ch.2

The principles of classical conditioning were developed by A. Sigmund Freud B. Ivan Pavlov. C. B. F. Skinner. D. Edward Thorndike

Ivan Pavlov

is the researcher best known for his theory of cognitive development. A. Abraham Maslow B. Sigmund Freud C. Erik Erikson D. Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget

Which of the following researchers worked with "Little Albert" in one of the earliest and most famous examples of classical conditioning in human development? A. John B. Watson B. Ivan Pavlov C. B. F. Skinner D. Edward Thorndike

John B. Watson

Which early philosopher described children as a tabula rasa on which society writes? A. John Locke B. Jean Piaget C. Jean Jacques Rosseau D. Erik Erikson

John Locke

Sociocultural theory, developed by __________, stresses children's active involvement with their environment as the process by which they acquire cognitive skills. A. Urie Bronfenbrenner B. Jean Piaget C. Lev Vygotsky D. Margaret Mead

Lev Vygotsky

The quantitative changes, such as documenting the number of words added to a child's vocabulary, support which theory? A. Mechanistic B. Developmental C. Qualitative D. Organismic

Mechanistic

1. Which of the following statements about theories is true? A. Theories change to incorporate new findings. B. Theories are based on certain assumptions. C. Theories and research are interwoven. D. All of these

all of these

A problem associated with the interview method is that A. a single interview may give only a partial picture. B. people are not always accurate or honest in answering questions. C. interview reports may need to be confirmed by more objective research. D. All of these

all of these

A strong correlation between variables does not necessarily mean that one variable __________ the other. A. determines B. causes C. results from D. All of these

all of these

In Guidepost 4, the resolution of ethical problems in research is discussed. Which of the following is an ethical principle? A. Beneficence B. Justice C. Respect D. All of these

all of these

. Cohort differences are a problem for which kind of studies? A. Time-sampling B. Cross-sectional C. Sequential D. Longitudinal

cross-sectional

Jean Piaget's formal operations stage does not account for the capacity to A. develop practical problem-solving skills. B. deal with ambiguous situations. C. deal with competing truths. D. All of these

deal with ambiguous situations

. Ann's mother has stopped reinforcing Ann to make her bed. Ann's bed-making behavior is likely to be ___________. A. increased B decreased C. punished D. learned permanently

decreased

Any consequence of a behavior that INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior being repeated is called A. punishment. B. reinforcement. C. an aversive event. D. classical conditioning

reinforcement

When test results are reasonably consistent from one time to another they are said to be A. valid. B. reliable. C. operational. D. standardized

reliable

When conducting research, scientists will typically measure a __________ and generalize the results to a _____________. A. cohort; sample B. nonnormative group; normative group C. population; sample D. sample; population

sample; population

A structure of organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation is that person's A. scheme. B. situation. C. adaptation. D. assimilation

scheme

Experimenters can ensure results that are representative of a given population through A. random selection. B. random assignment. C. controlling for all relevant variables. D. convenience sampling

random assignment

example of Erikson's stage of initiative versus guilt would be A. an infant learning that she can depend on being fed. B. a 3-year-old trying to fill a cup with water and cheerfully wiping up the water when it spills. C. a 10-year-old learning to read fluently. D. a teenager conforming to peer pressure

A 3 year old trying to fill a cup with water and cheerfully wiping up the water when it spills

When a researcher decides to travel with the circus to observe the performers, without altering the environment they live and work in, the research is A. a laboratory observation. B. a naturalistic observation. C. quantitative research. D. a natural experiment

A naturalistic observation

A plan for conducting a scientific investigation is a A. research design. B. hypothetical study. C. scientific project. D. research grant

A research design

The principles of social learning theory were developed by A. B. F. Skinner. B. Carl Rogers. C. John B. Watson. D. Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura

A disadvantage of the use of naturalistic observation techniques is that they A. can be used to study only infancy. B. omit emotional development. C. record only cognitive development. D. are prone to observer bias.

Are prone to be observer bias

. The psychologist who formulated the principles of operant conditioning was A. John B. Watson. B. Sidney Pressey. C. B. F. Skinner. D. Ivan Pavlov

B.F. skinner

-Professor Bingham measures the cognitive skills of 100 30-year-olds and compares them with 100 50-year-olds. This is an example of which method? -Suppose your psychology professor asks you to do a study examining how emotional reactions change in children between the ages of 3 and 12 years. Given that the study needs to be completed in less then two weeks, which type of data collection method should you employ A. Cross-sectional B. Longitudinal C. Sequential D. Clinical

Cross-sectional

According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the "reality principle," realistically finding ways to obtain gratification, is the A. id. B. ego. C. superego. D. conscience

Ego

According to Jean Piaget, what is the primary goal or need that leads children to change their ways of thinking to adapt to new experiences? A. Satisfaction of id impulses B. Equilibrium C. Stable sense of identity D. Approval from parents

Equilibrium

According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the "pleasure principle," seeking the immediate gratification of desires, is the A. id. B. ego. C. superego. D. ego ideal

ID

Suppose you asked the following two questions of a group of 100 children: "How much time do your parents spend reading to you each day?" and "What are your grades in school?" You find that children whose parents read to them for more than one hour each day have better grades than children whose parents read to them for only a few minutes each day. What could you conclude from this pattern of data? A. Reading by parents causes children to do better in school. B. Parental reading time and grades are positively correlated. C. Parental reading time and grades are uncorrelated. D. Better students cause their parents to spend more time reading to

Parental reading time and grades are positively correlated

A major distinction between Piaget's developmental theory and the information-processing approach is that A. Piaget sees development as continuous, whereas the information-processing approach views development as occurring in distinct stages. B. Piaget sees development as an active process, whereas the information-processing view sees the organism as passive. C. Piaget focused on perception, whereas the information-processing approach focuses on thinking and memory. D. Piaget sees development as occurring in stages, whereas the information-processing approach sees development as continuous.

Piaget sees development as occurring in stages, were as the information-processing approach sees development as continuous

Daniel is doing research that involves gathering detailed descriptions from people about their beliefs. Daniel is doing which kind of research? A. Qualitative B. Quantitative C. Theoretical D. Hypothetical

Qualitative

One of the most reliable sampling methods is the use of __________, which increases the likelihood that the sample is representative of the population. A. representative selection B. random assignment C. random selection D. random sample

Random selection

Dr. Liefeld has studied the relationship between the amount of time children spend playing video games and their academic performance in school. She finds that as time spent playing video games increases, grades in school decrease. This finding represents a A. a positive correlation. B. a negative correlation. C. a variable interaction. D. a case study approach.

a negative correlation

From Jean Piaget's perspective, a child who alters her behavior to more effectively deal with a new situation is exhibiting A. accommodation. B. primary process thinking. C. assimilation. D. generalization

accommodation

researcher studies the relationship between family income and achievement motivation. A correlation of +1.20 is found. From this, the researcher can conclude that A. other variables must be negatively correlated with family income. B. high income causes high achievement motivation. C. increases in income predict higher achievement motivation. D. an error was made in calculating the correlation

an error was made in calculating the correlation

In classical conditioning, an association is learned between A. an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus. B. an operant response and a reinforcer. C. a conditioned stimulus and an operant response. D. an internal stimulus and an external stimulus

an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus

As an adult, Mary spends considerable time each day cleaning her apartment, arranging her socks in a drawer until they are just right, and making schedules on a calendar. According to Freud, Mary is probably fixated in the __________ stage. A. oral B. anal C. genital D. phallic

anal

-Piaget's term for the process of TAKING IN formation and incorporating it into existing ways of thinking is -When a child first sucks on a sippy cup the same way the child sucked from a bottle, the child is trying to learn to drink from the cup using the process of A. schematization. B. shaping. C. accommodation. D. assimilation

assimilation

According to Erikson, the resolution of the crisis at each stage of psychosocial development must include a _______ between positive and negative traits. A. balance B. skewing toward the positive C. skewing toward the negative D. synthesis

balance

The use of operant conditioning to modify or shape human behavior is called A. classical conditioning. B. punishment. C. behavior modification. D. reinforcement

behavior modification

According to the _________ perspective, people's actions are reactions to aspects of their environment that they find pleasing, painful, or threatening. A. organismic B. behaviorism C. psychoanalytic D. humanistic

behaviorism

The chief advantage of experimental methods is that they are A. more flexible than other methods. B. more generalized than other methods. C. more descriptive of real-life events. D. better able to determine cause and effect.

better able to determine cause and effect

-An in-depth study of an individual is a(n) -In developing his psychoanalytic theory, Freud studied several individuals in great detail for an extended period of time. This technique is referred to as the __________ approach A. naturalistic observation. B. case study. C. interview. D. experiment

case study

Professor Powers studies how frequent moves from one town to another can influence children's emotional development over time. According to the ecological approach, Professor Powers is studying the __________ of children. A. exosystem B. chronosystem C. macrosystem D. minisystem

chronosystem

A girl receives an injection and cries. Each time she receives an injection again, the same nurse gives it. Her mother notices that the child now cries when she sees this nurse even if no injection is given. This is an example of A. classical conditioning. B. operant conditioning. C. fixation. D. negative reinforcement

classical conditioning

Piaget's use of questions and flexible exploration of a child's responses is known as the __________ method. A. Socratic B. clinical C. field observation D. interview

clinical

The perspective on human behavior that is concerned with thought processes and the behavior that reflects those processes is called the __________ perspective. A.cognitive B. thinking C. behavioral D. intellectual

cognitive

The information-processing approach to explaining cognitive development compares the brain to a __________; sensory impressions go in and behavior comes out. A. calculator B. computer C. modem D. telephone

computer

Behaviorists maintain that human behavior is determined by A. defense mechanisms. B. self-actualization. C. unconscious conflicts. D. conditioning

conditioning

The greatest difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment is the degree of A. control. B. manipulation. C. random assignment. D. correlation

control

The primary difference between a naturalistic observation and a laboratory observation is the degree of A. manipulation. B. control. C. involvement. D. There is no difference

control

The subjects who do NOT receive the treatment or independent variable in an experimental study are called the A. experimental group. B. control group. C. dependent group. D. independent group

control group

. A researcher who wants to find out if a statistical relationship exists between variables should use a(n) A. questionnaire. B. correlation. C. experiment. D. case study

correlation

Each of Erikson's stages involved a major developmental issue that is particularly important at that time. Erikson referred to these issues as __________ in personality. A. traumas B. crises C. stages D. phases

crises

In an experiment, one group of children is given a drink each day with a special vitamin supplement. A second group of children is given the same drink but without the vitamin. Later, all children are given an IQ test to see if the vitamin had an effect on intelligence. In this experiment, the children's scores on the IQ test would be the A. independent variable. B. cross-sequential variable. C. dependent variable. D. control variable

dependent variable

The approach that views human development as the outcome of a dynamic process of bidirectional interaction between person and environment is a(n) A. developmental system. B. interpersonal system. C. cognitive system. D. None of these

devlopmental system

One of the criticisms of Freud's work is that he _____________________. A. did not make us aware of the importance of unconscious thoughts B. focused too little on childhood feelings and experiences in motivation C. did not scientifically test concepts of id and superego D. used too large a subject pool

did not scientifically test concepts of ID and superego

An in-depth case study of a culture or subculture is an __________ study. A. enculturation B. ethnographic C. acculturation D. ethnic

ethnographic

Dr. Charles is interested in how certain behaviors such as smiling helps to bond parents and ensure a child's survival. Dr. Charles is interested in the ______ perspective. A. psychoanalytical B. evolutional C. cognitive D. learning

evolutional

A controlled procedure in which the experimenter manipulates variables to learn how one affects another is a(n) A. manipulation. B. experiment. C. observation D. correlation

experiment

-The subjects who receive the treatment or independent variable in an experimental study are called the -The word "manipulation" is most strongly associated with the __________ technique A. experimental group. B. control group. C. dependent group. D. independent group

experimental group

A group of children is given special training on how to handle their anger. A second group is treated the same as the first group except for the fact that these subjects do not receive the special training. The group given the training is the __________ group and the group given no training is the __________group. A. experimental; control B. control; experimental C. dependent; independent D. independent; dependent

experimental; group

-A good theory develops __________, which can then be tested by research. -Tentative explanations or predictions that can be scientifically tested are called -"If children learn aggression from models, then children who watch violent television shows should be more aggressive than children who watch nonviolent shows." This is an example of a A. data B. hypotheses C. findings D. facts

hypothesis

According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, a teenage girl would be facing the crisis of A. intimacy versus isolation. B. integrity versus despair. C. industry versus inferiority. D. identity versus identity confusion

identity vs. identity confusion

Reinforcement is most effective when it is __________ after the behavior it is designed to reinforce. A. delayed B. immediately C. constant D. aversive

immediately

The two major points of Jean Piaget's cognitive perspective are that people are active in their environment and that behavior develops ______. A. in specific stages regardless of culture. B. randomly at any developmental stage C. in a specific order that may vary based upon cultural variables. D. randomly based upon the child's environment

in specific stages regardless of culture

The treatment in an experiment is called the A. experimental group. B. control group. C. independent variable. D. dependent variable

independent variable

In an experiment, Professor Daley manipulates the __________ variable and then looks for an effect of that manipulation by measuring the ___________variable. A. dependent; independent B. control; experimental C. experimental; control D. independent; dependent

independent; dependent

Psychologist Lev Vygotsky saw cognitive growth as a collaborative process in which children learn through social A. cognition. B. status. C. learning. D. interaction

interaction

Which of the following is NOT a problem associated with observational studies? A. They cannot determine cause and effect relationships. B. The subjects may behave differently when they know they are being observed. C. It is not possible to gain information regarding relationships between variables. D. Laboratory studies may not generalize to real life

it is not possible to gain information regarding relationships between variables

Which of the following is NOT a criticism of Piaget's theory of development? A. It pays little attention to emotional development. B. It pays little attention to the influence of education on intellectual development. C. It overestimates the cognitive abilities of young children. D. It does not say much about individual differences in ability

it overestimates the cognitive abilities of young children

The stage of psychosexual development that occurs during middle childhood and is characterized by relative calm is called the __________ stage. A. oral B. childhood C. latency D. anal

latency

A long-lasting change in behavior as a result of experience or adaptation to its environment is called A. modification. B. cognition. C. learning. D. behaviorism

learning

The ________ perspective emphasizes the influence of the environment rather than thought processes or unconscious fantasies. A. psychoanalytic B. learning C. organismic D. humanistic

learning

Which of the following is NOT part of the personality as proposed by Freud? A. Superego B. Libido C. Id D. Ego

libido

Objections to Watson and Rayner's study of __________ stimulated the American Psychological Association to establish more stringent ethical guidelines for research studies that involved human subjects. A. Fat Albert B. Little Albert C. Prince Albert D. Baby Albert

little Albert

2. In the study of human development, a theory is a set of A. logically related statements seeking to describe, explain, and predict development. B. facts derived from research. C. research results that can prove behaviors. D. opinions of a well-known authority in a field.

logically related statements seeking to describe, explain, and predict development

-Which type of study is time-consuming, expensive, and has problems associated with attrition? -Which studies have the greatest difficulty with the loss of subjects? A. Longitudinal B. Cross-sectional C. Interview D. Clinical

longitudinal

Dr. Ellie Cheetham follows the same group of children over a 10-year period, measuring their performance twice a year. This is which method of data collection? A. Cross-sectional B. Longitudinal C. Sequential D. Clinical

longitudinal

The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe has significantly altered most government institutions there. According to the ecological approach, the government changes are changes in people's A. microsystem. B. mesosystem. C. endosystem. D. macrosystem

macro system

Learning theorists are most concerned with A. measurable, observable behaviors. B. unconscious determination of behaviors. C. development of intelligence. D. personality conflicts between parents and children

measurable, observable behaviors

If Bill's behavior is viewed as passive and reactive, he would be perceived as demonstrating the __________ model of behavior. A. naturalistic B. mechanistic C. organismic D. maturationistic

mechanistic

Dr. Willard is studying the way in which infant siblings interact with one another in the home. According to the ecological approach, Dr. Willard is studying the children in their A. microsystem. B. mesosystem. C. exosystem. D. macrosystem.

microsystem

-A researcher who studies twins accidentally separated at birth and reared in different environments is using a -Dr. Gearhart is hopeful that her research results will be verified by others through replication. If she wishes her work to be replicated most accurately, what research technique should she use A. laboratory experiment. B. field experiment. C. natural experiment. D. correlation experiment

natural experiment

Which theory of human development is universally accepted as the theory that best explains all facets of development? A. Psychoanalytic B. Behavioristic C. Sociocultural D. No one theory is able to do this.

none of the above

Which of the following is NOT an example of a self-report technique? A. Questionnaire B. Diary or log C. Interview D. Observation

observation

According to social learning theory, the most important element in how children learn a language, deal with aggression, develop a sense of morality, and learn gender-appropriate behavior is A. classical conditioning. B. observation and imitation. C. punishment of inappropriate behavior. D. shaping of appropriate behavior

observation and imitation

The process of modeling, or observing and imitating others, is referred to as A. classical conditioning. B. observational learning. C. efficacious learning D. psychoanalytical learning

observational learning

In a study of the effects of behavior modeling, one group of children observes role models who share toys; another group observes role models whose behavior is neutral (neither initiating sharing nor refusing to share). What is the independent variable? A. Observing role models who share or don't share B. Observing negative role models C. The group with neutral role models D. The group with sharing role models

observing role models who share or don't share

A child learns to whine to get items at the store because when she whines, her parents get frustrated and give her the desired items. She is basically being rewarded for her whining even though her parents do not seem to realize this and are frustrated because the whining is increasing. This is an example of ______ conditioning. A. operant conditioning B. classical conditioning C. behavior conditioning D. unconscious conditioning

operant conditioning

__________ is the principle that an organism will repeat behaviors when these behaviors are reinforced. A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Pleasure principle D. Reality principle

operant conditioning

The proper order of Freud's psychosexual stages of development is A. anal, phallic, oral, latency, genital. B. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. C. anal, oral, genital, latency, phallic. D. oral, latency, genital, anal, phallic

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

-If Troy's behavior is viewed as active and self-determining, he would be perceived as demonstrating the __________ model of behavior. - Most of the early pioneers in psychology, such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget, favored the __________ perspective on human development, which views development as occurring in specific stages. A. naturalistic B. mechanistic C. organismic D. maturationistic

organismic

According to psychosexual theory, 4-year-old Austin would be in which stage? A. Oral B. Anal C. Phallic D. Latency

phallic

Which of the following is NOT one of the cognitive stages through which a child progresses, as theorized by Jean Piaget? A. Post-conceptual B. Sensorimotor C. Preoperational D. Concrete operations

post-conceptual

14. A therapeutic approach aimed at giving patients insight into their unconscious conflicts is called A. repression analysis. B. psychoanalysis. C. psychosexual analysis. D. psychoconsciousness

psychoanalysis

Stacy's mother believes that most of Stacy's acting out lately has been caused by unconscious forces within her that motivate her behavior. Stacy's mother follows the ______ perspective. A. humanistic. B. ethological. C. psychoanalytic. D. learning

psychoanalytic

Freud's theory on human development states that people develop in an unvarying sequence of maturationally determined stages of __________ development. A. psychosocial B. psychoanalytic C. psychoconscious D. psychosexual

psychosexual

Edwin is learning to ride his bike. Each time that he rides onto the gravel driveway, he loses control of the bike and falls. Eventually Edwin will no longer ride in the driveway. This example represents the learning process of A. negative reinforcement. B. intermittent reinforcement. C. punishment. D. conditioning

punishment

Organismic theorists emphasize __________ change, while mechanistic theorists emphasize __________ change. A. quantitative; qualitative B. behavioral; developmental C. qualitative; quantitative D. mechanistic; organismic

qualitative and quantitative

When research deals with objectively measurable data, this is a description of A. qualitative research. B. quantitative research. C. theories. D. hypotheses

quantitative research

One commonly used type of written interview is a A. diary. B. case study. C. questionnaire. D. journal

questionnaire

Unlike Freud's theory, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development A. sees society as a positive force. B. focuses on biological instincts. C. covers infancy and childhood but not adulthood. D. has much in common with behaviorism

sees society as a positive force

develops as children gradually learn to master challenges and achieve goals. A. Social cognitive theory B. Applied behavioral analysis C. Social learning theory D. Self-efficacy

self-efficacy

-Which of the following methods was designed to deal with the disadvantages of both the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs? -Professor Watt studies the behavior of children whose parents divorced six months before the children started school and children whose parents divorced two years before the children started school. Both groups of children are then followed and measured over the course of several years. This is which kind of design? A. Life-span sampling B. Clinical C. Sequential study D. Behavior-sampling

sequential study

Psychoanalytic theory was developed by A. Sigmund Freud. B. Ivan Pavlov. C. Albert Bandura. D. Erik Erikson

sigmund Freud

. In contrast with Freud, Erikson placed more emphasis on A. physical development. B. intellectual development. C. the role of parents. D. social and cultural influences

social and cultural influences

Two important learning theories are____________ and_______________. A. behaviorism; cognitive therapy B. social learning theory; operant conditioning C. social learning theory; psychoanalytic theory D. psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory

social learning theory; operant conditioning

- Christa, a rather demonstrative 7-year-old, hits her brother for laughing at her, and feels guilty about it afterward. According to Freud, Christa's guilty feelings reflect the operation of the - Which one of the following personality entities would be most similar to what is called "conscience"? A. id. B. ego. C. superego. D. defense mechanism

superego

Punishment __________ a behavior by bringing on a(n)__________event. A. increases; aversive or unpleasant B. suppresses; aversive or unpleasant C. suppresses; positive or pleasant D. increases; negative or unpleasant

suppresses; aversive or unpleasant

It is important for parents and teachers to understand how children think so they can more effectively _________ them. A. discipline B. teach C. organize D. manage

teach

According to Freud, during early childhood boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers. Freud called this development ______________. A. the Electra complex B. the unconscious complex C. the Oedipus complex D. regressing

the Oedipus complex

Which of the following is a shortcoming of the laboratory experimental approach to understanding human development? A. It is often difficult to randomly assign subjects to different treatment conditions. B. Experiments rarely inform us about cause-and-effect relationships. C. This technique does not work well for the study of aggression. D. The results may not be applicable outside the experimental situation

the results ay not be applicable outside the experimental situation

According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, the first stage of development, which occurs during infancy, is A. Trust versus mistrust. B. Autonomy versus state of doubt. C. initiative versus guilt. D. industry versus inferiority

trust vs. mistrust

Which of the following is NOT one of the interrelated principles developed by Piaget to explain the gradual development of a child's mental processes? A. organization B. adaptation C. equilibration D. unconscious processing

unconscious processing

Freud's research stressed the importance of A. conscious behavior. B. the role of heredity in parenting. C. ways in which early relationships affect later ones. D. the lack of use of recalling childhood experiences

ways in which early relationships affect later ones

A teacher is helping to direct and organize Jay's learning with blocks to help him master and internalize his skills. This reflects Vygotsky's notion of A. structured application. B. zone of proximal development. C. distal learning. D. zone of distal development

zone of proximal devlopment