CH.1 - CH.5 A&P
Specialized groups of cells working together for the same general purpose form
TISSUES
The atomic number of iron is 26. How many protons does iron have?
26!!!
How does the proton number of this atom compare with the electron number?
The Proton number is the same as an elements atomic number.
Systemic sclerosis
for instance, occurs when abnormal immune reactions stimulate fibroblasts to produce too much collagen. Tissue membranes thicken and harden, causing skin disfiguration and organ dysfunction.
Divisions of the Abdomen (quadrants)
divided into four quadrants. Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant, Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant
epithelium
forms a protective covering for the body. It is the main tissue of the skin's outer layer. It also forms membranes, ducts, and the lining of body cavities and hollow organs, such as the organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts.
cancer
Cells that normally multiply at a fast rate, such as epithelial stem cells, are more likely than are slower-growing cells to undergo such transformations. If these altered cells do not die naturally or get destroyed by the immune system, they will continue to multiply and may spread (metastasize) to other tissues, producing cancer. Cancer cells form tumors, which interfere with normal functions, crowding out normal cells and robbing them of nutrients.
Which element is the basis of organic chemistry?
Carbon!!
Which tissue is striated and under involuntary control?
Cardiac muscle tissue!!!
Cellular Diversity
Cell shape is related to cell function. A neuron's long fibers transmit electric energy from place to place in the nervous system. Small round red blood cells slide through tiny blood vessels. Cell organelle number is related to cell function. Lipid-producing cells have lots of smooth ER. Metabolically active cells have lots of mitochondria to manufacture ATP.
There are numerous levels of organization in the body. The correct order from simplest to most complex is
Cell, tissue, organ, system, organism!!!
Chemicals (Cancer Risk Factors)
Certain industrial,dietary,and environmental chemicals are known to increase the risk of cancer. Any chemical that causes cancer is called a carcinogen . The most common carcinogens in our society are those present in cigarette smoke.
Heredity (Cancer Risk Factors)
Certain types of cancer occur more frequently in some families than in others, indicating that genes influence cancer development.
Radiation (Cancer Risk Factors)
Certain types of radiation can produce damage to cellular DNA that may lead to cancer. These include x-rays, gamma rays from radioactive sub- stances, and ultraviolet rays.
Organic Compounds
Chemical compounds found in living things Built on the element carbon Main types Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins The complex molecules that characterize living things are called organic compounds. All of these are built on the element carbon.
Hormone
Chemical substances that help regulate many of your body's functions
the levels of organization
Chemical--Cell--Tissue--Organ--System--Organism
Molecules
Chemicals composed of two or more atoms held together with covalent bonds
Compounds
Chemicals composed of two or more different atoms held together by ionic or covalent bonds
Buffers
Chemicals that prevent sharp changes in H+ concentration Are important in maintaining a relatively constant pH in body fluids body fluids are delicately balanced within narrow limits of acidity and alkalinity. This balanced chemical state is maintained in large part by buffers.
Cardiovascular, Lymphatic
Circulation and immunity
Malignant Tumors
Classified according to tissues of origin Carcinoma(form of cancer. Usual sites of carcinoma are the skin, mouth, lung, breast, stomach, colon, prostate, and uterus.) Sarcoma (develops from connective tissue and therefore may be found anywhere in the body. Their cells are usually spread by the blood, and they often form metastases in the lungs.) Leukemia(is a cancer of white blood cells.) Lymphoma(is a malignant neoplasm of lymphatic tissue.) Glioma(is a cancer of the support (neuro- glial) tissue of the brain or spinal cord.)
Urinary system
Cleanses the blood. Rids the body of wastes. Maintains salt and water balance.
Shape and Arrangement of Bacteria
Cocci (These cells are round and are seen in characteristic arrangements . Those that are in pairs are called diplococci. Those that are arranged in chains, like a string of beads, are called streptococci. A third group, seen in large clusters, is known as staphylococci. ) Bacilli (.These cells are straight,slender rods) Curved rods:Vibrios (are short rods with as lightcurvature, like a comma) Spirilla (are long and wavelike cells, resembling a corkscrew) Spirochetes (re similar to the spi- rilla, but are capable of waving and twisting motions ) Rickettsia Chlamydiae
Cutaneous membrane
Commonly known as skin
Phospholipids
Complex lipid containing phosphorus Main component of cell membranes Phospholipids are complex lipids containing the element phosphorus.
nucleotides
Composed of: A nitrogenous base A sugar (usually ribose or deoxyribose) A phosphate group Building blocks of DNA and RNA One type is a component of ATP
Prions
Composed solely of protein
Proteins
Contain nitrogen (and sometimes sulfur or phosphorus). Found as structural materials and metabolically active compounds. Composed of chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. The overall three-dimensional shape of a protein is caused by folding. All proteins contain, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the element nitrogen. They may also contain sulfur or phosphorus. Proteins are the body's structural materials, found in muscle, bone, and connective tissue.
Steroids
Contain rings of carbon atoms (e.g., cholesterol) Regulate body function (e.g., cortisol, sex hormones) Steroids are lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms. The most important sterol is cholesterol , another component of cellular membranes
Cell Parts-Nucleus
Contains the chromosomes, the hereditary structures that direct all cellular activities
Cell Parts-Mitochondria
Convert energy from nutrients into ATP
Nervous, Endocrine
Coordination and control
Frontal plane
Divides the body into front (Anterior/ventral ) and back ( posterior/dorsal) portions. cut were made in line with the ears and then down the middle of the body.
Cell Parts-Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough ER modi es, folds, and sorts proteins; smooth ER participates in lipid synthesis
What are the three planes in which the body can be cut?
Sagittal(median plane), frontal(coronal plane), and transverse(horizontal plane).
Which microscope is most commonly used in laboratories?
Scanning electron microscope Transmission electron microscope Compound light microscope!!! Simple light microscope
Pinocytosi
in which the plasma membrane engulfs droplets of fluid. This is a way for large protein molecules in suspension to travel into the cell. The word pinocytosis means "cell drinking."
Angiogenesis
inhibitors attempt to block tumor growth by preventing this process of angiogenesis (growth of blood vessels).
Where are intracellular fluids located?
inside the cell
The outermost body system
integumentary system
visceral layer
internal organs are called viscera, the portion of the serous membrane attached to an organ is the visceral layer. Visceral pericardium is on the surface of the heart, and each lung surface is covered by visceral pleura.
syndrome
is a complex disorder characterized by a cluster of typical symptoms and signs. (downsyndrome)
In the opening case study, Mike's intra-abdominal hemorrhage is in the _____ body cavity. balance called
ventral
anatomic position
when the body is up right facing position either laying on your back or standing
ology
when word end with ology; it mean study of (something)
Lumbar regions (right/left)
which are on a level with the lumbar regions of the spine
protein's shape so that it can no longer function is termed denaturation.
protein's shape so that it can no longer function is termed denaturation.
Plasma membrane-Cell identity markers
proteins unique to an individual's cells. Proteins unique to a person's cells; important in the immune system and in transplantation of tissue from one person to another,(Proteins unique to a person's cells; important in the immune system and in transplantation of tissue from one person to another)
atom's weight
protons and neutrons contribute nearly all of the
Fascia
refers to fibrous bands or sheets that support organs and hold them in place. Fascia is found in two regions: Superficial fascia is the continuous sheet of tissue that underlies the skin. Composed of areolar and adipose tissue, this membrane insulates the body and cushions the skin. This tissue is also called subcutaneous fascia because it is located beneath the skin.
mucosa
refers to the mucous membrane of an organ.
Mediastinum
region between the lungs in the chest cavity
Iliac (right/left)
regions, named for the upper crest of the hip bone and the groin region, respectively
effector
responds to the signal.
Which region/quadrant contains the liver?
right Hypochondriac/ right upper quadrant
Hypogastric region
the most inferior of all the midline regions
fibrous pericardium
forms the cavity that encloses the heart, the pericardial cavity. This fibrous sac and the serous pericardial membranes described above are often described together as the pericardium
Phagocytosis
in which relatively large particles are engulfed by the plasma membrane and moved into the cell
Arthropods
(AR-thro-pods) are a diverse group of organisms, including insects and arachnids (spiders and mites). As dis- cussed earlier, many arthropods act as disease vectors as they feed on blood. Mosquitoes, for instance, can spread malaria, dengue fever, and viral encephalitis.
systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE), autoimmunity can cause inflammation of serous membranes, such as the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum, as well as the con- nective tissue membranes supporting blood vessels.
endospores
, that can tolerate long periods of dryness or other adverse conditions Short flagella- like structures called pili (PI-li) help bacteria to glide along solid surfaces. Pili also help to anchor bacteria to surfaces, such as to the surface of a liquid to get oxygen.
incidence rate
, the number of new disease cases appear- ing in a particular population during a specific time period divided by the size of the population
Prevalence rate
, the overall frequency of a disease in a given group, that is, the number of cases of a disease present in a given population during a specific period or at a particular time. Morbidity rate can refer to either the incidence rate or the prevalence rate.
Skeletal muscle
, which works with tendons and bones to move the body . This type of tissue is described as voluntary muscle because we make it con- tract by conscious thought.striations. For this reason, skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle.
Mortalityrate
,the percentage of the population that dies from a given disease within a given time period
Poor nutrition (Cancer Risk Factors)
. A poor-quality diet is a cancer risk factor, even in people of healthy body weight. While further studies are needed, it appears that diets high in animal fats and/or lacking in fiber, fruits, and vegetables are associated with an increased occurrence of certain cancers.
predisposing causes
. Although a predisposing cause may not in itself give rise to a disease, it increases the probability of a person's becoming ill. Age Gender Heredity Living conditions and lifestyles Emotional disturbance Physical and chemical damage Preexisting illness
Subacute
. These diseases are intermediate between acute and chronic, not as severe as acute disorders nor as long lasting as chronic ones.
Chronic
. These diseases are often less severe but are likely to be continuous or recurring for long periods.
Acute
. These diseases are relatively severe but usually last a short time.
Infectious agents (Cancer Risk Factors)
. These have been implicated in specific cancers.
The most inferior midline region of the abdomen is the
. hypogastric region!!!
Where is intracellular fluid located?
. inside body cells!!!
In location, the ankle is _____ to the knee.
. proximal !!!!
A plane that divides the body into right and left portions is
. sagittal plane!!!
parasites
; that is, they live on or within a living host and at the host's expense.
Biopsy
= is the removal of living tissue for the purpose of microscopic examination. Specimens can be obtained by needle withdrawal (aspiration) of fluid; by a small punch, as of the skin; by an endoscope
Which substance always accepts hydrogen ions?
A base!!!
Which substance is most important in maintaining a relatively constant pH in body fluids?
A buffer!!!
hypotonic (more dilute) solution
A cell placed in a hypotonic (more dilute) solution draws water in, causing the cell to swell and perhaps undergo hemolysis (bursting).
Which of the following is a cancer risk factor?
A family history of cancer !!!
Which organ is NOT in the abdominopelvic cavity?
Gallbladder Liver Lung!!! Small intestine
Physical inactivity (Cancer Risk Factors)
A lack of physical activity increases the risk of colon cancer and breast cancer (and possibly others), even in people who are not overweight.
osmotic pressure
A measure of the force driving osmosis is called the osmotic pressure. This force can be measured,by applying enough pressure to the surface of a liquid to stop the inward flow of water by osmosis. osmotic pressure is used to describe a solution's tendency to draw in water. This force is directly related to concentration; the higher a solution's concentration, the greater is its osmotic pressure.
microorganisms
A predominant cause of human disease is the invasion of the body by disease-producing microorganisms . The word organism means "anything having life;" micro means "very small."
Electroencephalogram
A record of the brain's electrical activity
Electrocardiogram
A record of the heart's electrical activity
Which example illustrates negative feedback?
A rise in blood calcium levels stimulates release of a hormone that lowers blood calcium levels.!!!
hypotonic
A solution that is less concentrated than the cytoplasm is described as hypotonic. a cell placed in a hypotonic solution draws water in, swells, and may burst. When a red blood cell draws in water and bursts in this way, the cell is said to undergo hemolysis.
organs
A structure consisting of several tissues adapted as a group to perform specific functions.
Salt
A substance formed by a reaction between an acid and a base
Acid
A substance that releases hydrogen ions
Base
A substance that releases hydroxide ions and accepts hydrogen ions
Respiratory system
A system of organs, functioning in the process of gas exchange between the body and the environment, consisting especially of the nose, nasal passages, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
idiopathic
A term used in describing a disease without a known cause is
Cell Parts-Nucleolus
Makes ribosomes
Cell Parts-Ribosomes
Manufacture proteins
tumor or neoplasm
Abnormal growth of cells is called a tumor or neoplasm. Types Benign Malignant (cancer)
Tachycardia
Abnormally rapid heartbeat
Cell Parts-Microvilli
Absorb materials into the cell
MOVEMENT THAT REQUIRES CELLULAR ENERGY
Active transport uses transporters and ATP to move ions and nutrients, and bulk transport uses vesicles and ATP to move large amounts of substances at once.(Active Transport,Bulk Transport!!!)
Which substance always has a pH below 7?
An acid!!!
ion
An atom or group of atoms that has acquired a positive or negative charge is called an body fluids contain many different ions. conduct electric currents in body fluid. Measurement of a tissue's electrical activity is used to diagnose disease. Homeostasis maintains proper ion concentration.
outermost energy level
An atom will donate, accept, or share electrons to fill its outermost energy level. If the outermost energy level has more than four elec- trons but less than its capacity of eight, the atom typically completes this level by sharing or gaining electrons from one or more other atoms.
opportunistic infection
An infection that takes hold because the host has been compromised (weakened) by disease is described as an .
vector
An insect bite may introduce infectious organisms into the body. An insect or other animal that transmits a disease- causing organism from one host to another is termed a
Microscope
An instrument that magnifies structures not visible to the naked eye Types of microscopes: Compound light microscope (most commonly most used in laboratories object up to 1,000 times) Transmission electron microscope( uses an electron beam in place of visible light and can magnify an image up to 1 million times.) Scanning electron microscope ((100,000 times) and shows only surface features; however, it provides a three dimensional view of an object.)
A reaction in which simple compounds are assembled into more complex compounds is most accurately described as
Anabolic reaction !!!
Protozoa
Animal-like, single-celled microbes found all over the world Types Amebas (is an irregularly shaped organism that propels itself by extending part of its cell ) Ciliates (rotozoon is covered with cilia that wave to propel the organism. ) Flagellates (Flagella propel these organ- isms. One of these groups, a trypanosome) Apicomplexans ( formerly called Sporozoa, unlike other protozoa, cannot propel themselves. )
seat worm or pinworm
Another fairly common infestation, particularly in children, is the seat worm or pinworm (Enterobius ver- micularis), which is also hard to control and eliminate. The worms average 12 mm (slightly less than 1/2 in) in length and live in the large intestine.
Anterior/ventral and posterior/dorsal
Anterior/ventral (front ) and posterior/dorsal (back)
cation
Any ion that is positively charged is a
anion
Any negatively charged ion is an
Enzymes
Are proteins that speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions Work on specific substrates Are not used up or changed during a chemical reaction Work via the "lock-and-key" mechanism Denature in harsh conditions (e.g., extremes of temperature or pH) Enzymes (EN-zimes) are proteins that are essential for metabolism. They are catalysts (KAT-ah- lists) in the hundreds of reactions that take place within cells. Without these catalysts, which increase the speed of chemical reactions, metabolism would not occur at a fast enough rate to sustain life.
stratified (layers)
Areas subject to wear and tear that require protection are covered with epithelial cells in multiple layers, an arrangement described as stratified.
Muscular system
Attached to the bones and produce movement of the skeleton, also gives the body structure protects organs and maintains posture.
Digestive system
Breaks down food into smaller molecules. Absorbs these nutrients into the body.
What is the symbol and number for carbon?
C 6
Cell Parts-Golgi apparatus
Further modi es proteins; sorts and prepares proteins for transport to other parts of the cell or out of the cell
cells
Basic unit of all life
Monosaccharides
Basic units of carbohydrates, Glucose
Peritonitis
Become inflamed or infected
What is the removal of living tissue for microscopic examination called?
Biopsy!!! Computed tomography Magnetic resonance imaging Positron emission tomography
filariasis elephantiasis
Biting insects, such as flies and mosquitoes, transmit the tiny, threadlike filarial worm that causes filariasis . The worms grow in large numbers, causing various disturbances. If they clog the lymphatic vessels, a condition called elephantiasis results, in which the lower extremities, the scrotum, the breasts, and other areas may become tremendously enlarged
Extracellular fluid
Blood plasma, Lymph, Fluid between cells
Alkalosis
Body fluid pH greater than 7.45
Acidosis/
Body fluid pH less than 7.35
What is the definition of homeostasis?
Body's maintenance of internal balance.
Homeostasis
Body's maintenance of internal balance. "staying (stasis) the same (homeo)." A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level, equilibrium.
Chondrocytes are to cartilage as osteocytes are to
Bone!!!
Nervous system
Brain, spinal cord, nerves make this complex system and it controls and coordinate our body
Cell Parts-Peroxisomes
Break down harmful substances
Negative feedback
Critical for maintaining our health Keeps body conditions within a normal range by reversing any upward or downward shift A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.
Which anatomic adjective describes the anterior thigh?
Crural Femoral!!! Popliteal Sural
Thoracic Cavity
Further subdivided in to , Pericardial cavity Pleural cavity, Mediastinum.
interphase stage
DNA replicates during interphase, the stage in the cell's life cycle between one mitosis and the next. During this phase, DNA uncoils from its double-stranded form, and enzymes assemble a matching strand of nucleotides for each old strand according to the pattern of A-T, G-C pairing. There are now two double-stranded DNA molecules, each identical to the original double helix. The two double helices are held together at a region called the centromere until they separate toward the end of mitosis. A typical stem cell lives in interphase for most of its life cycle and spends only a relatively short period in mitosis.
You are studying a slide of a body tissue in anatomy lab. You see a few similar cells that do not contact each other and many thick collagen fibers oriented in the same direction. What tissue is most likely on the slide?
Dense connective tissue!!!
Cell Parts-Proteasomes
Destroy improperly synthesized proteins
Cell Parts-Lysosomes
Digest substances within the cell
Modes of transmission
Direct Indirect
Benign Tumors
Do not invade other tissues or spread to other sites Their cells stick together, and often they are encapsulated, that is, surrounded by a containing membrane. The cells in a benign tumor are very similar in appearance to the normal cells from which they are derived Papilloma Grows in epithelium as a projecting mass (wart) Adenoma Grows in and about glands Lipoma Originates in fat tissue Osteoma Originates in bone Myoma Tumor of muscle Angioma Tumor usually composed of small blood vessels Nevus Small usually harmless skin tumor (e.g., mole) Meningioma  Originates in the linings of the brain and spinal cord Chondroma Tumor of cartilage cells
The body is divided into two main cavities.
Dorsal Cavity Ventral Cavity
Name the two main body cavities?
Dorsal Cavity, Ventral Cavity
Which term best describes the sodium ion (Na+)?
Electrolyte!!!
Nonpolar covalent bond
Electrons are shared equally.
Polar covalent bond
Electrons are shared unequally.
Radioactivity
Emission of atomic particles from an isotope
Which method transports bulk amounts of material into the cell using vesicles?
Endocytosis!!!
Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary
Energy supply and fluid balance
A substance that has a name ending incase is most likely a(n)?
Enzyme!!
Which organic compound catalyzes metabolic reactions?
Enzyme!!!
9 abdomen regions
Epigastric Umbilical Hypogastric Hypochondriac (left and right) Lumbar (left and right) Iliac or inguinal (left and right)
Name the three central regions and the three left and right lateral regions of the abdomen.
Epigastric Umbilical Hypogastric Hypochondriac (left and right) Lumbar (left and right) Iliac or inguinal (left and right)
Four main groups of tissues
Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous tissue
Atomic Number
Equal to the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. Also represents the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus. No two elements share the same atomic number.
Obesity (Cancer Risk Factors)
Excessive fat tissue is a risk factor for certain cancers. Fat cells produce substances that directly or indirectly promote tumor development.
Hemorrhage
Excessive or profuse bleeding
Viruses
Extremely small microorganisms Composed of a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a coat of proteins Grow only within living cells
Which process uses transporters but not ATP?
Facilitated diffusion!!!
Transcription (2 steps)
First step; occurs in nucleus DNA code is transcribed into mRNA by nucleotide base pairing Second step; occurs in cytoplasm mRNA leaves nucleus and travels to ribosomes Ribosomes and tRNA translate mRNA into protein's amino acid sequence
Squamous (shape)
Flat, irregular cells with flat nuclei Capillary walls, lung alveoli, glomerular capsule in the kidney, serous membranes
Intracellular fluid
Fluid within cells
ionic bond.
Form when one atom transfers electrons to another atom The atom that donates an electron becomes a positively charged cation. The atom that accepts an electron becomes a negatively charged anion. The ionic bond is the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Covalent Bonds
Form when two atoms share electrons The most common chemical bond in the body
Isotopes
Forms of an element that have the same atomic number but different atomic weight Different atomic weight because of a different number of neutrons May be stable or unstable (radioactive)
autoimmune disorders
Frequently involved in : Examples: Systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis
3 Planes of Division
Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane
A plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts is the
Frontal plane!!!
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Further subdividedin to the Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)/ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Genes are distinct segments of the complex organic chemical that makes up the chromosomes, a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA is composed of subunits called nucleotidesA related compound, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, which participates in protein synthesis but is not part of the chromosomes, is also composed of nucleotides. As noted, a nucleotide contains a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen-containing base.
Naming Bacteria
Genus name: Capitalized and italic Species name: Lowercase and italic Example: Escherichia coli or E. coli
Endocrine system
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
body systems
Groups of bodily organs acting together to perform one or more functions
tissues
Groups of cells with a common structure and function.
Cell Parts-Centrioles
Help separate the chromosomes during cell division
Suspension
Heterogeneous mixture in which one substance is dispersed in another but will settle out unless constantly mixed Red blood cells in blood plasma; milk of magnesia
Colloid
Heterogeneous mixture in which the suspended particles remain evenly distributed based on the small size and opposing charges of the particles Blood plasma; cytosol
Normal body function maintains a state of internal
Homeostasis
Solution
Homogeneous mixture formed when one substance (solute) dissolves in another (solvent) Table salt (NaCl) dissolved in water; table sugar (sucrose) dissolved in water
Cells crenate when they are placed in solutions that are
Hypertonic!!!
crenation (shrinks)
If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, which is more concentrated than the cellular fluid, it loses water to the surrounding fluids and shrinks, a process termed crenation
endemic
If a given disease is found to a lesser extent but continuously in a particular region, the disease is considered to
epidemic
If many people in a given region acquire a certain disease at the same time, that disease is said to be.
pseudostratified (layers)
If the cells are staggered so that they appear to be in multiple layers but really are not, they are termed pseudostratified. cells would be described as simple squamous epithelium, whereas tissue with many layers of these same cells would be described as stratified squamous epithelium. urinary bladder, must vary a great deal in size as they work. These organs are lined with transitional epithelium, which is capable of great expansion but returns to its original form once tension is relaxed—as when, in this case, the urinary bladder is emptied. Columnar cells that appear stratified, but are not Lining of respiratory passages
Transverse plane
If the cut were made horizontally, across the other two planes, it would divide the body into a superior (upper) part and an inferior (lower) part. A transverse plane is also called a horizontal plane.
systemic (local)
If the infection is restricted to a relatively small area of the body, it is local; a generalized, or
Disease Categories
Infection (colds, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), "strep" throat, tuberculosis, and food poisoning. ) Degenerative diseases ( These are disorders that involve tissue degeneration (breaking down) in any body system.muscular dystrophy, cirrhosis of the liver, Alzheimer disease, osteoporosis, and arthritis. ) Nutritional diseases (diseases caused by a dietary lack of essential vitamins, minerals, proteins, or other substances required for health:) Metabolic disorders (any disruption of cellular metabolism. Hormones regulate many metabolic reactions.) Immune disorders (deficiencies in the immune system are inherited; some, such as AIDS, are the result of infection. ) Neoplasms (new growth" and refers to cancer and other types of tumors. ) Psychiatric disorders (mental disorders.)
infection
Invasion of the body by microorganisms, which may result in illness
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Is built on a strand of DNA in the nucleus and transcribes the nucleotide code Moves to cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome
A form of an element that differs in its atomic weight from other forms of that same element is a(n) ____________.
Isotope!!!
Fungi
Large group of simple plantlike organisms; few are pathogenic Types Yeasts Single-celled forms of fungi Molds Fuzzy, filamentous forms of fungi
Serous membranes
Line body cavities and cover internal organs Do not connect to the outside of the body Secrete serous fluid that acts as a lubricant serous membranes are arranged so that one portion forms the lining of a closed cavity, while another part folds back to cover the surface of the organ contained in that cavity.
Mucous membranes
Line tubes and ducts that open to outside of the body Vary in structure and function Trap and remove foreign particles Protect deeper tissue Absorb food materials Mucous membranes are so named because they contain goblet cells that produce mucus. (Note that the adjective mucous contains an "o," whereas the noun mucus does not). The membranes vary some- what in both structure and function, but they all have an underlying layer of areolar tissue known as the lamina propria. The epithelial cells that line the nasal cavities and the respiratory passageways have cilia.
Columnar (shape)
Long narrow cells with ovoid basal nuclei Lining of the stomach, intestine, oviducts
Flagellum
Long, whiplike extension from the cell Moves the cell
Which region/quadrant contains the kidney?
Lumbar (left and right)
Roundworms
Many human parasitic worms are classi- fied as roundworms, and the large worm Ascaris (AS-kah- ris) is one of the most common (see Fig. 5-13A and D). This worm is prevalent in many parts of Asia, where it is found mostly in larval form. Ascaris is a long, white-yellow worm pointed at both ends. It may infest the lungs or the intestines, producing intes- tinal obstruction if present in large numbers. Ascaris infestation may be diagnosed by a routine stool examination.
Polysaccharides
Many monosaccharides linked together, Glycogen and starch
PARASITIC WORMS
Many species of worms, also referred to as helminths, are parasites with human hosts. The study of worms, particularly parasitic worms, is called helminthology . Whereas invasion by any form of organism is usually called an infection, the presence of parasitic worms in the body also can be termed an infestation
The pH Scale
Measures the relative concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in a solution. Scale from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic). Each unit represents a 10-fold change. Normal body fluid pH range is between 7.35 and 7.45. Ph level 7 is neutral
In location, the nose is _____ to the eyes.
Medial
Medial and lateral
Medial ( closer to middle line of the body )and lateral (farther to middle line of the body)
Which term means closer to the body's midline?
Medial!!!
Which RNA is transcribed from DNA?
Messenger RNA!!!
microbiology
Microorganisms are simple forms of life, usually a single cell. The group includes bacteria, viruses, fungi, proto- zoa, and algae. The study of these microscopic organisms is
Cancer Diagnosis
Microscopic study of tissue or cells Radiography Ultrasound (ultrasonography) Computed tomography (CT) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Positron emission tomography (PET) Tumor marker tests Genetic tests Staging(Oncologists (cancer specialists) use diagnostic studies for a process called staging, which is a procedure for establishing the extent of tumor spread, both at the original site and in other locations (metastases). Staging is important for selecting and evaluating therapy and for predicting the disease's outcome. )
Which organelle generates ATP?
Mitochondrion!!!
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
The Importance of Water
Most abundant compound in body Critical in all physiologic processes Deficiency (dehydration) threatens health Universal solvent Stable liquid at ordinary temperatures Participates in body's chemical reactions
Stratified Epithelium
Multiple cell layers provide protection in areas subject to wear and tear.
What is another term for tumor?
Neoplasm!!!
neuroglia
Nervous tissue is supported and protected by specialized cells known as neuroglia or glial cells, which are named from the Greek word glia meaning "glue." Some of these cells protect the brain from harmful substances; others get rid of foreign organisms and cellular debris; still others form the myelin sheath around axons. Do not transmit nerve impulses
What bond forms between two atoms that share their electrons equally?
Nonpolar bond!!!
Which organic compound is used to store genetic information?
Nucleotide!!!
Atomic Structure
Nucleus At atom's center Composed of Protons; positively charged Neutrons; not charged Electrons Negatively charged Orbit in energy levels around the nucleus Determine atom's chemical reactivity
Which chemical is NOT a compound?
O2!!!
26
Of the 92 elements that exist in nature, only 26 have been found in living organisms. 96% of body weight—four elements 4% of body weight—nine elements 0.1% of body weight—13 elements
characteristics of the cell
Organization Metabolism Responsiveness Homeostasis Growth Reproduction
Which element makes up the greatest percentage of body weight?
Oxygen!!!
The body's chemical composition by weight.
Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up about 96% of body weight. Oxygen 65% Carbon 18.5% Hydrogen 9.5% Nitrogen 3% Other 4%
Which is an example of an endocrine gland?
Pancreas secretes insulin, which regulates blood sugar.!!!
Peritoneum
Parietal layer lines the abdominal cavity Visceral layer covers abdominal organs
Serous pericardium
Parietal layer lines the pericardial sac Visceral layer covers the heart
Pleurae
Parietal layer lines the thoracic cavity Visceral layer covers the lungs
Plasma membrane components
Phospholipid bilayer (The main substance of the plasma membrane is a double layer—or bilayer—of lipid molecules. Because these lipids contain the element phosphorus, they are called phospholipids.) Cholesterol ( combined either with proteins (glycoproteins) or with lipids (glycolipids). These carbohydrates help cells recognize each other and stick together.) Proteins (A variety of different proteins float within the lipid bilayer. Some of these proteins extend all the way through the membrane, and some are located near the membrane's inner or outer surface.)
What is the main substance of the plasma membrane?
Phospholipid!!!
Which membrane contains epithelial tissue?
Pleura!!!
Which cavity contains the lung?
Pleural cavity
Meiosis (Cell Division)
Produces gametes Cuts chromosome number in half to prepare for union of egg and sperm during fertilization
Mitosis (Cell Division)
Produces somatic cells Parent stem cell gives rise to two identical daughter cells genetic information (DNA) in the parent cell must be replicated (doubled), so that each of the two new daughter cells will receive a complete set of chromosomes
Reproductive
Production of offspring
During which phase of mitosis are chromosomes first visible?
Prophase!!!
Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular
Protection, support, and movement
Skeletal system
Protects and supports body organs and provides a **framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones (206) and joints. collectively known as the skeleton.
What is synthesized during translation?
Protein!!!
amino acids
Proteins are composed of monomers called amino acids. Although only about 20 different amino acids exist in the body, a vast number of proteins can be made by linking them together in different combinations.
DNA
Proteins give a cell its structure and function. DNA directs protein synthesis. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T); guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C). Nucleotides make up DNA DNA organized into genes Genes organized into chromosomes The doubled strands then coil into a spiral, giving DNA the descriptive name double helix.
Proximal and distal
Proximal (closest distance to one body part )and distal (farer distance to one body part )
Catabolism
Reactions that break substances down Used to form ATP
Anabolism
Reactions that build substances up Often require ATP (more complex compounds)
Energy Levels
Regions around an atom's nucleus where electrons orbit. Each region has space for a specific number of electrons. The first energy level has room for two electrons. The second energy level has room for eight electrons. An atom is most stable when its energy levels are filled with electrons. they are stable (nonreactive) when they have eight.
Reproductive system
Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)
Chemistry
Science that deals with matter's composition and properties Used to understand normal and abnormal body function the study of matter and how it changes the science that deals with the com- position and properties of matter.
Prevention
Seeks to stop disease before it actually happens Stop smoking. Limit alcohol use. Eat a healthy diet. Maintain a healthy weight. Get regular exercise.
Hypertensive
Severe Headach
Cilia
Short, hairlike projections from the cell Move the fluids around the cell
Triglycerides
Simple fat composed of glycerol and three fatty acids Insulates body, protects organs, stores energy One fatty acid is attached to each of the three carbon atoms in glycerol, so simple fats are described as tri- glycerides
Simple Epithelium
Single cell layer allows materials to pass from one system to another
Cell Parts-Cytoplasm
Site of many cellular activities; consists of cytosol and organelles
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle Voluntary Striated Cardiac muscle (myocardium) Involuntary Contains intercalated disks Smooth muscle (visceral muscle) Involuntary Unstriated
Which system is comprised of bones and joints?
Skeletal system!!!
11 body system
Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Integumentary, Respiratory, Endocrine, Lymphatic, Cardiovascular, Urinary, Digestive, Reproductive
Atoms
Smallest subunits of elements Cannot be broken down or changed by ordinary chemical and physical means
Bone
Solid matrix hardened with mineral salts Makes up bones of skeleton Gives structure, support, and protection to body Works with muscles to produce movement
Which term describes a substance that dissolves another substance?
Solvent!!!
anaerobic aerobic facultative anaerobes
Some are capable of carrying out photosynthesis, as do green plants; others must take in organic nutrients, as do animals. Some, described as anaerobic, can grow only in the absence of oxygen; others, called aerobic (air-O-bik), require oxygen. Other groups of bacteria are described as facultative anaerobes. These cells will use oxygen if it is present but are able to grow without oxygen if it is not available. Escherichia coli, an intestinal organism,
epithelial cells
Some epithelial cells have cilia. Sweep particles trapped in mucus away from the lungs Epithelial cells repair and replace themselves quickly.
Flatworms
Some flatworms resemble long ribbons, whereas others have the shape of a leaf. Tapeworms, rib- bon-like flatworms, grow in the intestinal tract, reaching a length of 1.5 to 15 m (5 to 50 ft) (Fig. 5-15). They are spread by infected, improperly cooked meats, including beef, pork, and fish. Leaf-shaped flatworms, known as flukes, may invade various parts of the body, including the blood, lungs, liver, and intestine
epidemiology
Some health specialists study diseases in populations, a science known as
Cuboidal (shape)
Square cells with central round nuclei Tubules and ducts, as in the kidney, liver, glands
Effects of Aging
Starts around the 40s, changes occur generally in all body systems such as wrinkling and gray hair decreased kidney function loss bone mass can get strokes heart attacks blocks
Cell Parts-Vesicles
Store materials and move materials into or out of the cell in bulk
You are studying a slide in anatomy lab. You see several layers of tile-shaped cells. What tissue is most likely on the slide?
Stratified squamous epithelium!!!
physiology
Study of body function
anatomy
Study of body structure
Superior and inferior
Superior (top) and inferior bottom)
Cell Parts-Cytosol
Surrounds the organelles; site of many chemical reactions and nutrient storage
neuron
The basic unit of nervous tissue is the neuron or nerve cell . A neuron consists of a nerve cell body plus small branches from the cell called fibers. These fibers carry nerve impulses to and from the cell body. Neurons may be quite long; their fibers can extend for several feet. A nerve is a bundle of such nerve cell fibers held together with connective tissue
simple (layers)
The cells may be arranged in a single layer, in which case the epithelium is described as simple ]. Simple epithelium functions as a thin barrier through which materials can pass fairly easily. For example, simple epithelium allows for absorption of materials from the lining of the digestive tract into the blood and allows for passage of oxygen from the blood to body tissues.
osteoblasts
The cells that form bone are called osteoblasts (OS-te-o- blasts), a name that combines the root for bone (osteo) with the ending blast. As these cells mature, they are referred to as osteocytes . Within the osseous tissue are nerves and blood vessels. A specialized type of tissue, the bone marrow, is enclosed within bones.
adenosine triphosphate
The energy obtained from the catabolism of nutrients is used to form a compound often described as the cell's "energy currency." ATP principal chemical compound that cell uses to store energy
Cardiovascular system
The heart and blood vessel mix up the system and pumps blood through all of the body tissues burningwood it's Trish and oxygen and other substance that is not it at all song carries out the rise materials away from the tension to be eliminated
hypertonic (more concentrated) solution
The hypertonic (more concentrated) solution draws water out of the cell, causing it to shrink, an effect known as crenation.
fibroblast (Loose connective)
The main cell type is the fibroblast, which produces the protein fibers and other components of the matrix (the word ending -blast refers to a young and active cell). Fibroblasts produce collagen
mucous membranes that line the digestive tract
The mucous membranes that line the digestive tract have special functions. For example, the stomach's mucous mem- brane protects its deeper tissues from the action of powerful digestive juices. If for some reason a portion of this mem- brane is injured, these juices begin to digest a part of the stomach itself—as happens in cases of peptic ulcers.
Valence
The number of bonds an atom needs to fill its outermost energy level.
Plasma Membrane
The outer layer of the cell is the plasma membrane (This cell part is still often called the cell membrane,The plasma membrane not only encloses the cell contents but also participates in many cellular activities, such as growth, reproduction, and communication between cells, and it is especially important in regulating what can enter and leave the cell. absorption of materials from the extracellular fluid. The plasma membrane of these cells is often folded into multiple small projections called microvilli
parietal layer
The portion of the serous membrane attached to the wall of a cavity or sac is known as the parietal layer; the word parietal refers to a wall. In the example above, the parietal layer is represented by the outermost layer.
ROLE OF RNA IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The process begins with the copying of information from DNA to RNA in the nucleus, a process known as transcription.because it carries the DNA message from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Before transcription begins, the DNA separates into single strands. Then, enzymes assemble a matching strand of RNA along one of the DNA strands by the process of nucleotide pairing. Information on which strand will be used for transcription is contained in the chromosomes themselves. if the DNA strand reads CAC, the corresponding mRNA will read GUG (remember that RNA has U instead of T to bond with A)
Which is the most suitable field of study for an anatomist? The structure of the stomach
The structure of the stomach!!! The mechanism of protein digestion Stomach cancer Anabolic reactions
etiology
The study of a disease's cause or the theory of its origin is its etiology. The causes of disease are complex, involving each person's individual characteristics as influenced by behaviors and the environment.
Cytology
The study of cells
pathology
The study of disease
Matter
The substances from which the universe is made
Lymphatic system
Them product versus assist circulation by returning the fluids from tissue to the blood that also plays an important role in immunity, he says absorbs fats
Bulk Transport
There are several active methods for moving large quantities of material into or out of the cell. These methods are grouped together as bulk transport, because of the amounts of material moved. They are also referred to as vesicular transport, because small sacs, or vesicles, are needed for the processes. Require cellular energy!!!
peritonitis
These range from the common cold, which is an inflammation of the nasal mucosa, to the sometimes fatal condition known as peritonitis, an infection of the peritoneum, which can follow rupture of the appendix and other mishaps in the abdominal region.
Signs of Cancer
Thickening or lump Changes in the color, shape, or size of a mole Sore that does not heal Unusual bleeding or discharge Difficulty in swallowing Persistent indigestion or discomfort after eating Hoarseness or persistent cough White patches in the mouth Changes in bowel or bladder habits Unexplained weight gain or loss Feeling weak or very tired
Membranes
Thin sheets of tissue Functions of membranes Cover surfaces Serve as dividers Line hollow organs or body cavities Anchor organs Secrete lubricants to ease the movement of organs Two main categories Epithelial membranes Connective tissue membranes
Which DNA nucleotide pairs with adenine?
Thymine!!!
What do specialized groups of cells form?
Tissue
dissect
To cut apart (in anatomy and physiology labs we dissect body parts)
Endocytosis
Transport of bulk amounts of materials into the cell using vesicles Phagocytosis—intake of large particles, as when white blood cells take in waste materials; also pinocytosis (intake of fluid), and receptor-mediated endocytosis, requiring binding sites in the plasma membrane Require cellular energy!!!
Plasma membrane-Transporters
Transporters—shuttle substances from one side of the membrane to the other. Unlike channels, transporters change shape during transport. (Proteins that change shape as they shuttle substances, such as glucose, across the membrane)
Cancer Treatment
Treatment methods may be combined. Surgery ( can usually completely remove benign tumors.) Radiation (Radiation destroys the more rapidly dividing cancer cells while causing less damage to the more slowly dividing normal cells.) Chemotherapy(Chemotherapy used to be a general term for treatment with drugs, but now the term is understood to mean the treatment of cancer with antineoplastic agents. These agents are drugs that act to greatest effect on actively grow- ing cells, and they are most effective when used in combination.) Biological therapy (immunotherapy) (involves the administration of substances that stimulate the immune system as a whole or promote an immune reaction against a type of cancer cell.) Hormone therapy (suppresses the production of these hormones or prevents tumors from responding to them by block- ing receptor sites.) Angiogenesis blockers laser is a device that produces a highly concentrated and intense beam of light. It is used to destroy tumors or as a cutting device for removing a tumorous growth.
Hormone therapy
Treatment of cancer with natural hormones or with chemicals that produce hormone-like effects.
Dorsal Cavity
Two main subdivisions Cranial cavity Spinal cavity
Ventral Cavity
Two main subdivisions separated by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides linked together, Sucrose and lactose
Generalized Connective Tissue
Types in order of increasing hardness: Loose Dense Cartilage Bone tissue
Endocrine glands
Use blood vessels to deliver hormones to other regions Example: Adrenal gland and pancreas secrete not through ducts but directly into surrounding tissue fluid. Most often the secretions are then absorbed into the bloodstream, which distributes them internally, as indicated by the prefix end/o, meaning "within." These secretions, called hormones, have effects on specific tis- sues known as the target tissues.
Exocrine glands
Use ducts to deliver product to other regions Example: Sweat and salivary glands
Radioactive Isotopes
Used in the treatment of cancer Radiation penetrates and destroys tumor cells. Used in diagnosis Radioactive elements can be administered and detected internally to identify abnormalities—these are called tracers. Example: Radioactive iodine used to diagnose thyroid problems.
Which cavity contains the diaphragm?
Ventral Cavity
Which substance is termed the universal solvent?
Water!!!
normal flora
We live in balance with these organisms, which make up the normal flora. These populations are beneficial in helping to break down food residues and in producing vitamin K and other nutrients. The normal flora also pro- vide important training opportunities for the immune system during childhood. Candida, for instance, is part of the normal flora, but it can establish infections in individuals afflicted with HIV.
electrolyte
When ionically bonded substances dissolve in water, the atoms separate as ions. Compounds that release ions when they dissolve in water are called Compounds that separate into ions in solution Term also used to refer to the ions themselves Electrolytes must be present in the proper concentrations in the intracellular and extracellular fluids, or damaging effects will result,
Lipids (Fats)
are a class of organic compounds that are not soluble in water. They are mainly found in the body as fat. Simple fats are made from a substance called glycerol. Triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids
Active transport
While any method that uses cellular energy can be defined as "active," the term active transport usually refers to the movement of solutes against their concentration gradients using membrane transporters.Instead of the physical energy needed to push a sled, this process uses the chemical energy of ATP. Require cellular energy!!!
portals of entry
While undamaged skin may be the site of local infections, systemic infections usually access body tissues via the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts, known as . Portals of entry may also serve as exit routes, leading to the spread of infection. Skin Respiratory track Digestive system Urinary and reproductive systems
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
With protein makes up the ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm Involved in the process of translating the genetic message into a protein
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Works with other forms of RNA to translate the genetic code into protein; each molecule of tRNA carries an amino acid that can be used to build a protein at the ribosome.
Fungi
are a group that includes single-celled yeasts and multicellular molds. Mycology is the study of fungi (the root myc/o refers to a fungus).
telophase
a membrane appears around each group of separated chromosomes, forming two new nuclei.telophase, the plasma membrane pinches off to divide the cell. The midsection between the two areas becomes progressively smaller until finally the cell splits into two.
prognosis
a prediction of the probable outcome of the disease
Sagittal plane & midsagittal plane.
a vertical plane that divides the body into unequal left and right portions. cut the body in two from front to back, separating it into right and left portions A cut exactly down the midline of the body, separating it into equal right and left halves,
Divisions of the Abdomen (regions)
abdomen is divided into 9 regions
Hypothermia
abnormally low body temperature
MOVEMENT THAT DOES NOT REQUIRE CELLULAR ENERGY (adjective passive)
adjective passive describes movement through the plasma membrane that does not directly require energy output by the cell. Passive mechanisms depend on gradients, which are differences in a particular quality between two regions.(Diffusion,OsmosisFiltration!!!)
stem cells
all tissues derive from young, actively dividing cells known as stem cells. Most stem cells gradually differentiate into the mature, functioning cells that make up different body tissues.
Regular dense connective tissue
also has mostly collagenous fibers, but they are in a regular, parallel alignment like the strands of a cable. This tissue can pull in one direction. Examples are the cordlike tendons, which connect muscles to bones, and the ligaments, which connect bones to other bones Ligaments, tendons
What are the studies of body structure and body function called?
anatomy and physiology
Which science studies normal body structure?
anatomy!!!
Hookworms
are a type of parasitic roundworm that live in the small intestine (Fig. 5-13B). They are dangerous because they suck blood from the host, causing such a severe blood deficiency that the victim becomes sluggish, both physically and mentally.
Ribosomes
are composed of an RNA type called ribo- somal RNA (rRNA) and also protein. At the ribosomes, the genetic message now contained within mRNA is decoded to assemble amino acids into the long chains that form proteins, a process termed translation. This final step requires a third RNA type, transfer RNA (tRNA), present in the cytoplasm. Note that both rRNA and tRNA are formed by the transcription process
Viruses
are extremely small infectious agents that can multiply only within living cells. Virology is the study of viruses.
Bacteria
are primitive,single cell organisms that grow in a wide variety of environments. The study of bacteria, both beneficial and disease producing, is bacteriology . The group includes rickettsiae and chlamydiae, which are extremely small bacteria that multiply within living cells. Bacteria Single-celled organisms Lack a true nucleus Found everywhere Types:Anaerobic,Aerobic ,Facultative anaerobes
meninges
are several membranous layers covering the brain and the spinal cord.
Protozoa
are single-cell animals. Their study is protozoology. Although the term parasitology is the study of parasites in general, in practice, it usually refers to the study of protozoa and worms (helminths).
Elements
are the unique substances that make up all matter.
Synovial membranes
are thin layers of areolar tissue that line the joint cavities. They secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction between the ends of bones, thus permitting free movement of the joints. Synovial membranes also line small cushioning sacs near the joints called bursae
Umbilical region
around the umbilicus (um-BIL-ih-kus), commonly called the navel
protons
atom is a nucleus composed of positively charged particles
What do organs working together combine to form?
body/organ systems.
Elastic cartilage
can spring back into shape after it is bent. An easy place to feel the properties of elastic car- tilage is in the outer portion of the ear. It is also located in the larynx. Larynx, epiglottis, outer ear
The system that brings needed substances to the body tissues
cardiovascular system
organelles
cell contains specialized structures that perform different tasks, these structures are called
apoptosis
cell death, known as apoptosis (ah-pop-TO- sis), is a natural part of growth and remodeling before birth in the developing embryo. cellular suicide" is an orderly, genetically programmed process. The "suicide" genes code for enzymes that destroy the cell quickly without damaging nearby cells. Phagocytes then eliminate the dead cells
Exocytosis
cellular energy!!!
symptoms
disease conditions experienced by the patient, such as pain, fatigue, join stiffness, or nausea.
iatrogenic
disease results from the adverse effects of treatment, including drug treatment and surgery. mistake my doctor or nurse
pathogen
disease-causing microorganism is a pathogen and is described as pathogenic
What term describes a location farther from an origin, such as the wrist in comparison to the elbow?
distal (farther)
control center
compares the sensor in puts with the set point and sends a corrective signal if necessary.
Nervous
conducts nerve impulses.
Dense connective tissue
contains many fibers and is quite strong, similar to a rope or canvas fabric. Dense connective tissue, like areolar tissue, contains fibroblasts that synthesize a collagen-rich matrix. However, dense connective tissue contains significantly more protein fibers, so it is stronger, firmer, and more flexible than areolar tissue.
Pericardial cavity
contains the heart
Pleural cavity
contains the lungs
Muscle
contracts and produces movement.
Deep fascia
covers, separates, and protects skeletal muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. It consists of dense connective tissue.
Cytoplasm
cytoplasm, the material that fills the cell from the nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane. The liquid part of the cytoplasm is the cytosol, a suspension of nutrients, electrolytes, enzymes, and other specialized materials in water. Cytosol-Fluid portion of cytoplasm Organelles-Specialized cell structures that perform different cell functions
The system that converts food . s into a form that body cells can use
digestive system
prophase
each replicated chromosome winds up tightly and separates from the other replicated chromosomes. The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane begin to disappear. In the cytoplasm, the two centrioles move toward opposite ends of the cell, and a spindle- shaped structure made of thin fibers begins to form between them.
The system of glands that produce hormones
endocrine system
pandemic
epidemic can spread throughout an entire country, continent, or planet, resulting in a pandemic
membranes
epithelial and connective tissues often form thin sheets of tissues called.
Goblet cells
exocrine glands are composed of multiple cells in various arrangements, including tubular, coiled, or saclike formations. Goblet cells, in contrast, are single-celled exocrine glands that secrete mucus. Goblet cells are scattered among the epithelial cells lining the respiratory and digestive passageways
Connective
supports and forms the framework of all parts of the body.
Cell Aging (mutation)
free radicals, produced in the course of normal metabolism, can injure cells unless they are destroyed. Lysosomes may deteriorate as they age, releasing enzymes that can harm the cell. Alteration of the genes, or mutation, is a natural occurrence in the process of cell division and is increased by exposure to harmful substances and radiation in the environment. Mutations sometimes harm cells and may lead to cancer.
sensor
gathers information about a given body condition.
Circulating connective tissue
has a fluid consistency; its cells are suspended in a liquid matrix. The two types are blood, which circulates in blood vessels.Carries nutrients, gases, wastes, and other materials throughout body
Cartilage
has a very firm consistency. The gristle at the end of a chicken bone is an example of this tissue type.
Connective tissue
has large amounts of nonliving material between the cells. This intercellular background material or matrix contains varying amounts of water, protein fibers, and hard minerals.
Irregular dense connective tissue
has mostly collagenous fibers in random arrangement. This tissue makes up the strong membranes that cover joints and various organs, such as the kidney and liver, and strengthen the skin. Fibrous membranes, capsules
The isotonic (normal) solution
has the same concentration as the cytoplasm, and water moves into and out of the cell at the same rate.
Nervous Tissue
human body is made up of countless structures, each of which contributes to the action of the whole organism. Each body structure is in direct communication with the brain by means of its own set of "wires," called nerves . Nerves from even the most remote parts of the body come together and feed into a great trunk cable called the spinal cord, which in turn leads into the central switchboard of the brain. Nervous tissue makes up body's communication system. Nervous system components:Brain, Nerves, Spinal cord Cell types:Neuron, Neuroglia
Osmosis
is a special type of diffusion. The term applies specifically to the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. Water moves rapidly through the plasma membrane of most cells with the help of channels called aquaporins. The water molecules move, as expected, from an area where there are more of them to an area where there are fewer of them. That is, the solvent (the water molecules) moves from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. MOVEMENT THAT DOES NOT REQUIRE CELLULAR ENERGY
cartilage
is a structural material and provides reinforcement. It is also a shock absorber and a bearing surface that reduces friction between moving parts, as at joints. The cells that produce cartilage are chondrocytes, There are three forms of cartilage:
Smooth muscle
is also involuntary muscle (see Fig. 4-6C). It forms the walls of the hollow organs in the ventral body cavities, including the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, and urinary bladder.
Fibrocartilage
is firm and rigid and is found between the vertebrae (segments) of the spine,at the anterior joint between the pubic bones of the hip, and in the knee joint. Between vertebrae, in anterior pubic joint, knee joint
oblique section
is made at an angle.
longitudinal section
is made parallel to the long axis, as in cutting a banana from tip to tip to make a slice for a banana split.
Areolar tissue (Loose connective)
is named from a word that means "space" because of its open composition. It contains cells and fibers in a soft, jelly- like matrix. most common type of connective tissue.
latent
is often used to describe an infection or chronic disorder that is not currently causing symptoms but will in the future
communicable disease
is one that can be transmitted from one person to another; it is contagious or "catching." Organisms may be transmitted from an infected host to a new host by direct or indirect contact.
epithelial membrane
is so named because its outer surface is made of epithelium. Underneath, however, there is a layer of areolar and/or dense irregular connective tissue that strengthens the membrane, and in some cases, there is a thin layer of smooth muscle under that. Epithelial membranes are made of closely packed active cells that manufacture lubricants and protect the deeper tissues from invasion by microorganisms.
periosteum
is the membrane covering a bone.
perichondrium
is the membrane covering cartilage.
Diffusion
is the net movement of particles from a region of relatively higher concentration to one of lower concentration. diffusing substances spread throughout their available space until their concentration everywhere is the same—that is, they reach equilibrium . Diffusion uses the particles' internal energy and does not directly require cellular ATP. The particles are said to follow, or move down, their concentration gradient from higher concentration to lower concentration.Water-soluble substances, on the other hand, will only diffuse across the plasma membrane if a suitable membrane protein (ion channel or transporter) is available to permit passage through the inhospitable lipid bilayer. MOVEMENT THAT DOES NOT REQUIRE CELLULAR ENERGY
Integumentary system
is the outer most body system, and consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail, largest organ of the human body.
Filtration
is the passage of water and dis- solved materials through a membrane down a pressure gradient from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. A mechanical ("pushing") force is usually responsible for the high pressure. The membrane acts as a filter, preventing larger substances from crossing. example water and dissolved substances are filtered out of blood in the first step of urine formation in the kidney.MOVEMENT THAT DOES NOT REQUIRE CELLULAR ENERGY
Histology
is the study of tissues
Hyaline cartilage
is the tough translucent material, popularly called gristle, that covers the ends of the long bones Covers ends of bones, makes up tip of nose, connects ribs to sternum, reinforces larynx and trachea
cross-section
is used more generally to mean any two- dimensional view of an internal structure
Hypochondriac regions (right/left)
just infe- rior to the ribs
Which region/quadrant contains the spleen?
left Hypochondriac/ left upper quadrant
Plasma membrane-Linkers
link to other proteins within the cell to stabilize the membrane and link to membrane proteins of other cells to attach cells together.(Help stabilize the plasma membrane and attach cells together)
Epigastric region
located just inferior to the breastbone
Hypotensive
low blood pressure
Disease
may be defined as abnormality of the structure or function of a part, organ, or system. The effects of a dis- ease may be felt by a person or observed by others. May have a known or unknown cause. Severity of effects may be variable
complementary and alternative
medicine refers to methods of disease prevention or treatment that can be used along with or instead of conventional medical practices Naturopathy (helping people to heal themselves by developing healthy lifestyles) Chiropractic Acupuncture Biofeedback(eaches people to control involuntary responses,) Massage Yoga Meditation Herbal remedies
peri
membranes whose names all start with the prefix peri because they are around organs. These tough, protective coverings are made of dense irregular connective tissue.
What is the main way of regulating homeostasis?
negative feedback!!!
One of two systems that control and coordinate other systems
nervous system
neutrons
noncharged particles
signs
objective manifestations such as a rash, a rapid pulse, or wheezing that the physician or other healthcare providers can observe.
virulence
of a pathogen describes its ability to cause disease.
electrons
orbit around the nucleus,nearly weightless particles are negatively charged. It is the electrons that determine how (or if) the atom will react chemically.
Plasma membrane-Enzymes
participate in reactions occurring at the plasma membrane.(Participate in reactions at the membrane surface)
RNA
participates in protein synthesis but is not part of chromosomes. These are the nucleotides containing the nitrogen bases adenine (A), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). However, DNA has one nucleotide containing thymine (T), whereas RNA has one containing uracil (U). RNA is much like DNA except that it exists as a single strand of nucleotides and has uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). adenine (A) bonds with uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Intra-abdominal
pertaining to within the abdomen
therapy
physician prescribes a course of treatment, known as therapy. In conventional Western medicine, therapy typically includes medications or surgery. PT,O,RTNT,PSY-T
semipermeable
plasma membrane is described at a simple level as semipermeable . It is permeable, or passable, to some molecules but impassable to others.
Plasma membrane- Channels
pores in the membrane that allow specific substances to enter or leave. (Pores in the membrane that allow passage of specific substances, such as ions)
Two types of electric charges exist in nature
positive (+) and negative (−).
What are the three components of a negative feedback loop?
senors, control center, effector
Plasma membrane-Receptors
specialized proteins that mediate the effects of chemical signals on cells. Chemicals such as hormones or neurotransmitters (chemical signals used by the nervous system) bind to a receptor, which then alters cell function.(Allow for attachment of substances, such as hormones, to the membrane)
Age
stem cells divide less frequently, and mature body cells become less active. These changes slow down repair processes, which rely on the production of new cells and the production of substances from existing cells. A bone fracture, for example, takes considerably longer to heal in an old person than in a young person.
In the word physiology, -logy is an example of a word part called a(n) _____.
study
diagnosis
that is, reach a conclusion as to the nature or identity of the illness. To do this, the physician relies on the patient's report of his or her symptoms, the physician looks for signs of disease,
exocytosis
the cell moves materials out in vesicles
anaphase
the centromere splits, and the replicated chromosomes separate and begin to move toward opposite ends of the cell.
metaphase
the chromosomes line up across the center (equator) of the cell attached to the spindle fibers.
Bone tissue
the hardest type of connective tissue, is solidified by minerals in the matrix.
genes
the hereditary structures that govern the cell are the chromosomes in the nucleus. Each chromosome in turn is divided into multiple units, called. It is the genes that carry the messages for the development of particular inherited characteristics, such as brown eyes, curly hair, or blood type, and they do so by directing protein manufacture in the cell.
Nucleus
the largest of the organelles is the nucleus , which is surrounded by a membrane, the nuclear membrane, that encloses its contents. The nucleus is often called the control center of the cell because it contains the chromosomes, the threadlike structures of heredity that are passed on from parents to their children. Within the nucleus is a darker stained region called the nucleolus , which means "little nucleus." The job of the nucleolus is to assemble ribosomes, small bodies outside the nucleus that are involved in the manufacture of proteins.
Which cavity contains the mediastinum?
thoracic !!!
Epithelial
tissue covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.
Loose connective
tissue has a soft consistency, similar to jelly.
Adipose(Loose connective)
tissue is primarily composed of fat cells (adipocytes) with minimal intercellular matrix. Adipocytes are able to store large amounts of fat that serves as a reserve energy supply for the body. Adipose tissue underlying the skin acts as a heat insulator, and adipose tissue surrounding organs and joints provides protective padding.
osseous tissue
tissue that composes bones, called osseous tissue, is much like cartilage in its cellular structure
Palpate
to examine by touch
Cardiac muscle
which forms the bulk of the heart wall and is known also as myocardium . This muscle produces the regular contractions known as heartbeats. Cardiac muscle is described as involuntary muscle because it typically con- tracts independently of thought.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
which involves the intake of substances using specific binding sites, or receptors, in the plasma membrane. The bound material, or ligand (LIG-and), is then drawn into the cell by endocytosis.
