ch. 7

stress and sexual behaviours

high rates of violence, crime, repeated exposure to discrimination in one's neighbourhood can create persistent or chronic stressors to escape from these environments some adolescents engage in high-risk sexual behaviours such as multiple sex partners or unprotected sex although such behaviours may temporarily reduce stress they also increase the probability of contracting STDs

the nervous system

physiological responses to stress are initiated by a complex communication process in the nervous system which is the body's network of cells that communicate information about itself and its environment consists of 2 parts: CNS and PNS

two glands of endocrine system in response to stress

pituitary and the adrenal gland release hormones in response to stress

country's economic status

possible research findings by Khan and Pearlon (2006) that there was an increase in suicide rates with the downturn of the US's economy

3 components of cognitive appraisal

primary appraisal secondary appraisal cognitive reappraisal

William James defined religion as

"feelings, acts, experiences of individual men in their solitude in relation to whatever they consider divine" religion - objective spirituality - subjective

emotion focused coping

principally seeking solace or emotional support from others may obtain a sympathetic audience may receive helpful information or guidance but main goal is to obtain expressive support

2 types of cognitive coping for everyday life stressors

problem or emotion focused engagement or disengagement focus

ANS contains 2 substructures

SYNS and PSNS

problem focused coping

an individual seeks information and generates solutions to address the issue or problem encountered active and fact based entails planning to resolve the issue with little time spent on emotional responses most effective

music and emotional health

an individual's preferred music genre will be more effective when attempting to lower his or her specific stress and anxiety levels than classical music

Qigong

ancient chinese exercise significantly reduced reports of psychological stress and distress among 13-14 year olds in a study outcomes may have been influenced by both internal (biological) and external (school) forces lowers BP, HR, RR signaled a relief from school work

3rd criticism

attenuated link b/w stress and illness before linking a stress to an illness it is important to determine whether the individual affected has really been stressed by the stressor to decide whether the identified stress agent actually triggered a stress response and to ascertain the individual's ability or inability to defend against such stressors

coping with stress positive or adaptive actions

behaviours that help manage the stress and allow us to productively complete our daily tasks exercise, listening to music, seeking and obtaining social support, spiritual practices

Lazarus and folkmans transactional model of stress

believe we cannot study a person's response to stress independent of understanding his or her perception of the stress-provoking event so developed the transactional model stress is not a one-time response to a static event rather it involves a person's continuous interactions with and adjustments to the event

measuring stress social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)

best known measures of psychosocial stress Holmes and Rahe (1967) 43 item scale includes a list of life events rank ordered from most to least stressful each life event is associated with a life change unit score - a measure of the perceived stressfulness of the event on a scale of 100 to 0

resistance stage

body's increased and sustained resistance to one stress agent the sustained resistance to one stressor decreases the body's ability to withstand or defend against other agents while fighting one agent intensely the body is vulnerable to attack by other stress agents which many include a range of factors that could lead to illness

parasympathetic system

constricts pupils, stimulates flow of saliva, slows HR, constricts bronchi, stimulates stomach motility and secretion and stimulates pancreas, contracts bladder, stimulates erection

stressful event sequences

death of a spouse or a major man-made or natural disaster that present a number of unforeseen challenges that occur over time, in these stress scenarios individuals know that the challenges will eventually subside but do not know when

sympathetic system

dilates pupils, inhibits flow of saliva, accelerates HR, dilates bronchi, inhibits motility and secretion and inhibits pancreas, inhibits bladder contractions, stimulates ejaculation, conversion of glycogen to glucose, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline

type d

distressed personality characteristics or people who exhibit generally negative affect (stress, anxiety, hostility, and depression) are more likely to develop heart-related health problems *distressed emotional states are more linked to health issues than the actual personality type

SRRS compared to d-s model

does not negate the association b/w stress, biological factors, and illness proposed by the D-S model but the emphasis role of psychosocial stressors suggests that environmental factors may also trigger health problems

what causes stress?

everything a situation that is stress producing to one may not be stressful to another therefore any situation has the potential to cause stress to someone

behavioural coping strategies

exercise music humour spirituality/religious activities

chronic stressors

experience multiple daily stressors that continue for months and unsure if they will ever subside

distal stressors

experiences of a traumatic nature that took place in the distant past but because of their long-lasting cognitive and emotional impact may continue to affect a person's immune system

negative or maladaptive actions

fail to address the stressor + introduce additional problems that can create additional sources of stress avoidance, overeating, risky sexual behaviour, substance use

naturalistic stressors

familiar to most students because they include things such as academic exams or other short-term, real life events

Cannons fight or flight limitations

female response to stress does not conform to the fight or flight model rather it contends to the "tend and befriend" response triggered by oxytocin

Cannons fight or flight theory

focus specifically on the body's physiological response to stress inducing stimuli the body's biological systems, specifically SNS and the endocrine system would activate and enable the fight or flight response to the potential threat

transactional model (TM)

proposes that stress is triggered when an external stressor (or event) exceed's a persons personal and social resources to effectively cope with the event changes in behaviours and reassessments are the 'transactions'

adrenal cortex

outer layer of adrenal glands

another predetermining factor for illness

personality type

humour

physical act of laughing causes changes in the body's physiology, including reduction of muscle tension, increased oxygenation of the blood, and release of endorphins (hormones than enhance positive mood states)

stressful response

physical or emotional reaction by an individual to the external stimulus

4 important points about glucocorticoids

1. anti-inflammatory agents that we now know play a complex role in response to stress 2. and other stress hormones activate the immune system and immune defences when the body is exposed to a stressor 3. play a role in returning the body to allostasis 4. prolonged stress = prolonged release of glucocorticoids = decrease immune system = increase susceptibility to illness

Lazarus's theory assumes 2 things

1. he contends that situations or events are not inherently stressful, the stressfulness of a situation depends on our perception (cognitive appraisal) of the event - this meals that people will interpret situations differently based on a number of factors including their prior experiences, their own skills, and their level of confidence in addressing such events

humor moderates stress levels in 2 ways

1. humour serves as an effective coping response to the stressful stimuli 2. offers a mean of reinterpreting and restructuring the situation so that it is less stressful

two factors that can trigger stress indirectly

1. psychosocial factors (illness, death, or financial problems) 2. chronic illnesses (attempt to manage the unpredictable course of the disease)

3 reasons why immune system won't return to allostasis

1. stress remains or is chronic 2. glucocorticoid levels continue to be elevated 3. SYNS remains activated

death of spouse rating score personal achieve rating score

100 28 (relatively low stress)

PNS

ANS and SNS ANS will be focus for stress because it controls automatic and involuntary functions that are essential for living (HR, digestion, perspiration)

endocrine system

a communication system in the body that sends messages using ductless glands - glands that release hormones directly into the body's bloodstream

sympathetic nervous system

activates the body's response to danger, emergencies, or foreign microorganisms that invade the body when activated it puts in motion a series of physiological changes that may signal danger and a need to either defend oneself (fight) or flee (flight)

5 distinct stress categories

acute time-limited stressors naturalistic stressors stressful event sequences chronic stressors distal stressors

pituitary gland

adjacent to the hypothalamus (region in the brain that controls basic human needs such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex) nicknamed "master gland" bc under direction of hypothalamus it produces hormones that stimulate the production of other hormones

emotional reactivity

adolescents who were emotionally reactive were more likely to report physical health problems results pertained mostly/only to adolescent girls

adrenal glands consist of two components

adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

pituitary gland produces

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - responsible for stimulating the adrenal glands located just above each of the kidneys

3 stages of GAS

alarm stage stage of resistance stage of exhaustion - not only the body's response to a stressor but also the process by which illnesses can develop when the body tries but fails to cope with the target stressor

substance use and stress

alcohol, cigarettes, or illegal drugs practice of using substance in response to stress is common in many cultures

secondary appraisal

an assessment of our resources and determination of how sufficient our resources are to meet the demands of the event

stressful stimulus

an event external the human body that provokes a response

second assumption

an individual may appraise the same situation differently based on his or her mood, health, or motivation

type a personality

highly competitive, in high need for achievement, impatient, can appear hostile or aggressive to others more susceptible to illness (heart problems) because of the unhealthy elements (aggression, hostility, anger) that are associated with CAD and decreased longevity not the personality type itself

exhaustion stage

how long an organism can withstand and defend itself against a specific stress-inducing agent appears to vary as a function of the individual prolonged exposure to stressors can cause symptoms similar to those that appear during the alarm stage organisms will display the nonspecific systemic reactions that were developed during the adaptation stage that it could not maintain thus the disease of adaptation may form (HTN, allergies, ulcers)

the adrenal cortex working together with the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland is

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system (HPAC) a system responsible for restoring the body to its baseline steady state this system when stimulated by ACTH activates the adrenal cortex to release one type of hormone known as glucocorticoids

Seles general adaptation syndrome

identification of the pathways through which stress elicits physiological reactions in organisms characterizes stress as the organism's response to any form of a 'noxious stimulus' --> stressor the body responds to any stressor in the same manner

appraisal process --> cognitive appraisal

in which are transactions are directed or the process we use to evaluate the events

limitations of GAS theory

inability to explain the role of psychosocial factors on illness - body's hormonal response to stress may differ as a function of a specific emotion and even differ by gender if so belief that all stressors would elicit the same reaction would not be supported

summary of d-s model

individuals vulnerabilities (biological or temperamental) may predispose him or her to greater adverse responses to stressful stimuli such rxns could result in greater probability of psychophysiological health problems - chronic headaches, asthma, skin disorders, resp. infections but d-s model does not explain rt b/w stress and illness in the absence of pre-existing vulnerabilities

primary appraisal

initial assessment of the event and determination of the potential harmfulness

adrenal medulla

inner layer of adrenal glands when stimulated by SYNS it produces catecholamine a class of chemicals that contains epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol

2nd criticism of GAS

lack of distinction b/w long term and short term stress on the immune system when encountering a short term stressor our body activates the immune system but chronic stressors the body's immune system is suppressed

Male perspective

males do not always respond with fight or flight response either often display 'tending' behaviours as well high cortisol levels in human parents of newborns are significantly correlated with attentive and sensitive parenting behaviours higher prolactin and lower testosterone levels are present in men with who attempt to comfort a distressed infant

acute time-limited stressors

manipulated or staged events such as public speaking or mental math, activities of short duration, ranging in time from approximately 5-100 minutes

PTSD

may occur after a single traumatic incident or be the result of multiple exposures to trauma (military personnel) can occur as a result of a distal stressor but the lack of clarity in the definition of PTSD may lead to a number of diagnoses that cannot be considered distal stressors

daily life hassles

more likely to cause negative health outcomes than are major events propose that major stressful events (marriages, deaths, divorce) occur infrequently

glucocorticoids

much of body's stress response is mediated by glucocorticoids which includes epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol

3 categories of the relationship b/w music and stress

music and physiological indications of stress music and psychological functioning and stress music and performance on specific tasks

music and performance

music played during the mathematical task could reduce the surgeon's physiological response to stress in the settings and improve the surgeon's speed and accuracy on the task they also found that the most effective stress-reducing genre of music is the one preferred by the individual

college students psychosocial factors

new demands of college, living away from home, financial worries, and concerns about moral behaviour led to higher reports of poor sleep quality from female college students and not male students

over-eating and stress

psychosocial factors such as family responsibilities, workplace issues, concern about weight accounted for a tendency to eat frequently or to prefer high fat/calorie foods stress triggered by psychosocial causes can result in physiological health problems (over-eating) that can inhibit good health outcomes

music and physiological health

pts on bed rest with music intervention had higher oxytocin levels and higher subjective relaxation levels than those without music therapy - psychological and physiological benefits are evident

cognitive reappraisal

re-evaluation of the event as it develops

music

reduces stress and anxiety levels reduce stress related responses (BP, anxiety, emotions) and improved performance

allostasis

refers to the bodys ability to maintain a "steady physiological state" (BP, HR, RR) through changes in both the environment and the body's physiology

can stress lead to illness?

research suggests that stressful life experiences can precipitate or contribute to new physiological illnesses however these stressful events are more likely to lead to physical illnesses when a person is vulnerable to such illnesses

CNS

responsible for receiving and responding to information obtained through our sensory receptor sites, here meaning the parts of the body responsible for initial sensory perception (eyes, ears, nose, fingers)

people will chronic illness and stress

show poorer overall health outcomes than people with similar diagnoses but with significantly less stress stress can exacerbate an existing health problem

positive affect and stress

some research suggests that stress can also be a positive experience stress is seen as negative through a biomedical model of health bc stress is viewed as a disease/illness positive psychology interprets stress as a learning or new skill development opportunity or growth

3 feelings of involvement with networks

stability predictability self-worth

the diathesis-stress (d-s) model of disease

states that an individual's biochemical or organ imbalances can predetermine a person's reaction to environmental stressors which can result in physical symptoms of illnesses a biological predisposition (diathesis) and an environmental precipitating factor (stressor) are necessary determinants to cause the onset of a stress related illness

3 category definition of stress

stimulus response the interaction of both stimulus and response

stress and eating

stress influences amount and type of foods consumed cause people to increase their consumption of sweet or fatty foods rather than bland or salty foods gender difference in the effects of stress on food consumption - women are more likely to increase their food consumption than men and prefer foods high in fats and calories (more prevalent among restrained eaters)

summary

stress is a stimulus and response many different categories of stressors (acute or chronic) responses to stressors are based on our cognitive appraisal - individuals may differ their appraisal and interpretation of events as threatening or not also within the same individual there can differences at one point and time to another with state of mind, mood, or perceived state of health

stress on mice in labs

stressors cause a redistribution of T cells short term stress - T cells to the skin resulting in an enhanced immune response chronic stress - T cells propelled away from the skin resulting in a suppression of the immune system

combined systems of the SYNS and adrenal glands in response to stress in releasing epinephrine

sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system (SAM)

parasympathetic nervous system

takes control once a threat has abated it is responsible for returning the body to its normal or baseline state, often referred to as allostasis

interaction b/w stressor and response

the "interplay and feedback"

financial strain

the longer a person experienced financial strain earlier in life the greater the damage to multiple dimensions of health (mental and physical) later in life, one source of financial strain is unemployment

alarm stage

the organism first experiences shock at the initial and immediate impact of the stress-inducing agent may include a lowering of BP and temperature then to counter shock phase which organism prepares to respond defensively to the stress producing agent some argue similar to fight or flight reaction body may release higher levels of adrenaline and increase RR & BP + activate sweat glands

social support

the psychological and material assistance individuals obtain from social groups/family/friends/relatives has a positive effect on overall well-being a persons involvement in social networks will help to buffer or protect him/her from the full impact of the stressor even if that person receives no specific assistance from the network in addressing the stressful situation

health psychologists role

to assist people in identifying and adopting behaviours that will enhance their health outcomes and enable them to perform their daily tasks can help people in their professions with managing stress if their job has a high stress rate (air traffic controller, doctors, nurses)

disengagement focused coping

to minimize emotional discomfort and stress address problem without assistance or information withdraw from problem avoid problem or efforts to resolve avoid through substance use deny problem exists least effective

engagement focused coping

to obtain helpful information and support seek others to obtain information share emotional burden obtain workable solution look for a sympathetic but helpful audience

religious activities + health

transcendental meditation with progressive relaxation intervention significantly significantly reduced BP in african americans church affiliation was positively associated with lower systolic and diastolic BP in a sample of african americans

commonly reported stressors of people who suffer with chronic illnesses

unpredictable disease outcomes - most anxious inability to control disease progression rate of deterioration individuals with life-threatening or progressive illnesses report high stress levels when their disease is less controllable and when it contains high levels of disability

summary of stress

whether using 3 or 5 step categories, you must consider stimuli that prompt the response as well as various responses when talking about stress

criticism of SRRS

wording problems lack of differentiation b/w positive and negative events outdated events inability to account for individual differences in interpretation or truthfulness using retrospective recall to correctly identify past stressful events (people perform poorly when attempting to recall past events)