Ch 7 AP World

What features of Sikhism created a distinct religious community?

Sikhism developed its own sacred text, created a central place of worship and pilgrimage, and held certain dress requirements for men. Eventually, due to conflicts with the Mughals and Hindus, it evolved from a peaceful religious movement, blending Hindu and Muslim elements, into a militant community whose military skills were highly valued by the British when they took over India in the late eighteenth century.

What motivated European political and economic expansion in the late fifteenth century?

Christianity and the long crusading tradition, particularly under the Spanish and Portuguese, helped to motivate expansion during the period.

What conflicts did the Scientific Revolution cause in Europe?

Conflicts between church doctrine and scientific discovery could have created tensions. Further separation of church and state might have occurred as the result of the influence of science on society. The Church might have persecuted individuals who published works contrary to church teachings.

What continuity and change does this image display regarding the role of Chinese women in society?

Continuity: The elite females are all confined within a walled enclosure and are dressed customarily, symbolizing their traditional subjugation. Change: The young girl is seen departing, which may suggest an emerging change in the status of females.

According to this painting, what social class did Enlightenment thinkers belong to? How can you tell?

Enlightenment thinkers were elites who could afford an education and books and who had the leisure time to engage in them. Evidence of this is found in the image, in which Voltaire and his fellow intellectuals dine around architectural and artistic finery, dress in expensive clothing, and have servants wait on them.

What was the effect of European Christianity on the Native American cultures of Latin America?

-By 1700 or earlier the vast majority of Native Americans had been baptized and saw themselves in some respects as Christians. While earlier conquerors made no attempts to eradicate local deities and religious practices, Europeans claimed an exclusive religious truth and sought the utter destruction of local gods and everything associated with them, which at times led to aggressive, violent campaigns of "extirpation" and resistance from native peoples. -More common than outright attacks on Christianity, Native Americans sought to reinterpret Christian practices within traditional frameworks and incorporate local elements into a new Christianity. -In the Andes, dancers in the Taki Onqoy movement might take the names of Christian saints; people might offer the blood of a llama to strengthen a village church; or believers might make a cloth covering for the Virgin Mary and a shirt for an image of a native huaca with the same material. -In Mexico, an immigrant Christianity was assimilated into patterns of local culture: parishes were organized largely around pre-colonial towns or regions; churches were built on or near the sites of old temples; cofradias, church-based associations of laypeople, organized community processions and festivals and made provision for a proper funeral and burial for their members; Christian saints closely paralleled the functions of pre- colonial gods; and the fiscal, or leader of the church staff, was a native Christian of great local prestige, who carried on the traditions and role of earlier religious specialists. The Virgin of Guadalupe also neatly combined Mesoamerican and Spanish notions of Divine Motherhood. -Throughout the colonial period and beyond, many Mexican Christians also took part in rituals derived from the past, with little sense that this was incompatible with Christian practices. These practices sought spiritual assistance in those areas of everyday life not directly addressed by Christian rites, but they also showed signs of Christian influence.

What kinds of cultural changes occurred in China and India during the early modern era?

-Chinese and Indian cultural/religious change wasn't as dramatic as what occurred in Europe. -In China Neo-Confucianism emerged combining Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist thought. -Chinese Buddhists also tried to make religion more accessible to commoners—withdrawal from the world was not necessary for enlightenment. -Kaozheng ("research based on evidence") emerged as an approach to scholarly study. -In India several movements brought Hindus and Muslims together in new forms of religious expression including the bhakti and Sikh religions.

How did European imperial expansion help spread Christianity?

-Christianity motivated European imperial expansion and also benefited from it. -The Portuguese and Spanish both saw their movement overseas as a continuation of a long crusading tradition, which only recently had completed the liberation of their countries from Muslim control. -Colonial settlers and traders brought their faith with them and sought to replicate it in their newly conquered homelands. -Missionaries, mostly Catholic, actively spread the Christian message beyond European communities in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. In Siberia, missionaries of the Russian Orthodox Church did likewise. But missionaries had their greatest successes in Spanish America and the Philippines, where their efforts were strengthened by an overwhelming European presence, experienced variously as military conquest, colonial settlement, missionary activity, forced labor, social disruption, and disease.

Why did the Scientific Revolution occur in Europe rather than in China or the Islamic world?

-Europe's historical development as a reinvigorated and fragmented civilization arguably gave rise to conditions uniquely favorable to the Scientific Revolution, including a legal system that guaranteed a measure of independence for a variety of institutions and unusually autonomous universities in which scholars could pursue their studies in relative freedom from the dictates of church or state authorities. -Western Europe was in a position to draw extensively upon the knowledge of other cultures, especially that of the Islamic world. -In the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, Europeans found themselves at the center of a massive new exchange of information as they became aware of lands, peoples, plants, animals, societies, and religions from around the world. This wave of new knowledge, uniquely available to Europeans, clearly shook up older ways of thinking and opened the way to new conceptions of the world. -In the Islamic world, science was patronized by a variety of local authorities, but it occurred largely outside the formal system of higher education, where philosophy and natural science were viewed with great suspicion. -In China, education focused on preparing for a rigidly defined set of civil service examinations and emphasized the humanistic and moral texts of classical Confucianism. The pursuit of scientific knowledge was relegated to the margins of the Chinese educational system.

In what ways did religious changes in Asia and the Middle East parallel those in Europe, and in what ways were they different?

-In terms of parallel developments, Buddhism developed traditions during the early modern period that bore some similarity to the thinking of Martin Luther in Europe in that they promoted a moral or religious individualism that encouraged individuals to seek enlightenment on their own. -As in Christian Europe, challenges to established orthodoxies emerged as commercial and urban life, as well as political change, fostered new thinking. -In terms of differences, religious change in China was less dramatic than in Europe. -The Wahhabi movement in the Islamic world did not create a permanent schism similar to the Protestant Reformation in Europe. -Syncretic movements like that of the bhakti and Sikh religions in India have no parallels in Europe.

What accounts for the continued spread of Islam in the early modern era and for the emergence of reform or renewal movements within the Islamic world?

-Islam continued to spread because conversion to Islam generally did not mean a sudden abandonment of old religious practices, but rather more often the assimilation of "Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into . . . local religious systems." -Continued Islamization depended on wandering Muslim holy men, Islamic scholars, and itinerant traders, who posed no threat and often proved useful to local rulers and communities. -In part, the emergence of reform or renewal movements was a reaction to the blending or syncretism that accompanied Islamization almost everywhere and that came to be seen as increasingly offensive, even heretical, by more orthodox Muslims.

In what ways did the Protestant Reformation transform European society, culture, and politics?

-It created a permanent schism within Catholic Christendom. -It gave some kings and princes a justification for their own independence from the Church and an opportunity to gain the lands and taxes previously held by the Church. -It provided the urban middle classes a new religious legitimacy for their growing role in society. -It was used by common people to express their opposition to the whole social order. -It had a less profound impact on the lives of women, although it did stimulate female education and literacy, even if there was little space for women to make use of that education outside the family. -Religious difference led to sectarian violence, to war, and ultimately to religious coexistence. -Its successful challenge to the immense prestige and power of the pope and the established Church encouraged a skeptical attitude toward authority and tradition. -It fostered religious individualism as people were encouraged to read and interpret the scriptures themselves and to seek salvation without the mediation of the Church.

Why were missionary efforts to spread Christianity less successful in China than in Latin America?

-The political context was very different, with missionaries to China working within the context of the powerful and prosperous Ming and Qing dynasties, while missionaries to Spanish America worked among a defeated population whose societies had been thoroughly disrupted and whose cultural confidence was shaken. -European missionaries required the permission of Chinese authorities to operate in China, while Spanish missionaries working in a colonial setting were less constrained. Ultimately, missionaries in China lost favor at the Chinese imperial court. -Missionaries to China deliberately sought to convert the official Chinese elite, while missionaries to Spanish America sought to convert the masses. -Missionary efforts in China were less successful because the missionaries offered little that the Chinese really needed, since traditional Chinese philosophies and religions provided for the spiritual needs of most Chinese. Moreover, Christianity required the converts to abandon much of traditional Chinese culture. In the Americas, local gods had in part been discredited by the Spanish conquest, and in any case, Christianity was a literate world religion, something different from what had been practiced in the region before.

In what ways did European science affect major civilizations of Asia in the early modern era?

-While the achievements of the Scientific Revolution spread globally and eventually became the most widely sought-after product of European culture, in the early modern period, interest in European scientific thinking within major Asian societies was modest and selective. -In China, Qing dynasty emperors and scholars were most interested in European astronomy, map-making, and mathematics. However, they had little interest in European medicine. -Japanese authorities after 1720 allowed for the importation and translation of European texts in medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, and other disciplines. These texts were studied by a small group of Japanese scholars who were especially impressed with Western anatomical studies. But this small center of learning remained isolated, and it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that European-style science assumed a prominent place in Japanese culture. -Scholars in the Ottoman Empire were broadly aware of European scientific achievements by 1650, but they took an interest only in those developments that offered practical utility, such as in making maps and calendars. Theoretical science of any kind faced an uphill struggle in the face of a conservative Islamic educational system.

To what extent did the cultural changes of the early modern world derive from cross-cultural interaction? And to what extent did they grow from within particular societies?

-While there is no one correct answer to this question, a strong answer will acknowledge that cross-cultural interaction drove the spread of Christianity and Islam into new regions of the world. -The selective adoption of elements of the Scientific Revolution in China, India, and the Islamic World were part of the process of cross-cultural interaction. -The bhakti and Sikh religions emerged in India as part of the cross-cultural interaction between Hindus and Muslims. -The split within the Western Christian church, the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, and the thought of Darwin, Marx, and Freud all grew out of European society. -The Wahhabi movement emerged within the Islamic World. -In China, the Neo-Confucian tradition continued to develop and the kaozheng movement emerged.

How might Luther's understanding of salvation have challenged the Catholic Church of the sixteenth century?

Answers should consider the impact on society, culture, and politics. Since Luther felt that the source of all beliefs was faith, not the Church, the power and position of the clergy, especially the pope, could be called into question. These beliefs caused a separation (schism) in the Church and gave the German princes cause to resist the political authority that the pope exercised over them, providing a justification for their independence and an opportunity to claim lands and taxes previously controlled by the Church, which decreased the Church's revenue.

Explain how the rise of universities contributed to the Scientific Revolution.

As Europeans evolved a legal system that guaranteed a measure of independence for a variety of institutions based on the idea of a "corporation," European universities became "neutral zones of intellectual autonomy" in which scholars could pursue their studies in relative freedom from the dictates of church or state authorities. Within the universities, the study of the natural order began to slowly separate from philosophy and theology, gaining a distinct identity. Most of the major figures of the Scientific Revolution had been trained in and were affiliated with these universities.

What were the long-term and short-term causes of the Protestant Reformation?

German priest Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses publicly invited debate about various abuses within the Roman Catholic Church. In this document, Luther expressed some long-standing criticisms of the church: the corruption and immorality of the clergy, the luxurious lifestyle of the popes, the sale of indulgences, and other aspects of church life and practice. The short-term cause of Luther's actions was his anxiety about his relationship with God; he had recently come to believe that salvation came from faith alone, not the performance of good works or the sacraments of the church. His message caught on with people from every walk of life for a variety of regions: kings and princes who disputed the authority of the pope or saw an opportunity to gain lands and taxes, middle-class urban dwellers who found new religious legitimacy for their role in society, and commoners who resented the existing social order.

Explain how Islam changed as it spread.

In some regions, as Islam spread women were allowed to have larger roles. Islam blended with local religions to include more people; corruption became an issue.

How was the role of Guru Nanak, as depicted in this painting, similar to the role Martin Luther played in the Reformation?

In this painting, religious revolutionary Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, teaches Hindu holy men. Like Martin Luther in Europe, Guru Nanak in this image is depicted teaching his faith without need of a holy place or a specific established ritual.

What effect did Dutch learning have on Japan?

Interactions with the Dutch were the only contact the Japanese had with the West. In particular, these interactions allowed the Japanese to gain information on Western science, including anatomical studies, astronomy, geography, and mathematics.

In what ways did the Enlightenment challenge older patterns of European thinking?

It applied a new approach to the conduct of human affairs, one that was rooted in human reason, skeptical of authority, and expressed in natural laws. This challenged the aristocratic privileges of European society and the claims to authority of arbitrary governments who relied on the "divine right of kings" for legitimacy. The Enlightenment challenged the authority of established religion, accusing the Church of fostering superstition, ignorance, and corruption. It also challenged older patterns of thinking through its promotion of the idea of progress. Human society, according to Enlightenment thinkers, was not fixed by tradition or divine command but could be changed, and improved, by human action guided by reason. These ideas ultimately underpinned revolutionary movements in America, France, Haiti, and Latin America.

What caused the cultural changes that took place in India during the early modern period?

Major changes were caused by the formation of a state cult under Akbar and the rise of bhakti and Sikhism.

What factors led to greater success for European missionaries in Spanish America and the Philippines than in Africa and Asia?

Missionaries were able to achieve greater numbers of converts in Spanish America and the Philippines because these areas had a larger European population as the result of conquest, colonization, missionary activity, forced labor, social disruption, and disease. In addition, these areas did not have a literate world religion, as did the peoples of Africa and Asia who practiced Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, or Islam.

How did Neo-Confucianism differ from traditional Confucianism?

Neo-Confucianism contained aspects of Buddhism and Daoism and promoted ideas that did not require the study of Confucian texts to raise social position. Traditional Confucianism required the study of Confucian texts and did not promote Buddhism or Daoism.

How did nineteenth-century developments in the sciences challenge Enlightenment ideas and principles?

Nineteenth-century intellectuals such as Darwin and Marx still believed in progress, but they emphasized conflict and struggle rather than reason and education as the motors of progress. Freudian psychology cast doubt on Enlightenment conceptions of human rationality, emphasizing instead that at the core of each person lay primal impulses toward sexuality and aggression, which were only barely held in check by the thin veneer of social conscience derived from civilization.

According to the evidence in this map, what impact did the spread of Protestantism have on European state building?

Outside of the divided Holy Roman Empire, Christianity, be it Catholic or Protestant, provided one piece of an ideology justifying the consolidation of rule under a centralized state.

How does this image display a difference between European Christianity and Christianity in South America?

Over nearly 1500 years, Catholic Christianity took on distinctly European forms, but when it reached the Americas, it was amalgamated to existing ritual. For example, in this image, those performing the Incan mountain ritual in native dress process with the Christian cross up the mountain.

Compare and contrast the spread of Christianity in the Americas to the spread of Christianity in Asia and Africa.

Students should be able to accurately identify and explain several examples from each region after reading and discussing this section. For example, in the Americas, conversion was often forced, as was the adoption of European dress and political and social systems. In Asia, Christianity was less accepted because people already had long-standing belief systems. In Africa, Christianity was competing with Islam for converts, and people still participated in traditional belief systems.

How was Kepler's idea that "the machine of the universe is not similar to a divine animated being but similar to a clock" different from the Catholic Church's understanding of the universe?

The Catholic Church envisioned a well-ordered and perfect cosmos, with Earth at its center, created and managed by God for humanity's salvation. Kepler's idea, especially that natural forces ordered the universe without the operation of God or angels, threatened that vision, while also positing that knowledge of the cosmos could only be obtained through human reason, rather than ancient authority and divine inspiration.

Identify the aspects of the painting that demonstrate a European point of view.

The European dress of the figure at right, along with the Christian symbolism of the heavenly sky, the Greek columns, and the Latin script, are all evidence of the European viewpoint of this image.

What was revolutionary about the Scientific Revolution?

The Scientific Revolution was revolutionary because it put an end to the idea that the earth was stationary and at the center of the universe, which had been the dominant view of the world in Western Europe. It was also revolutionary because the laws formulated by Isaac Newton showed that the universe was not propelled by angels and spirits but functioned on its own according to timeless principles that could be described mathematically. A corollary of this view was the idea that knowledge of the universe could be obtained through human reason alone, without the aid of ancient authorities or divine revelation. Above all, it was revolutionary because it challenged educated people to question traditional views of the world and humankind's place in it.

How did the spread of the Wahhabi movement displayed in the map influence the practice of Islam in Arabia?

The Wahhabi movement led to the formation of a centralized state in central Arabia that removed aspects of Islam that did not adhere to absolute monotheism. It eliminated anything the movement felt was not authorized by the religious teachings of Islam.

How were cultural transformations during the early modern period the result of interactions among non- Western cultures and not solely the result of European domination?

The interaction of native peoples with Europeans and Christianity determined how and what would be accepted, rejected, or transformed as it spread. Science emerged in an international context. Christianity began to rival Islam as a world religion, even as Islam continued to spread. Buddhism and Hinduism continued in South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. Smaller, traditional religions continued in Africa. Europeans were affected by these new worlds and new religions.

Analyze the impact of the printing press on the spread of Protestantism and the divisions within it.

The printing press allowed new ideas to be printed and distributed in large quantities, thus allowing these ideas to reach more people throughout Europe. It also allowed for individuals who opposed the Catholic Church to spread dissent and create splinter faiths.

Explain how this Mexican painting is an example of cultural syncretism. Be sure to identify specific elements in the painting to support your answer.

The representation of Jesus, the angels, and the European woman at the bottom right indicate Christian religion traditions from Eurasia. The Native American woman holding the emblem of the eagle with the snake in its mouth, which is based on an Aztec myth), represents the American continent.

What does the development of the telescope show about European cultural and economic development?

The telescope demonstrates the cultural and economic interconnectedness of Europe during the Scientific Revolution. It was an instrument developed and perfected in various regions throughout Europe that, when employed for scientific purposes, led to numerous intellectual breakthroughs.

Examine the areas on this map that had not converted to Christianity by 1700. Why would these areas not have adopted Christianity?

These regions had long-standing belief systems already in place that met the needs of the people. Throughout the modern era, peoples solidly rooted in Confucian, Buddhist, Hindu, or Islamic traditions proved far more resistant to the Christian message than those who practiced more localized, small-scale, orally based religions.

What does this image suggest about the attitude of the artist toward the Lutheran Reformation?

This image shows Martin Luther famously nailing his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg in 1517. During this spectacle, he is surrounded by many inquisitive people while the portly friar behind him unsurprisingly expresses some shock. Other than that friar, however, no immensely negative depictions are shown, leading the viewer to believe that the artist was at least ambivalent to, if not in favor of, Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church.

Using the information from this chart, what might be the causes for the appeal of Martin Luther's ideas among many Europeans?

While each class had its own rationale for supporting Luther, these religious differences, especially those in the first four rows, undermined the role of the Catholic Church in salvation. Many found the Reformation's individual nature of salvation—achieved through faith and personal interpretation of the Bible without the costly repeated ritual of the church and intermediation of the clergy—appealing.