth in 1620 and Massachusetts Bay in 1630. These colonies became known for their strict adherence to Puritan beliefs and practices, emphasizing a theocratic and communal way of life. The Puritans played a significant role in shaping the social, political, and religious development of the American colonies, contributing to the foundations of religious pluralism and democratic governance that would later define the United States.

How did the French shift their colonial ambitions from North America to the Caribbean, and what were the economic and labor practices that characterized their colonies in the West Indies during this period?

The French also dreamed of replicating the wealth of Spain by colonizing the tropical zones. After Spanish control of the Caribbean began to weaken, the French turned their attention to small islands in the West Indies, and by 1635 they had colonized two, Guadeloupe and Martinique. Though it lagged far behind Spain, France now boasted its own West Indian colonies. Both islands became lucrative sugar plantation sites that turned a profit for French planters by relying on African slave labor.

How did the fur trade shape the economic and colonial interests of the French in North America during this period?

The French were primarily interested in establishing commercially viable colonial outposts, and to that end, they created extensive trading networks in New France. These networks relied on native hunters to harvest furs, especially beaver pelts, and to exchange these items for French glass beads and other trade goods. (French fashion at the time favored broad-brimmed hats trimmed in beaver fur, so French traders had a ready market for their North American goods.)

How did the Columbian Exchange impact the habits and behaviors of Europeans and change the ecological landscapes of both regions? Specifically, how did the introduction of Old World animals to the Americas influence the local ecosystems and cultures of the New World?

The crossing of the Atlantic by plants like cacao and tobacco illustrates the ways in which the discovery of the New World changed the habits and behaviors of Europeans. Europeans changed the New World in turn, not least by bringing Old World animals to the Americas. On his second voyage, Christopher Columbus brought pigs, horses, cows, and chickens to the islands of the Caribbean. Later explorers followed suit, introducing new animals or reintroducing ones that had died out (like horses). With less vulnerability to disease, these animals often fared better than humans in their new home, thriving both in the wild and in domestication.

How did the economic philosophy of mercantilism influence European colonial policies?

The economic philosophy of mercantilism shaped European perceptions of wealth from the 1500s to the late 1700s. Mercantilism held that only a limited amount of wealth, as measured in gold and silver bullion, existed in the world. In order to gain power, nations had to amass wealth by mining these precious raw materials from their colonial possessions. Mercantilists did not believe in free trade, arguing instead that the nation should control trade to create wealth. In this view, colonies existed to strengthen the colonizing nation. Mercantilists argued against allowing their nations to trade freely with other nations.

How did the introduction of tobacco to Europe from the Americas lead to its initial negative perception among early Spanish explorers, and what were the factors that eventually led to the widespread cultivation and global trade of tobacco by various European colonial powers in the late 16th century?

Tobacco was unknown in Europe before 1492, and it carried a negative stigma at first. The early Spanish explorers considered natives' use of tobacco to be proof of their savagery and, because of the fire and smoke produced in the consumption of tobacco, evidence of the Devil's sway in the New World. Gradually, however, European colonists became accustomed to and even took up the habit of smoking, and they brought it across the Atlantic. As did the Indians, Europeans ascribed medicinal properties to tobacco, claiming that it could cure headaches and skin irritations. Even so, Europeans did not import tobacco in great quantities until the 1590s. At that time, it became the first truly global commodity; English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese colonists all grew it for the world market.

What diseases were brought to the New World and what were the consequences for the indigenous peoples who had no prior immunity to these diseases?

Travelers between the Americas, Africa, and Europe also included microbes: silent, invisible life forms that had profound and devastating consequences. Native peoples had no immunity to diseases from across the Atlantic, to which they had never been exposed. European explorers unwittingly brought with them chickenpox, measles, mumps, and smallpox, which ravaged native peoples despite their attempts to treat the diseases, decimating some populations and wholly destroying others

How did the religious developments and persecution of Puritans in England during the reigns of Elizabeth I and Charles I influence the migration to New England in the early 17th century and shape the religious landscape in the Americas?

Under Elizabeth, whose long reign lasted from 1558 to 1603, Puritans grew steadily in number. After James I died in 1625 and his son Charles I ascended the throne, Puritans became the target of increasing state pressure to conform. Many crossed the Atlantic in the 1620s and 1630s instead to create a New England, a haven for reformed Protestantism where Puritan was no longer a term of abuse. Thus, the religious upheavals that affected England so much had equally momentous consequences for the Americas.

How did Samuel de Champlain's approach to Native American relations, contribute to the success of French exploration and expansion in North America?

Unlike other imperial powers, France—through Champlain's efforts—fostered especially good relationships with native peoples, paving the way for French exploration further into the continent: around the Great Lakes, around Hudson Bay, and eventually to the Mississippi. Champlain made an alliance with the Huron confederacy and the Algonquins and agreed to fight with them against their enemy, the Iroquois

How did Henry Hudson's exploration of New York Harbor and the Hudson River while working for the Dutch East India Company contribute to the Dutch colonial interests in North America, along with the fur trade?

While employed by the Dutch East India Company in 1609, the English sea captain Henry Hudson explored New York Harbor and the river that now bears his name. Like many explorers of the time, Hudson was actually seeking a northwest passage to Asia and its wealth, but the ample furs harvested from the region he explored, especially the coveted beaver pelts, provided a reason to claim it for the Netherlands.

Colonial mercantilism

a set of protectionist policies designed to benefit the nation, relied on several factors: colonies rich in raw materials, cheap labor, colonial loyalty to the home government, and control of the shipping trade. Under this system, the colonies sent their raw materials, harvested by slaves or native workers, back to their mother country. The mother country sent back finished materials of all sorts: textiles, tools, clothing. The colonists could purchase these goods only from their mother country; trade with other countries was forbidden.

What was the Virginia Company, and what significant event took place in 1607 as a result of its efforts to establish a colony in North America?

the Virginia Company, named for Elizabeth, the "virgin queen," the company gained royal approval to establish a colony on the east coast of North America, and in 1606, it sent 144 men and boys to the New World. In early 1607, this group sailed up Chesapeake Bay. Finding a river they called the James in honor of their new king, James I, they established a ramshackle settlement and named it Jamestown. Despite serious struggles, the colony survived.

In what ways did Barbados serve as a model for other English slave societies in the American mainland?

these islands produced cash crops: first tobacco and then sugar. Very quickly, by the mid-1600s, Barbados had become one of the most important English colonies because of the sugar produced there. Barbados was the first English colony dependent on slaves, and it became a model for other English slave societies on the American mainland. These differed radically from England itself, where slavery was not practiced.