Chapter 1, 2, 3

An Integrative Model of Organizational Behavior

-4 perspectives of organizational effectiveness: open systems, organizational learning, high-performance work practices, and stakeholders -Individual inputs and processes influence individual outcomes, which effect organizational effectiveness -ie. How well organizations transform inputs to outputs and satisfy Stakeholders is dependent on how well employees perform jobs and make logical decisions -Team processes and outcomes affect individual processes and outcomes and individual processes affect team dynamics

Agreeableness

-Associated with organization citizenship but negatively associated with counterproductivity -Employees with high agreeableness are cooperative, supportive, and flexible -It does not predict proficient r proactive performance well because it is associated with low motivation to set goals, but does predict performance in customer service jobs

attribution theory

-Attribution: forming beliefs about the causes of behavior or events -We perceive whether a behavior or event is caused by internal factors (motivation and ability of the person) or external factors (resources, co-worker support, or luck) -Attribution helps us understand cause-effect relationships that enable us to work effectively with others and to assign praise or blame to them -Our respect for a leader depends on whether we believe his actions are due to personal characteristics or the situation, and we often react differently to attributions of our own behavior or performance

developing a global mindset

-Begins with self-awareness, people should understand their own beliefs and values to become more open minded when processing complex information •-Companies develops a global mindset by giving employees chances to compare their mental models with those of coworkers from other places -Develops with knowledge from cultures acquired through formal programs or immersion in those cultures

low neuroticism (emotional stability

-Best personality predictor of adaptive but not necessarily proactive performance -Employees with high emotional stability cope with ambiguity of uncertainty of change, but those with high neuroticism view change as a threat

conscientiousness

-Best personality predictor of proficient task performance -Involves setting higher goals and persistence -More organizational citizenship

stopping stereotyping

-Categorical thinking (including stereotyping is automatic and nonconscious; training programs can minimize it, but most of it is hardwired in our brain -Stereotyping can often help us in valuable ways by minimizing mental effort, filling in missing information, and supporting our social identity-It is difficult to prevent stereotype activation but we can minimize application; we automatically categorize people but can minimize our reliance on those stereotypes

Organizational Learning Perspective

-Companies rely n knowledge as a key ingredient to success -Organizational learning states that organizations must acquire, share, use, and store knowledge (a resource called intellectual capital) -Effective organizations learn and unlearn as times change

Corporate Social Responsibility

-Consists of organizational activities intended to benefit society and the environment beyond the firms immediate financial interests or obligations -Companies have a societal contract to serve stakeholders (sometimes more so for other stakeholders than stockholders) -Many companies have a triple-bottom-line philosophy, supporting the economic, social, and environmental spheres of sustainability, aiming to survive in the marketplace, improve society, and the physical environment -Companies with a good CSR reputation have better financial performance, more loyal employees, and better relations with customers and other stakeholders -Milton Freedman: Pronounced that the only social responsibility of a business is to use its resources and engage in activities to increase profitability

stereotyping leads to unintentional systemic discrimination

-Decision makers rely on stereotypes to rely on who is the ideal person in a specific role, and so someone who doesn't fit that role has to work harder to get the same evaluation -Unintentional discrimination affects employment and salaries, ie. Studies have showed that when the same faculty received applications of a student, those reading the males rated the applicant as much higher than the female (even if the faculty were females)

clarity

-Degree to which a persons self-concept is clear and defined -Occurs when we are confident with who he are and can describe our important identities to others similarly across time -Clarity increases with age as personalities become more stable and we develop self-awareness through experience -Self concept is clear when our multiple selves have higher consistency; low consistency produces ambiguity about our underlying characteristics

uncertainty avoidance

-Degree to which people tolerate ambiguity (low UA) or feel threatened by it (UA) -Individuals with high UA value structure, rules, and documented decision making, and prefer direct rather than indirect communication -High in Belgium, Greece, and Japan, and low in Denmark and Singapore

High performance work practices improve effectiveness

-Develops employee sills to improve individual behavior -Helps adapting to rapidly changing environments -Strengthens employee motivation and positivity towards employers

joining/staying with the organization

-Employee turnover removes knowledge and relationships, as well as customer service and corporate strength -Employee turnover can remove counterproductive members and open new positions to fresh employees

Using knowledge (developing intellectual capital)

-Employees need to make sense of knowledge so they know where to find it in an organization -Employees need prerequisite knowledge and skills -Knowledge flourishes where workplace norms support organizational learning, beliefs and norms representing a learning orientation

maintaining work attendance

-Everyone should show up on time, but low absenteeism can lead to overtime and increased work -Employees often point to situational factors for absenteeism, and absence is much more common when companies have generous sick leave -Presenteeism: showing up for work when unwell or preoccupied leading to counterproductivity and danger, and is more common when job security is low or when absence may have bad effects

power distance

-Extent to which people accept uneven distribution of power in a society -People with high power distance oValue unequal power oThose in higher positions expect authority obedience; those in lower positions don't mind receiving orders oPrefer to resolve things through formal procedures rather than informal discussion India, Malaysia -People with low power distance oExpect equal power sharing oRelationship with a boss is interdependence, not dependence oPower sharing and consultation before decisions is expected oDenmark, Israel

self esteem (self evaluation)

-Extent to which people like and respect themselves, which represents comprehensive self-evaluation -People have degrees of self—esteem for each of their rules, and use these multiple self—appraisals to form an overall evaluation of themselves, or global self esteem -Those with high self esteem are less influenced by others, persist in spite of failure, and think more logically

multidisciplinary anchor

-Field should welcome theories and knowledge from other disciplines, not just from its own research (ie. Sociology or psychology) -Organizations are studied in many social sciences and are made of many people who interact (which is why it can be related to disciplines studying humans) -OB shouldn't rely too much on other fields because it may lead to lag in knowledge production

global mindset

-Global mindset" individual's ability to perceive and process information across cultures -Includes oAwareness of and respect for other views and practices oCapacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures, understanding the emotions and mental models of colleagues from other cultures oAbility to process complex information about novel environments oThe ability to comprehend intercultural matters with many levels of thinking -Global thinking offers great value to organizations and employees careers because it allows better relationships by increased respect to distant partners and colleagues and increased sensitivity and response to emerging global opportunities -Global employees can understand extensive ambiguous information transmitted in multinational relationships, and can form networks and exchange resources across borders

emerging employment relationships (Contemporary Developments Facing Organizations)

-Globalization brings pressure to work longer and creates a 24-hour schedule due to time difference but is aided by IT -Work life balance is one of the most important employment issues and occurs when people minimize conflict between work and other demands (but is absent in many employees) -Remote work arrangement when employees work away from the organization's typical work site and involves performing job duties at client sites (such as repair technicians) -Employees may have long term remote work when they are dispatched to partner organizations

Increasing Workforce Diversity (Contemporary Developments Facing Organizations)

-Globalization has led to increased diversity among workers and increase diversity of people employees interact with in partner organizations -Generational deep-level diversity is often subtler than press suggests and many differences among generations are more due to age, not cohort (millenials are more motivated for advancement and recognition but baby boomers are more motivated by interesting and meaningful work)

organizations

-Groups of people working together for some purpose -Collective entities consisting of human beings that interact with each other in an organized way -Organized interactions require communication, coordination, and collaboration -Members of organizations accomplish goals by sharing materials, information, and expertise -Members of organizations have a collective sense of purpose that are either defined as missions or visions but are sometimes out o date

consistency of self concept

-High consistency exists when our identities are compatible with each other and with our personality and values -Low consistency occurs when some self-views require personal characteristics that conflict with attributes required for others, ie. When a safety conscious engineer is also an acrobatic snowboarder -Consistency depends on how closely our identities align with our actual attributes; low consistency occurs when our personality and values clash with the type or person we want to be

High-Performance Work Practices Perspective

-High performance work practices are details about specific subsystem characteristics or organizational practices -Believes that human capital is important as a competitive advantage because it helps inputs transform into outputs and allows sensitivity to external environment changes 0Identifies ways to generate value from human capital, such as employee involvement, job autonomy (both increasing motivation), competency development (recruiting and training), and rewards for performance/competency development

3 types of intellectual capital

-Human capital: knowledge employees have in their heads -Structural capital: knowledge retained in organizations systems and structures, ie. Office space -relationship capital: value from organization's relationship with customers and suppliers to provide mutual value for the organization, ie. Goodwill or image

Telecommuting (Contemporary Developments Facing Organizations)

-IT enables employees to work from home and (present in 37% of US workers) -Increases work-life balance because it allows more free time and time with family, provided that the workers have sufficient workspace and privacy at home -Often an attractive job feature for millennials and leads to low turnover -Leads to higher productivity because of reduced stress, enables employees to work in bad weather, reduces greenhouse gases emissions and saves office expenses -Leads to social isolation and less word of mouth information, weakens relationships among employees, weakens organizational culture -Employees working well from home have higher self-motivation, need for autonomy, and IT skills and fulfil social needs from sources outside the workplace -Managers often require a certain amount of face-to-face days and organize team building events or meetings

Awareness of Perceptual Biases

-If we are aware of biases, we can hope to diminish them by making people more mindful about their thoughts and actions -Training minimizes discrimination by making people aware of it and dispelling myths about people from various groups -Teaching people to reject incorrect stereotypes often reinforces rather than reduces reliance on those stereotypes -Diversity training is ineffective for those with deep prejudices against those groups

individualism/collectivism

-Individualism oExtent to which we value independence and uniqueness oValues freedom and self-efficiency oAmericans, Chileans, Canadians, and South Africans -Collectivism oExtent to which we value our duty to our groups oDefined by group membership, personal connection to others, and goals and wellbeing of people in our groups oIsrael and Taiwan but NOT Japan -Individualism is not the opposite of collectivism, because just because we value duty to a group doesn't mean we do not value personal freedom -All cultures define themselves by uniqueness and relationship to others because they are inherent characteristic of our self concept

task performance

-Individuals voluntary goal directed behaviors contributing to the organizational objectives -Employees should perform proficiently before the other 2, but all 3 are important -The 3 conditions exist when client's expectations are unclear, resources are unavailable, and methods are evolving

acquiring knowledge (developing intellectual capital)

-Knowledge comes from external environment through observation or training -Grafting: hiring skilled staff and buying complementary business

meaningful interaction

-More indirect but powerful way to understand ourselves -People engage in valued activities that are work related or outside the work places -Meaningful interaction is stronger when people work closer and frequently with each other on a shared goal requiring cooperation and reliance -Everyone should have an equal status, be engaged, and should have positive experiences with each other -Reduces dependence on stereotypes because we gain better knowledge about others and their unique traits

complexity of self concept

-Number of distinct and important roles or identities that people perceive about themselves -We all have multiple self views because we see ourselves in different roles at various times -We are generally motivate to increase our complexity (self expansion) when seeking out new opportunities and social connections, acquiring additional roles -Self complexity is also defined by the separation of all our identities; an individual with many identities may have low self concept complexity when the identities are highly connected, ie. When they are work related -Complexity is higher when the multiple identities have a low correlation with each other and they apply to distinct areas of life -We have many selves but only some identities dominate our attention at one time; an identity is domain specific and so a particular self-view is more likely to become activated in some settings than in others -We shift our self-concept more easily when the activated self-view I important and compatible with the situation, ie. We shift our self view from parent to manager when we go from home to work -Self concept influences human exceptions, decision making, motivation, stress ,team dynamics, leadership, and many other OB topics

systematic research anchor

-OB knowledge must be based of systematic research involving research questions, data collection, and hypothesis testing -Evidence based management: involves making decisions and taking actions guided by research evidence -Decision makers don't always apply evidence based on management but instead follow popular management fads for 4 reasons

Halo effect

-Occurs when our general impression of a person of one characteristic distorts our perception of other characteristics -Ie. A supervisor valuing punctuality notices that an employee is sometimes late and thus forms a negative opinion of the person, evaluating their other traits negatively -Occurs when the manager lacks solid information or isn't motivated to seek out information about the employee's performance on other tasks; he or she relies on a general impression to fill in missing information

Stakeholder Perspectives

-Offers ore specific information about the organizations relationships -Stakeholders: individuals or groups affected by an organization's actions -Identifies specific social entities and employees and others within the organization -Recognizes that stakeholder relations are dynamic and that organizations are most effective when they understand and satisfy stakeholder needs -It is hard to manage interests of stakeholders because they often conflict and require many resources -Prioritization of stakeholders is influenced by stakeholder power, urgency, legitimate claim to resources, perception of environment, culture, and personal values -Stakeholder perspective incorporates values, ethics, and CRS into the equation of organizational effectiveness

organizational citizenship

-Organizational citizenship behaviors: various forms of cooperation and helpfulness that support the organizations social and psychological context -Directed towards individuals or the organization, ie. supporting coworkers or protecting company image -Some behaviors are discretionary but many are expected even if not stated -Increase team performance but take time and energy from performing tasks

Perspectives of Organizational Effectiveness

-Organizational effectiveness is considered the ultimate dependant variable in OB; it is the outcome that most theories are trying to achieve -Goal perspectives may not indicate organizational effectiveness; any leadership team could set corporate goals easy to achieve yet the company would be left in the dust by competitors aggressive objectives -Some goals may put the companies out of business -4 perspectives determine organizational effectiveness: open systems, organizational learning, high-performance work practices, and stakeholders -organizations are effective when they fit with external environments, are learning organizations, have efficient internal subsystems and satisfy stakeholder needs

storing knowledge (developing intellectual capital)

-Organizational memory includes recalled and embedded knowledge -Organizations encourage employees to stay or share what they know to keep hold of the knowledge

Organization-Environment Fit (Open Systems Perspective)

-Organizations are effective when they fit with the external environment well; the inputs, processes, and outputs are aligned with the external environment's needs and expectations -Involves adapting to the environment, influencing the environment, and moving to a more favourable environment

Contemporary Developments Facing Organizations

-Organizations are experiencing technological developments, consumer expectations and global competition, all of which alter business strategy and everyday activities -Organizational behavior plays a role in guiding organizations through turbulence -External factors always impact organizations, and so organizations must maintain an organization-environment fit by anticipating and adjusting to change -There are 4 main environmental developments facing organizations: technological change, globalization, emerging employment relationships and increasing workforce diversity

Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations

-Perceiving ourselves and others is a critical skin for organizational leaders; psychological distance is dangerous because you need to remember than you are just another member of the team -It is important for leaders to show empathy to avoid coming across as cold and uncaring, creating distance and undermining connection

People have attitudes to the external world

-Perceiving: open, curious, and flexible, keeping options pen -Judging: prefer order and structure

self-efficacy (self evaluation)

-Person's belief about successfully completing a task -Those with high self-efficacy have a 'can-do' attitude, believing they possess the energy (motivation) ability, clear expectations (role perceptions), and resources (situational factors) to perform the task -Self-efficacy is our perception gearing the MARS model in specific situations; it is often task specific but can also be general -People have general self-efficacy when they believe they can be successful in many situations; those with higher general self-efficacy have a more positive self-evaluation

Five factor model and work performance

-Personality affects motivation and influences employees direction and intensity of effort, so the 5 factor model predicts many employee behaviors -Specific personality traits often predict employee performance better than the broad big 5 dimensions -Relationship between a certain trait and performance is not linear; some personalities are better at different jobs

personality/traits

-Personality: relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors and psychological processes behind them that characterize a person and make us different to others -Personality trait: patterns that allow us to label and understand individual differences, ie. The trait of risk-taking

Extraversion

-Predicts proficient, adaptive and proactive performance, especially assertiveness -Assertive employees take charge and adapt to and initiate change, influencing others and working as leaders

3 types of task performance

-Proficient: performing work efficiently and accurately above or at expected quality and quantity standards -Adaptive: grow well employees align thoughts and behaviors to support new environments -Proactive: how well employees take initiative to introduce new beneficial work patterns to change the self or the workplace

globalization (Contemporary Developments Facing Organizations)

-Refers to economic, social, and cultural connectivity with other parts of the world -Organizations actively participate in other cultures in a way that is growing with IT and transport advancements -Allows lower costs, larger markets, and greater access to innovation -May not benefit developing nations and may lead to work intensification or reduced job security in developing countries -Affects teamwork, diversity, culture, and organization ands bring complexity to the workplace -Requires emotional intelligence and conflict handling

Achievement-Nurturing Orientation

-Reflects competitive vs. cooperative view of relations oPeople with high achievement orientation -Value assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism -Appreciate tough people and acquisition of money and goods -Japan, Austria oPeople with nurturing orientation -Emphasize relationships and wellbeing of others -Focus on human interaction and caring -Sweden, Norway, Netherlands

Contingencies of self-fulfilling prophecy

-SFP has a stronger effect at the beginning of a relationship, when several people hold the same expectations about us, and among people with histories of low achievement and thus low self-esteem -Leaders need to maintain positive but realistic expectations towards the employees, and generating positive expectations and hope depends on a culture of support and learning -Positive organizational behavior: focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual wellbeing

types of values (Schwartz)

-Schwarz: established most widely accepted model of personal values, a model that clusters 57 values into 10 categories organized in a circular model -Categories: universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, security, power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction -Ie. Conformity includes sub-values of honouring parents and obedience -openness to change, conservation, self-enhancement, self-transcendence

Self-Concept: How we Perceive Ourselves

-Self-concept: an individual's self beliefs and self evaluations; "who am I" and "how do I feel about myself" that guides our decisions and actions -We compare our perceptions of our potential jobs with our current (perceived self) and desired (ideal self) image of ourselves -We evaluate our current and desired abilities to determine whether we are a good fit for a type of work -Our self concept is defined at individual, relational, and collective level; we view ourselves in terms of personal traits, connections to others, and membership in teams an groups -Psychological wellbeing is higher when we establish complexity, clarity, and consistency

self enhancement

-Self-enhancement: people are motivated to perceive themselves and have others perceive them as above average; competent, attractive, lucky, and valuable -Occurs when people rate themselves as above average, believing they have abetter-than-average probability of success, and attribute success to personal motivation or ability while blaming the situation for their mistakes -People only believe they are above average for things that are important to them and common rather than rare -individuals experience better mental and physical health when amplifying their self-concept, and adopt a 'can do' attitude that motivates persistence -Self-enhancement causes people to overestimate future returns n investment decisions and to engage in unsafe behavior -Executives often repeat poor decisions because the ignore negative feedback, leading to misguided strategies and excessive debt

self-verification

-Self-verification: people try to confirm and maintain their self concept to stabilize their self -view, providing an anchor to guide their thoughts and actions -Employees communicate their self-concept so coworkers can understand it and provide verifying feedback, ie. you show that you are an organized person so you are praised when you are organized -Includes seeking feedback that is not always flattering, ie. I am a numbers person, not a people person -Sometimes we prefer self-enhancement, but other time we prefer self-verification; we enjoy compliments but not if they are contrary to our self-view -Employees are more likely to remember information that is consistent with their self-concept and screen out information inconsistent with it -People with high self-concept clarity consciously dismiss feedback contradicting their self-concept -Employees prefer interacting with people who confirm their self-views, which affects how well they get along with bosses and team members

Perceiving function of gathering information

-Sensing "here and now|: perceiving information through 5 sense, relying on organized structure to acquire facts and quantitative details -Intuiting "future": relies on insight and subjective experience to see relationships among variables

Connection between values and behavior are not always that strong

-Situation also prevents us in engaging in values-consistent behavior, ie. individuals with self-transcendent values are motivated to recycle but may not have recycling facilities present -People deviate from personal values due to counter-motivational forces, ie. employees in illegal business dealings often attribute the activities to management pressure to perform their role -We don't actively think about our values (they are abstract), and so they are not always relevant in all situations -Many decisions are routine, so we don't always evaluate their consistency with our values

values across cultures

-Some cultures value group decisions, whereas some believe in a leader; some value lateness whereas some are half hours late -Understanding differences across cultures can avoid conflicts and misunderstandings -5 values with cross cultural significance: individualism, collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and achievement nurturing orientation

personal values

-Stable beliefs that guide our preferences for outcomes, help us know what is good or bad, and influence how CEOs allocate resources to stakeholders -Groups often hold shared values that determines the dynamic of an organization -Many firms become values-driven organizations wherein critical shared values guide decisions and behavior

stereotyping in organizations

-Stereotyping: the perceptual process in which we assign characteristics to an identifiable group and then automatically transfer those features to people we believe are members of that group -Assigned characteristics are traits, abilities, or physical characteristics -Stereotypes are often formed from personal experience but are often learned from the media, and so they are shared beliefs across an entire society or several cultures

ethics

-Study of moral principles or values that determine whether actions are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad -Helps us determine the right thing to do and is driven by moral principles we use to make decisions

consequences of diversity

-Teams with high diversity brings different skills and creativity and allows better decisions to be made -Surface and deep diversities are representative of most communities and so help companies identify community needs -Diverse teams also struggle to perform effectively because of communication problems which may lead to dysfunctional conflict, but diversity is still a moral and legal imperative

technological change (Contemporary Developments Facing Organizations)

-Technological advancements boost productivity but often displace employees and render obsolete entire groups -Technology often alters work relationships and behavioural patterns between coworkers, clients, and suppliers -Technologies sometimes aim to improve well-being, ie. Medicine development, medical equipment, leisure apparatus, and safer materials -Information technology, such as the development of email and online messaging has changed communication patters and power dynamics -Social media is replacing email, which will reshape how people coordinate with each other -Some argue that IT strengthens employee voice through direct communication with executives and broader distribution of opinions to coworkers and beyond -IT often brings longer work hours, reduced attention spans, and technostress -IT has integrated suppliers and other external entities into the transformation process, and eventually, organizations may become less of a workplace and more of a network where people collaborate across space and time

contingency anchor

-The effect of one variable on another variable often depends on the characteristics of the people and situation -We can't count on having the same result in every situation; a particular action may have different consequences under different conditions •-Identified in many OB theories, ie. Leadership style, conflict-handling style, and organizational structure

organizational behavior

-The study of what people feel, think, and do in and around organizations, looking at employee behavior, decisions, perceptions and emotions -Examines how individuals and teams relate to each other and their counterparts in other organizations -Encompasses the study of how organizations interact their external environments, particularly in the context of employee behavior and decisions -business environment: organizational strategy-> management of people-> employee response-> performance outcomes

social self

-There are two opposing motives that influence self-view; one motivation is to be distinctive and different and the opposing need is for inclusion and assimilation -Personal identity (or internal self-concept) fulfils the need for distinctiveness because it involves defining ourselves by our personality, values, and abilities -We all have a unique combination of personal characteristics and embrace this uniqueness -We fulfil our need for assimilation through relational and collective self-concepts; we have an inherent drive to be associated with others and so we define ourselves by our interpersonal relationships -Social identity theory (external self-concept): people define themselves by the groups to which they belong or are attached to -We try to balance personal and social identities but the priority for uniqueness vs. relatedness differs through people -People whose self-concepts are defined by social identities are more likely to conform to team norms, but those who place more importance on personal identities speak out more against the majority and are less likely to follow the team's wishes; expressing disagreement is a sign of distinctiveness and can clarify our self concept

Judging function of how people make decisions based on perception

-Thinking: rely on rational logic and systematic data collection to make decisions -Feeling: Give more weight to emotional responses to the options presented and who those choice affect others

Effective Transformation Process (Open Systems Perspective)

-Transformation processes need to convert inputs to outputs efficiently -Efficient organizations produce more goods with less labor, materials, and energy -Adaptability is important and includes adapting to new products and ways of making the products -Internal subsystems must coordinate well together to achieve the collective goals, and as complexity increases, information is more likely to be lost and ideas are more likely to be hoarded

empathy

-Understanding and being sensitive to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others -People empathize when they visualize themselves in the other person's place in a cognitive and emotional way -Empathy reduces attribution errors buy making us more sensitive to the eternal causes of another's performance and behavior -Trying to empathize with others without spending time with them may increase stereotyping and other perceptual biases

values in the workplace

-Values are a moral compass, advising and motivating what we ought to do and justifying past decisions and behavior -We develop and reinforce our values from religion, parents, friends, ad experiences -Organizational values and cultural values are shared throughout organizations or across societies -Values are evaluative (telling us what we ought to do) and personality traits are descriptive (referring to what we tend to do) -Personality traits have minimal conflict with each other, but values are often opposed with other values (ie. if you value excitement and challenge you probably wouldn't value moderation) -Personality is more stable than values because it is equally inherited by heredity and socialization, but values are more influence by socialization

values congruence

-Values congruence: how similar a persons values hierarchy is to the values of another entity, such as organization -Congruence increases job satisfaction, loyalty, and reduces stress and turnover -Some incongruence is important for organizations; diverse values offer different perspectives, better decision making, and limits a corporate cult (undermining creativity and flexibility) -can lead to low satisfaction/commitment, decreased motivation, counterproductivity, turnover risk

Values and Individual Behavior

-Values directly motivate our actions by shaping the attractiveness (valence) of available choices; we experience more positive feelings towards alternatives aligned with our values -Values motivate behavior by framing our perceptions of reality; they influence whether we notice something and how we interpret it, affecting our actions -We are motivated to act consistently with how we define ourselves and want to be viewed by others, ie. we value achievement and thus ensure that our behavior is consistent with our value

values

-Values expressed by others often clash with our personal values -Values: stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of situations; foundations of evaluations that something is good or bad, important or trivial -Value system: hierarchy of preferences that people arrange values into, ie. some individuals value challenge rather than conformity or generosity more than frugality -Personal values: vales existing in individuals -Shared values: when groups of people hold similar values, ie. in an organization or department

Open Systems Perspective

-Views organizations as complex organisms living in an environment, and the openness describes the permeable relationship -Organizations depend on external environments for resources (employees, materials) but also have rules and expectations -Organizations contain subsystems such as departments, teams, information systems, and technological processes which are dependent on each other and transform inputs into outputs (which are good or bad) -Organizations receive feedback on the value of their outputs, availability of future inputs, and appropriateness of the transformation

counterproductive work behaviors

-Voluntary behaviors with the potential to harm the organization or stakeholders -Ie. harrassing co-workers or deviating from preferred work methods

Personality in Organizations

-We estimate an individuals personality by what he or she says and does and we infer internal states from the observable behaviors -Traits suggest that something within the person (not just environment) predicts behavioural tendencies -Traits during childhood often predict behaviors in adulthood, ie. Employment success -If we were to act with the same behavioral tendencies in every situation, it would be abnormal because it would display insensitivity to social norms -People vary their behavior to suit situations, even if it doesn't match their personality (ie. Talkative people may remain quiet in libraries)

openness to experience

-Weak predictor of proficient task performance but is strong for adaptive and proactive performance -Leads to more curiosity, imagination, and tolerance to change -Associated with success in creative work

multiple levels of analysis anchor

-What goes on in organizations can be in individual, team, and organizational analysis -Research being conducted identifies the level of analysis appropriate for each variable in the study and measures at that level of analysis -Most variables are understood best when thought of from all three levels of analysis

3 attribution rules

-consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus help us decide if the behavior is caused by internal or external factors -ie. If an employee is making poor products on a machine, we would conclude that they lack skill (internal attribution), if the employee keeps doing it (high consistency), makes poor quality products on other machines (low distinctiveness) and if other employees make good products on the machine (low consensus) -whether the attribution is internal or external, consistency remains high because low consistency weaker our confidence about whether the problem is the person or the machine

performance outcomes

-financial performance -customer satisfaction -market share -reputational metrics

organizational strategy

-firms seek to outperform competitors by delivering greater value or providing comparable value at lower cost -performing different activities (differentiation) or performing similar in different ways (cost leadership)

management of people

-formal -HR practices: select, train, support, reward -Structure informal -mindset culture/climate

employee responses

-indicators to assess the health of an organization -attitudes: job satisfaction, organizational commitment -motivation: engagement -stress -behaviors: task performance, organizational citizenship, counterproductive work behaviors, turnover

stereotype threat

-members of a stereotyped group are concerned that they might exhibit a negative feature of that stereotype -Affects their behavior and performance, often resulting in them displaying the stereotype trait they are trying to avoid -Ie. Women do worse when the gender stereotype is apparent, ie. When they take a test as the only woman in the class -Members of the stereotype group anxiously try to avoid confirming the undesirable trait and push the negative image from their mind, which divert energy and attention, making them perform weakly and leading to lower self-efficacy

locus of control (self evaluation)

-persons general beliefs of the control they have over personal events -People with internal loci of control think that life events are cause by their personal characteristics -Those with external loci of control believe that events are due to fate or luck -Locus of control is general but varies with the situation -People with external loci of control believe that outcomes are beyond their control, but they may have control over results of tasks they perform often, rather than in new situations where ability is uncertain -People with internal locus of control have better self-evaluation, perform better in employment, are more successful in careers, are more job-satisfied, are more performance-based reward motivated, and are less stressed

self-serving bias

-the tendency to attribute our failures to external factors more than internal causes, and to attribute our successes to internal rather than external factors -executives often refer to their personal qualities as reasons for the company's success and to competitors and external factors as reasons for failure -occurs because of self-enhancement: by pointing to internal causes of our own failures and internal causes of our successes, we get a better self-concept

fundamental attribution error/correspondence bias

-the tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another's behavior and to ignore external causes of their behavior -ie. We attribute a co-worker's late arrival as low motivation rather than traffic -observers can can't easily see external factors, and like to think that humans are the prime sources of their behavior

business environment

-trends and forces that occur outside of the organization that impact it's ability to compete effectively -technological change, labor market changes, globalization

Jungian Personality Theory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Carl Jung suggested that personality is mainly represented by individual preferences regarding perceiving information -T/F, E/I, S/I, P/J -MBTI often a poor predictor of job performance and can often identify employees preferring face-to-face vs virtual work, but does not predict team development or leadership effectiveness -MBTI is the most widely studied measure of cognitive style in management research and is used in career counselling and artificial intelligence -MBTI takes a neutral or balanced approach to recognize strengths and limitations of each type, whereas five-factor model view higher scores as better than lower

sharing knowledge (developing intellectual capital)

Distributing knowledge through the organization through formal and informal communication or through training and observation

Intentional discrimination/prejudice

People hold unfounded negative attitudes towards people in a particular group, deliberately putting the target person at an unfair disadvantage

pros/cons of complexity

Pros -Complexity protects our self esteem when some roles are threatened; if one identity is damaged, the others remain intact -Peoples with low complexity suffer severe loss when experiencing failure because much of themselves are affected -Employees with complexity have more adaptive decision making because multiple selves generate more diverse experiences and role patterns, so these employees can easily alter thinking and behavior to suit new tasks and environments -Complexity leads to more diverse social networks, leading to more resources and social support Cons -Complexity requires more effort to maintain which can be stressful, and low complexity requires less effort to develop -People who define themselves by work (low complexity) have better investment in development, longer hours, less absenteeism, and higher concentration

pros/cons of clarity

Pros -Improved performance due to clearer paths which enable us to direct our effort more towards career goals -People with high clarity are less threatened by personal conflict, so use constructive problem-solving behaviors -Well-being increases with clarity because we are less influenced by others, experience less stress and decisions, and feel more threatened by social forces weakening self-esteem Cons -Those with high clarity may have role inflexibility and trouble adapting to changing conditions

pros of consistency

Psychological wellbeing occurs when we have high consistency because too much variation with complexity leads to internal conflict

self evaluation

Some people have amore positive evaluation of themselves than others; self-evaluation is defined by self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control

selecting a candidate

main characteristics: general mental ability- understand, reason, remember, problem solve personality: enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, behaviors

MARS model (types of individual behavior)

motivation, ability, role perceptions, and situational factors

johari window

oModel of self-awareness dividing information about you into open, blind, hidden, and unknown windows based on whether your values, beliefs, and experiences are known to you and others -Open: includes information known to you and others -Blind: refers to information known to others but not you -Hidden: information known to you but not others -Unknown: values and beliefs so deep that neither you nor others know them -Attempts to increase the size of the open area so you can understand your perceptual limitations, and reducing the hidden area through disclosure (Informing others of your feelings and experiences) oOpen area increases through feedback from others and blind area is reduced because people near you can give you information abut yourself oDisclosure and feedback occasionally brings revelations from the unknown area

self fulfilling prophecy

oOccurs when our expectation about another person cause that person to act in a way consistent with the expectations -We form expectation about someone -This affects our behavior towards them -This hinders their ability and motivation so their self-confidence is low -Their behavior becomes more consistent with the initial expectations oSFP study -Combat instructors were told that 1/3 of the incoming trainees had high command potential, 1/3 had low potential, and the rest had unknown potential -High expectancy soldiers performed better than the trainees in other groups, and had more favorable attitudes towards the course and the instructor

False-consensus effect

oOccurs when people overestimate the extent to which others have similar beliefs or behaviors to our own, ie. Employees thinking of quitting overestimate the percentage of coworkers also thinking about quitting oWhy? -Occurs because we are comforted believing that others are similar to us, particularly in less acceptable behavior, and so perceive that 'everyone does it' to create a better view of bad behaviors -We interact more with people with similar views and behaviors which causes us to overestimate how common those views/behaviors are in the entire organization or society -We are more likely to remember information consistent with our own views and screen out information contrary to our beliefs -Our social identity process homogenizes people within groups, so we tend to think everyone in that group has similar opinions and behavior

broad values categories

oOpenness to change -Extent to which a person is motivated to pursue innovation -Self-direction (creativity, independent thought), stimulation (excitement and challenge) and hedonism (enjoyment, gratification) oConservation -Extent to which a person is motivated to preserve the status quo -Conformity (adherence to norms), security (stability and safety) and tradition (moderation and status quo) oSelf-enhancement -Extent to which a person is motivated by self-interest -Achievement (pursuit of personal success), power (dominance), and hedonism oSelf-transcendence -Motivation to promote welfare of others and nature -Benevolence (concern for others) and universalism (welfare of people and nature)

primacy vs. recency effect

oPrimacy effect -Our tendency to rely on the first information we receive to forma quick opinion, which is why first impressions last -Occurs because we need to make sense of situations and to trust others -First impressions are often difficult to change because after they are formed, we tend to select subsequent information supporting our first impression and screen out opposing information oRecency effect -Occurs when the most recent information dominates our perceptions -Occurs when people make decisions involving complex information, and so the most recent information is more heavily weighted than that at the end -Most recent information is most easily recalled so dominates evaluations

social identity

oSocial identity is a complex combination of many memberships in a hierarchy of importance -One factor that determines importance is how easily you are identified as a member of the reference group -One factor is the minority status in the group, ie. If you are a minority, your minority trait becomes a defining feature of your social identity -Group's status is a social identity factor because association with the group makes us feel better about ourselves, ie. If we are proud of our job, we often describe ourselves by where we work

motivation for stereotypes

oStereotypes are motivated by the observer's need for social identity and self-enhancement, as well as maintaining a positive self concept which leads to -Categorization: we categorize people into distinct groups and see them as prototypical representations of those groups, so you can distinguish that group from others -Homogenization: we think that people in each group are similar to each other and lose sight of the fact that people within groups are different -Differentiation: we assign more favorable characteristics to people in our groups than others because we want to be the better group to raise our self esteem; can be subtle but when outgroup members threaten our self concept, we often assign negative stereotypes to them

word-deed alignment

rust-commitment- discretionary service, behavior- customer satisfaction- employee turnover- profit

5 types of individual behavior

task performance, organizational citizenship, counterproductive work behaviors, joining/staying in the organization, maintaining work attendance

contact hypothesis

theory behind meaningful interaction that under certain conditions, people who interact with each other will be less biased because they have a more personal understanding of the other person and their group

ethical reasoning systems

utilitarianism: greatest good for greatest number deontological: series of rules/obligations to preserve rights or minimize negative rights virtues: views ethics in terms of character and qualities of a person to help us make a decision

5 Factor Model of Personality

•Clustering of personality traits involving 5 broad personality dimensions with clusters of specific traits (CANOE) -Conscientiousness: people are organized, driven, and dependable or careless and disorganized -Agreeableness: people are trusting, tolerant, and generous or uncooperative and suspicious -Neuroticism: people who are anxious, insecure, and depressed or poised and secure -Openness to experience: people are creative, nonconforming, autonomous or conventional and resistant to change -Extraversion: people are energetic, sociable, assertive, and get energy from others or quiet, cautious, and direct their interest to ideas