Chapter 1: Sampling and Data

Average

A number that describes the central tendency of the data

Parameter

A number that is used to represent a population characteristic

Statistic

A numerical characteristic of the sample; a statistic estimates the corresponding population parameter

Discrete Random Variable

A random variable (RV) whose outcomes are counted.

Continuous Random Variable

A random variable (RV) whose outcomes are measured; e.g. the hight of trees in the forest is a continuous RV.

Variable

A characteristic of interest for each person or object in a population.

Institutional Review Board

A committee tasked with oversight of research programs that involve human subjects

Control Group

A group in a randomized experiment that receives an inactive treatment but is otherwise managed exactly as the other groups.

Sampling without Replacement

A member of the population may be chosen for inclusion in a sample only once. If chosen, the member is not returned to the population before the next selection.

Cluster Sampling

A method for selecting a random sample and dividing the population into groups (clusters); use simple random sampling to select a set of clusters. Every individual in the chosen clusters is included in the sample

Stratified Sampling

A method for selecting a random sample used to ensure that subgroups of the population are represented adequately; divide the population into groups (strata). Use simple random sampling to identify a proportionate number of individuals from each stratum

Systematic Sampling

A method for selecting a random sample; list the members or the population. Use simple random sampling to select a starting point in the population. Let k = (number of individuals in the population)(number of individuals needed in the sample). Choose every kth individual in the list starting with the one that was randomly selected. If necessary, return to the beginning of the population list to complete your sample.

Random Sampling

A method of selecting a sample that given every member of the population an equal chance of being selected

Convenience Sampling

A nonrandom method of selecting a sample; this method selects individuals that are easily accessible and may result in biased data.

Data

A set of observations (A set of possible outcomes); most data can be put into two groups; qualitative (an attribute whose value is indicated by a label) or quantitative (an attribute whose value is indicated by a number). Quantitative data can be separated into two subgroups; discrete and continuous. Data is discrete if it is the result of counting (such as the number of students of a given ethnic group in a class or the number of books on a shelf). Data is continuous if it is the result of measuring (such as distance traveled or weight of luggage)

Simple Random Sampling

A straightforward method for selecting a random sample; give each member of the population a number. Use random number generator to select a set of labels. These randomly selected labels identify the members of your sample.

Sample

A subset of the population studied

Representative Sample

A subset of the population that has the same characteristics as the population

Lurking Variable

A variable that has an effect on a study even though it is neither an explanatory variable nor a response variable.

Population

All individuals, objects, or measurements whose properties are being studied

Placebo

An inactive treatment that has no real effect on the explanatory variable

Non-sampling Error

An issue that affects the reliability of sampling data other than natural variation; it includes a variety of human errors including poor study design, biased sampling methods, inaccurate information provided by study participants, data entry errors, and poor analysis.

Informed Consent

Any human subject in a research study must be cognizant of any risks or costs associated with the study. The subject has the right to know the nature of the treatment included in the study, their potential risks, and their potential benefits. Consent must be given freely by an informed, fit participant.

Experimental Unit

Any individual or object to be measured

Treatments

Different values or components of the explanatory variable applied in an experiment.

Sampling Bias

Not all members of the population are equally likely to be selected.

Blinding

Not telling participants which treatment a subject is receiving

Sampling with Replacement

Once a member of the population is selected for inclusion in a sample, that member is returned to the population for the selection of the next individual

Inferential Statistics

One of the two branches of stats. Formal methods for drawing conclusions from data. (Usually uses probability to determine how confident we can be that our conclusions are correct.)

Descriptive Statistics

One of the two branches of stats. Organizing and summarizing data (general ways to summarize data are with graphs and numerical values such as an average)

Double-blinding

The act of blinding both the subjects of an experiment and the researchers who work with the subjects

Random Assignment

The act of organizing experimental units into treatment groups using random methods.

Response Variable

The dependent variable in an experiment; the value that is measured for change at the end of an experiment.

Explanatory Variable

The independent variable in an experiment; the value controlled by researchers

Sampling Error

The natural variation that results from selecting a sample to represent a larger population; this variation decreases as the sample size increases, so selecting larger samples reduces sample error.

Proportion

The number of successes divided by the total number in the sample.

Numerical Variable

Variables that take on values that are indicated by numbers

Categorical Variable

Variables that take on values that are names or labels