Ch. 9 - Prejudice

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

sexism

(1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

racism

(1) an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated my prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race

What are criticisms of the IAT?

-contend that the IAT does not predict behavior well enough to assess or label individuals -say that it may just reveal common cultural associations

How has research found that distinctiveness affects the way a person is judged and perceived by others?

-a distinctive person seems more prominent and influential and to have exaggerated good or bad qualities -we tend to see the person as causing whatever happens in the group -when we turn our attention toward someone, they have a greater than average influence on the group -we tend to think of someone in terms of their most distinctive qualities -when we notice one distinctive quality, we are more likely to notice other distinctive qualities as well and perceive the person as legitimately different from us -noticing distinctive features creates an illusion that the person differs from us more than they probably do

Describe Bond & colleagues' (1988) research on psychiatric nurses and explain what we can learn from it.

-after getting to know white and Black patients, they restrained patients if each race equally often -they restrained incoming Black patients more than incoming white patients though

What are the characteristics associated with having anti-gay attitudes?

-anti-gay attitudes strongest among those who are older, less educated, and male -heterosexual men who value masculinity express the most prejudice toward transgender individuals

How do we perceive the co-occurence of two distinctive events?

-because we are sensitive to distinctive events, the co-occurrence of two distinctive events is more noticeable then times when the two events do not happen together -this creates an illusionary correlation

Thoroughly and specifically explain what researchers have learned so far from the shooter bias studies.

-both Black and white participants were significantly more likely to misperceive the object that a Black target was holding and shoot him -specifically, it is Black male subjects who this most often happens to -when people are primed with a Black versus a white face, they more quickly recognize a gun and are more likely to mistake a harmless object for a gun

Suggestions for what a person could do to reduce their own prejudice.

-catch and replace your own stereotypical judgments -recognizing when you make stereotypical judgments may eventually help you replace prejudicial thoughts with less prejudicial ones -effectiveness depends on how much effort you put in -it may help to change the media you consume and to purposely expose yourself to positive stories of different groups

Give examples of how prejudice is socialized.

-children's prejudices typically reflect that of their parents -ex. if parents express more anti-immigrant or racist attitudes, their children are likely to do so as well

Explain and describe evidence or an example of "infrahumanization".

-denying human attributes to outgroups -ex. European travelers depicted Native Americans as savages acting on instinct -ex. African, Jewish, and immigrant people have all been dehumanized to justify oppressing them

How does the just-world phenomenon help us to understand why some people are indifferent to social injustice?

-from early on, we are taught that good is rewarded and evil is punished -when we see people being victimized or in bad situations, we assume that they must have made poor choices in life or deserve their fate somehow -they are indifferent not because they don't care about justice but because they don't see the injustice

According to Vescio and colleagues (2005), how do powerful men who stereotype female subordinates treat them?

-give them plenty of praise but fewer resources, which undermines their performance and allows men to keep power -patronizing benevolent sexism undermines women's cognitive performance by planting intrusive self-doubts and lowering self-esteem

What might help people to reduce their prejudice?

-giving people vivid positive experiences with Black people -going door to door and having 10-minute nonjudgmental conversations with transgender people reduced prejudice toward them -training people to automatically respond in an unbiased way

Describe how the experiment by Ickes and colleagues (1982) examining how people perceived someone whom they expected to be unfriendly illustrates the self-perpetuating nature of prejudgments.

-had pairs of college-age men and experimenters warned one beforehand that the other was the unfriendliest person they'd ever met while in a different condition the person was portrayed as friendly -pairs were left alone for talk for five minutes -those who thought the person was unfriendly went out of their way to be friendly, but perceived the person's warm response as more fake and untrustworthy -thus, people found a way to confirm their expectations

Describe evidence (Hamilton & Rose, 1980; Becker et al 2010) that pre-existing stereotypes can lead to illusory correlations.

-had students read sentences describing the occupations of members of different groups -each occupation was described equally often by each adjective, but people thought that they were reading about adjectives specific to a person in an occupation -this led people to perceive correlations and perpetuate their stereotypes

How are benevolent and hostile sexism related to behavior?

-hostile sexist beliefs predict future gender inequality; also predicted voting against Hillary Clinton -benevolent sexism impedes women by discouraging the hiring of women in traditionally male-dominated industries

How does viewing someone being victimized tend to affect perceptions of that person?

-if an outgroup member is being victimized, we think that they must have something to deserve it -if an ingroup member is victimized, we see it as injustice

Present the suggestions for reducing prejudice.

-if unequal status breeds prejudice, we can create cooperative, equal status activities -if prejudice rationalizes discriminatory behavior, we can mandate nondiscrimination -if social institutions support prejudice, we can pull out those supports (for example, with media that model interracial harmony and acceptance of LGBTQ+ people -if outgroups seem more homogenous than they really are, we can make efforts to personalize their members -if our automatic prejudices lead us to feel guilt, we can use that guilt to motivate ourselves to break the prejudice habit

Explain how subtyping serves to maintain stereotypes.

-subtyping maintains stereotypes because someone acting in a counterstereotypical way is considered an exception to the rule. -ex. friendly police officers are treated as a subtype while the general stereotype that police officers are unfriendly and dangerous remains

Describe evidence consistent with realistic group conflict theory.

-in Western Europe, economically frustrated people express relatively high levels of blatant prejudice toward ethnic minorities -In Canada, opposition to immigration since 1975 went up and down with the unemployment rate -In the US, concerns about immigrants taking jobs are the greatest among those with low incomes -In South Africa, African immigrants were killed by poor South Africans who resented the economic condition

Explain the relationship between religion and prejudice.

-in almost every country, leaders invoke religion to justify the current social order -white church members have expressed more prejudice than nonmembers -those professing fundamentalists beliefs have expressed more prejudice than those with progressive beliefs -could be that religion is unrelated to prejudice (education more explanatory) -could also be that religion causes prejudice or that prejudice causes religion -faithful churchgoers are less prejudiced than casual attendees -those intrinsically motivated to practice religion express less prejudice than those who are extrinsically motivated -clergy express less prejudice than regular people -*this means that that the role of religion is complicated; it can both perpetuate and prevent prejudice depending on how it is defined*

Describe how attitudes toward same-sex relationships vary around the world.

-in many countries, same sex relationships are a criminal offense' -6% of people in Spain believe homosexuality is morally unacceptable compared to 98% in Ghana -23 countries support transgender rights (Russia is lowest, Spain is highest)

Describe evidence of the harmful effects of LGBTQ+ discrimination.

-in states without hate crime and nondiscrimination protection, LGBT people report substantially higher mood disorder rates -communities with commonplace LGBT discrimination are communities with high rates of suicide and cardiovascular death -LGBT people who experience discrimination are more likely to report anxiety and depression -40% of transgender individuals report having attempted suicide and were less likely to do so if their families supported them -in states where gay marriage was banned, LGBT people experienced substantially higher mood disorders, alcohol use disorders, and general anxiety disorders

Describe how social institutions such as banks and the media have contributed to prejudice.

-institutions may bolster prejudice through overt policies or by passively reinforcing the status quo -banks routinely denied mortgages to unmarried women and minority applicants, meaning that white married couples were the only ones able to own homes -media portrayal of groups in stereotypical ways enhances perceptions of those groups in that way -photos of men tend to focus on their faces while photos of women tend to focus on their bodies

Why can attributing discrimination to implicit bias be potentially problematic?

-it can be problematic because it implies that people can't control their biases and lets them off the hook for their prejudiced behavior -implicit biases may not always be as influential in our judgments as we think, so we may actually have more control over our decisions than implicit bias implies

What is problematic about "racial colorblindness"?

-it may not be possible to truly ignore race; we can't just shut off our perceptions of race -when we do act like race doesn't exist, this prevents us from being able to see race-based discrimination -racial colorblindness often accompanies a belief that racial discrimination is gone -its also related to ignorance of white privilege -it legitimizes the status quo because if the world is fair, then others struggle because of their own faults -associated with being unlikely to support policy changes that would improve the lives of people and reduce discrimination -it also assumes that whiteness is the default culture that others should conform to

Give examples of research findings showing discrimination.

-landlords are more likely to reply to apartment requests if the name sounds white -white people receive more responses when asking how to vote

Why do researchers think that displaced aggression helps to explain patterns of lynchings in the South?

-more lynchings occurred in years when cotton prices were low and economic frustrations were high -when the cause of our frustration is unknown, we tend to redirect our hostility -when living standards are rising, societies tend to be more open to diversity and the passage of antidiscrimination laws

Who may especially have trouble suppressing unwanted stereotypical thoughts?

-older adults -people under the influence of alcohol -they lose their ability to inhibit unwanted thoughts and suppress old stereotypes

Give examples of evidence of gender discrimination.

-people in non-Western countries much less likely to report that women should have the same rights as men -women are 2/3 of illiterate people in the world -men objectify women by associating them with animals or objects -labels for women are infantilizing (e.g. chick, honey) -approximately 40% of people would rather have a boy as a child; girl babies are more likely to be orphaned or abandoned -parents tend to want smart sons and beautiful daughters

Explain how prejudgments have been found to guide our attention and our memory.

-people misrecall their school grades consistent with gender stereotypes; women remember getting lower math grades and higher arts grades than they actually got -after we judge an item as belonging to a category, our memory later shifts toward the features we associate with that category; ex. when viewing a male face, people later recalled it as even more male

Describe evidence of discrimination faced by LGBT people.

-people received fewer job callbacks for volunteering with gay-affiliated group compared to other left-leaning group -90% of transgender people report being harassed or mistreated at work -support for gay marriage remains mixed, although it is increasing -8 out of 10 lesbian and gay adolescents report harassment -most likely to be the victim of a hate crime -family and friends may reject someone for being gay

How do people react to gender norm violations?

-people take notice of those who violate gender norms -a woman viewed as power-hungry receives more backlash than a men viewed as power hungry

Discuss the accuracy of Americans' estimates of the size of minority groups.

-people tend to overestimate the size of minority groups -this is because vivid examples lead us to think they are more prevalent than they are

What are people's perceptions of progress toward racial equality, and how do they compare to reality?

-people tend to perceive racial inequality as much smaller than it is and they think it has improved much more than it has -people have just-world beliefs are particularly likely to think that

Provide examples and evidence of ways that Black people in the U.S. face discrimination.

-people with a stereotypically Black name were less likely to be hired by an employer -Airbnb hosts are less likely to accept applications from Black people -longer waits and more cancellations for Uber and Lyft passengers with Black names -Black and Latino people are significantly more likely to be searched, arrested, and handcuffed and to have excessive force used against them -people tend to overpraise or overcriticize minority students to avoid appearing biased

Summarize what we've learned so far from research on authoritarianism.

-people with authoritarian attitudes often faced harsh discipline as children -extremism on both the left and right is associated with catastrophizing, desiring vengeance, dehumanizing the enemy, and seeking a sense of control -express intolerance of groups with values and beliefs unlike their own -insecurity of authoritarian individuals predisposes them to have an excessive concern with status and power and an inflexible right-wrong way of thinking -authoritarian people tend to be submissive to those with more power than them and aggressive or punitive toward those with a lower status -may have feelings of moral superiority

What do scores on the IAT correlate with?

-predicts acts of friendliness and work evaluations -metro ratings with higher implicit bias scores also have larger racial differences in police shootings -those with slower reaction times have been observed to judge white job applicants more favorably, to recommend better treatment for white than black emergency room patients, and to more quickly perceive anger in Black faces

Describe evidence consistent with the idea that prejudice is sometimes motivated by the need for status and self-regard.

-prejudice against others helps us maintain our feeling of superiority in the status system -most common among those who are low or falling on the socioeconomic ladder and those whose self-image is threatened -if we feel secure in status, we feel more authentic pride and less self-aggrandizement and express less prejudice as a result -reminding people of their own mortality makes them express more prejudice as form of terror management -men looking for status and feeling insecure may degrade women as weak and dependent to boost his own masculine ego -groups are more cohesive when they express prejudice toward others

What is the role of disliking the outgroup in ingroup bias?

-promoting our own group often involves devaluing other groups -outgroup stereotypes are used more frequently when people closely identify with their ingroup identity -however, ingroup bias and discrimination do come more from ingroup favoritism than outgroup hostility

What is white privilege?

-refers to the idea that white people don't have the added burden that comes with racial discrimination -ex. shorter jail sentences, less likely to die from illness, less likely to be homeless

Describe and explain what we can learn from Darley and Gross's (1983) experiment about "Hannah".

-students viewed a videotape of "Hannah" as either from a low-class or upper-class area -initially, students thought she would perform the same -however, when other students viewed the clip and some achievement test scores, they interpreted it as high ability if she was upper class and as below grade level if she was low-class -shows that when stereotypes are strong and the information is ambiguous, stereotypes can subtly bias our judgments

How do subtypes differ from subgroups?

-subtypes are exceptions to the group while subgroups are part of the overall diverse group

Describe people who are high in social dominance orientation.

-tend to view people in terms of social hierarchies -they like it when their own social groups are high in status -being in a dominant, high-status position also tends to promote this orientation -being high in social dominance may lead people to embrace prejudice and support political positions that justify prejudice -tend to support policies that maintain hierarchies, such as tax cuts for the well off -also tend to prefer professions such as politics and business that increase their status and maintain hierarchies -typically express more negative attitudes toward racial minority people

What does the IAT test?

-tests "implicit cognition," or what you know without knowing you know -measures speed of associations -can help demonstrate the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes -may only reveal cultural associations and not prejudice

Explain how illusory correlations can provide a source for racial stereotypes.

-the features that most distinguish a minority from the majority become associated with that group -a racial or ethnic group may be like everyone else in most ways but people will notice how it differs

What implications does Kleck & Strenta's (1980) study have for self-conscious interactions between well-intentioned majority group members and well-intentioned minority group members?

-these interactions can feel tense even when both parties are well-intentioned -people want to appear less prejudiced may act differently and those expecting prejudice interpret those behaviors as problematic -majority group members may sense that minority group members view them as prejudiced, arrogant, or patronizing

When and why are stereotypes problematic?

-they are problematic when they are overgeneralized or just wrong -especially strong when we have strong views about group differences that our beliefs exaggerate reality -they are problematic because they can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination

Describe Kleck & Strenta's (1980) study about how people feel when they believe they are distinctive.

-they had explored how women felt when disfigured -had created a facial scar using makeup and the women thought the experiment was about how others would react to the scar -it was actually about how they women would perceive others' behavior toward them when they were made to feel different' -they removed the scar before interacting with others though so the women felt self-conscious but no one else knew anything about it -the disfigured women were more aware of how their partners were looking at them and rated their partners as more tense, distant, and patronizing; however, there wasn't any actual difference in how they were treated

How do people, especially those with just world beliefs, tend to perceive the way things are in their culture's social systems?

-they justify their culture's familiar social systems -we think that the way we're inclined to think is the way things essentially are and ought to be -this makes it difficult to pass new social reform policies -after a policy is in place, however, our justification system works to sustain it

Why can white privilege be a challenging concept for White people?

-they tend to misunderstand what white privilege is; they think it means that all white people are privileged and have never faced hardships -they think it implies that they haven't earned or don't deserve what they have

How do our minds use vivid cases?

-they use them shortcuts when judging groups -when we have limited experience with a group, we recall examples use those to generalize

What do such beliefs do for people?

-this enables successful people to reassure themselves that they deserve what they have -they feel pride for the fortunate and avoid responsibility for the unfortunate -they do motivate us to put our energies toward long-term goals though

Describe research about how conformity and perceptions of norms can affect prejudice.

-those who conformed the most to social norms express the most prejudice while those who conform less express less of the prejudice surrounding them -prejudice is a manifestation of social norms that people are afraid to break (ex. pastors not wanting to support school integration out of fear that it would affect their membership -Donald Trump's prejudiced attitudes emboldened and encouraged hate groups -frequent and repetitive exposure to hate speech is associated with desensitization to the speech and increasing outgroup prejudice -conformity also maintains gender prejudice; children who only view women in the home are more likely to believe that that's how things should be

What are some examples of how unequal status affects prejudice?

-upper-class individuals are more likely than lower-class individuals to see someone's fortunes as earned -prejudice maintained slavery; they have been treated as inferior, mentally slow, and emotionally primitive -imperial powers viewed people in colonized people as inferior, requiring protection, and burdensome -women are treated as weak

Describe how victimization's effects can be used to justify the discrimination.

-victimization results in either blaming oneself or blaming external causes -if victimization results in a negative outcome (such as higher crime rates), that is used to justify the discrimination

Why is it problematic when our mind uses vivid cases?

-vivid instances rarely represent the entire group -they also distort our judgments and create stereotypes

Describe the ways that stereotypes bias interpretation.

-we attribute actions as inherent dispositions or mistakes/caused by external forces depending on our stereotypes of the group -for example, people think politicians why lie are just liars but physicists who lie are just mistaken

How does the Fundamental Attribution Error contribute to stereotypes and acceptance of inequalities?

-we attribute others' behavior so much to their inner dispositions that we discount important situational forces -occurs because our attention focuses on the person, not the situation -race or sex are visible and get attention; situational influences are not -ex. overlooked how gender roles related to men's and women's behavior

How does categorization affect perceptions of similarity and difference? Describe evidence of this.

-we perceive members of a group as being more uniform than they actually are -we also exaggerate differences between groups -the more familiar we are with a social group, the more diverse they seem; the less familiar we are with them, the more similar they seem -ex. people assume that an 8-day forecast is more similar if all the days are within a month compared to if it stretches across months

Give examples of group-serving bias in how we explain and talk about people's behaviors.

-when a white person gently shoves another white person, it is interpreted as playful; when a Black person does it, it is interpreted as aggressive -we assume that their positive behaviors are special cases attributable to luck or special advantage, demanded by the situation, or as a result of extra effort -ex. we assume that minority groups got into school based on affirmative action quotas -disadvantaged groups and those that value modesty express less group-serving bias -by contrast, immodest groups worried about their own greatness react to threats with group-serving bias and hostility -multiculturalism can also promote group-serving bias sometimes because pointing out differences can promote hostility when conflicts arise -positive behaviors of ingroups are viewed as dispositions of outgroups are viewed as isolated acts; the reverse is true for negative behavior

Reasons to believe confronting prejudice makes a difference and is important.

-when an ally stands up for someone, this can be more influential because it doesn't seem like the person is just being oversensitive or taking things too personally -when people don't confront prejudiced comments from their friends, they assume that others agree; they would be less likely to say them if they knew others didn't agree -when people are confronted for saying something stereotypical, they often feel guilty and are less likely to use those stereotypes in the future -others are more likely to speak up as well after one person does -if you don't speak up, you also become more likely to not say anything the next time

Give examples of how the mass media reflect and feed this phenomenon.

-when an unusual act is done by someone of an atypical group, this can create an illusionary correlation in someone's mind -for example, when a gay person commits an act of sexual violence, their sexuality is usually mentioned but it is not when a straight person does the same thing -this leads to an illusionary correlation between the distinctive group and the distinctive act

Why does the own-race bias occur?

-when looking at members of another group, we tend to consider their group first before their individual differences -when viewing someone from our own group, we pay less attention to race and more attention to individual features

What conditions are necessary to produce ingroup bias?

-when our group is small and differs in status relative to the outgroup -when we are part of a small group surrounded by a large group, we are more conscious of our group membership -this explains why minority groups more strongly value their identity

Describe evidence that acceptance or belonging can reduce prejudice.

-when people's need to belong is met, they become more accepting of outgroups -ex. when Israeli students primed with belonging, they expressed no bias toward an essay written by an Israeli compared to an Arab

How and when can motivation to avoid prejudice reduce prejudice?

-when self-conscious people sense a gap between have they feel and how they should feel, they feel guilty and try to inhibit their prejudicial response -when people have an internal rather than external motivation to avoid prejudice, their automatic prejudices subside

Describe Word, Zanna, and Cooper's (1974) pair of experiments examining how social beliefs can be self-confirming.

-white male volunteers interviewed white and Black research assistants -when the applicant was Black, the interviewer sat farther away, ended the interview sooner, and made more speech errors -in a second experiment, treated people the same way Black people had been treated -interviewees treated like Black people seemed more nervous and less effective and friendly

Compare how White and Black Americans tend to evaluate the progress toward racial equality.

-white people tend to contrast the present with the past and view it as swift, radical progress -Black people tend to contrast the present with an equally fair world, which has not yet happened, and perceive less progress

Advice and recommendations regarding how to confront prejudice

1. *Avoid provoking defensiveness* -most people don't view themselves as prejudiced -acknowledge another person's moral image -people feel more okay about walking back their comment and behavior when you don't make them feel defensive -forcing them to defend their views makes them feel more like they have to commit to them 2. *Avoid provoking reactance* -saying "you can't do that" makes people feel like they're being censored 3. *Humanize/personalize* -make the target of prejudice more real -try to make the person empathize with targets of prejudice 4. *Point out large individual differences* -remind people that there is individual variation between groups

Give examples of racist stereotypes that persist today.

1. *Black children aren't children* -compared to white boys of the same age, Black boys are perceived as older and less innocent -police who believe this stereotype use excessive force against Black children 2. *Less sensitive to pain and stronger* -nurses assume that Black people can feel less pain -as a result, Black Americans receive less treatment for pain and they are perceived as less susceptible to pain and blows 3. *Violent and criminal* -when people are asked to pick names of criminals from a list, they tend to pick Black names -Black people get pulled over more and have both lethal and nonlethal force used against them more 4. *Lower competence and ability* -Black women are assumed to have less STEM abilities, which leads them to drop out at higher rates -Black people also face discrimination in job hiring; they get fewer callbacks

Summarize examples and evidence of stereotyping and discrimination based on religion, weight, age, and immigrant status.

1. *Religion* -after 9/11, those with the strongest American identity expressed prejudice toward Muslims -many people and employers express disfavor toward Muslims 2. *Weight* -people who weigh more are subject to insults, criticism, and shaming -overweight people are less likely to marry and often have less desirable jobs 3. *Age* -people patronize the elderly 4. *Immigrants* -people in America and Europe have much prejudice toward immigrants

Summarize Turner and Tajfel's social identity theory.

1. *We categorize* -we find it useful to put people, including ourselves, into categories 2. *We identify* -we associate ourselves with our ingroups and gain self-esteem from doing so 3. *We compare* -we contrast our groups with outgroups with a favorable bias toward our own group -uncertainty motivates us to seek a social identity -we become especially devoted to our groups when the boundary between individual and social identities becomes blurred

terror management

According to "terror management theory," people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality.

How does it influence perceptions of rape victims, battered spouses, poor people, sick people, and bullied teens?

Believe that... -rape victims must have behaved seductively -battered spouses must have provoked their beatings -poor people don't deserve better -sick people are responsible for their illnesses -teens who are bullied online deserve it

According to Fiske and colleagues, how do we view other groups on the two dimensions of social perception?

Competence and warmth -we respect the competence of those with a high status -we like those who agreeably accept a lower status -when we want to impress people, we downplay our warmth; when we want people to like us, we downplay our competence

Can discrimination occur without prejudicial intent? Explain and give examples.

No, there does not always need to be prejudicial intent -ex. racism and sexism are institutional practices that discriminate even when there is no prejudicial intent -ex. word of mouth hiring processes among whites exclude non-white candidates -much discrimination does not reflect intended harm; rather, it's favoritism toward people like oneself

Explain the outgroup homogeneity effect.

Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than the ingroup members. "They are alike and we are diverse"

Explain the own-race bias.

The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of people in their own race

Explain the realistic group conflict theory.

The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources

Describe modern/symbolic racism.

This is a type of covert racism; when people use modern/symbolic racism, they usually don't want people to think they're racist and they don't think they're racist themselves. Some characteristics are... -discomfort with outgroup members -interpreting ambiguous info differently based on race -denying that racism is still a problem

How does unequal status affect prejudice? Explain why and give examples. (Hint: in lecture, this was discussed in the Motivations & Goals section)

Unequal status breeds prejudice 1. *Frustration* -according to scapegoat theory, outgroup members are the target of our anger when we're frustrated -they are a "safe and convenient" target because they have less power to retaliate 2. *Competition* -comes from realistic group conflict theory -when there are limited resources and others pursue the same goals as us, they seem to be a threat -this may lead to expressions of prejudice as a way to maintain resources 3. *Need for self-esteem* -social identity theory -we are motivated to view ourselves positively so we want our group to seem like the best -we praise the ingroup and derogate the outgroup 4. *Rationalizing oppression* -if a group obtained power by dominating others, they want to maintain that power and feel good about it -those in power hold beliefs about those they oppress to justify their behavior -this helps maintain the inequality and keep those on top wealthy and powerful -it's also how those in power justify that their actions are moral and okay

How do perceptions of similarities and differences between groups contribute to ingroup bias?

We prefer our own group because we see unique compared to other groups and full of diversity; we perceive other groups as more homogenous

When do we find it especially easy and efficient to rely on stereotypes?

When we are... -pressed for time -preoccupied -tired -emotionally aroused

stereotypes

a belief about the personal attributes of a group -sometimes accurate but often inaccurate, overgeneralized, and resistant to new information

What is social dominance orientation?

a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups

authoritarian personality

a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status

prejudice

a preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members -it is an attitude; a combination of feelings, inclinations to act, and beliefs -ex. disliking someone, behaving toward them in a discriminatory manner, and believing them to be ignorant and dangerous

benevolent sexism

acceptance of positive stereotypes of males and females that leads to unequal treatment -ex. believing that women are morally superior

subgrouping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group

subtyping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule"

group-serving bias

explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group) -assume the best of our own group and the worst from other groups

hostile sexism

feelings of hostility toward women reflected by negative assumptions about women -ex. married women put men on leashes

Have rates of reported hate crimes recently decreased, increased, or stayed the same?

rates of reported hate crimes have increased

What is social identity?

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Describe the just-world phenomenon.

the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's group -part of our desire to have a positive self-concept

discrimination

unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members